Understanding India - History and Culture PDF

Unit 1: India The Land and its People Contents Who are we Indians? Where did we come from? – An anthropological, migrations and genetics-based perspective on modern Indians. India’s geographical and national identity – evolution from Meluha, to Bharatavarsha, Sindhu/Hindu and Hi...

Unit 1: India The Land and its People Contents Who are we Indians? Where did we come from? – An anthropological, migrations and genetics-based perspective on modern Indians. India’s geographical and national identity – evolution from Meluha, to Bharatavarsha, Sindhu/Hindu and Hindustan to the India today. The legacy of early civilizations and cultures and how we are influenced by them – Mehrgarh & Indus Saraswati Civilization, Vedic & Post-Vedic Civilization, the Tamil Sangam Civilizations, etc. Kingdoms and empires that ruled over large realms – Maurya, Gupta, Chola, Shatavahana, Chalukya, Vijayanagara, Mughal, Maratha and British empires – their role in integrating the nation as one economic, political and cultural entity Am J Hum Genet. 2013 Sep 5; 93(3): 422–438. doi: 10.1016/j.ajhg.2013.07.006 Genetic Evidence for Recent Population Mixture in India Priya Moorjani,1,2,6,∗ Kumarasamy Thangaraj,3,6,∗∗ Nick Patterson,2 Mark Lipson,4 Po-Ru Loh,4 Periyasamy Govindaraj,3 Bonnie Berger,2,4 David Reich,1,2,7 and Lalji Singh3,5,7 Abstract Most Indian groups descend from a mixture of two genetically divergent populations: Ancestral North Indians (ANI) related to Central Asians, Middle Easterners, Caucasians, and Europeans; and Ancestral South Indians (ASI) not closely related to groups outside the subcontinent. The date of mixture is unknown but has implications for understanding Indian history. We report genome-wide data from 73 groups from the Indian subcontinent and analyze linkage disequilibrium to estimate ANI-ASI mixture dates ranging from about 1,900 to 4,200 years ago. In a subset of groups, 100% of the mixture is consistent with having occurred during this period. These results show that India experienced a demographic transformation several thousand years ago, from a region in which major population mixture was common to one in which mixture even between closely related groups became rare because of  Periods of Time in History Use of Bronze Tools Aceramic Chalcolithic Chalcolit Bronze Neolithic Period III hic Age Before Common Common Period V 7000- 4800 - 3250- 3000 - Era Era 5500 3500 3000 1000 BCE CE 3500 - 1000 - 5500-4800 200 3250 Chalcolithi Neolithic c Iron Age Period II Period IV Use of Use of Copper Tools IronTools According to Puranic cosmography, the world is divided into seven concentric island continents (sapta- dvipa vasumati) separated by the seven encircling oceans, each double the size of the preceding one (going out from within). The 7 continents of the Puranas are stated as 1. Jambudvipa 2. Plaksadvipa 3. Salmalidvipa 4. Kusadvipa 5. Krouncadvipa 6. Sakadvipa and 7. Pushkaradvipa According to Puranic cosmography cosmography, the entire Cosmos is divided into seven concentric island continents (sapta-dvipa vasumati) separated by the seven encircling oceans, each double the size of the preceding one (going out from within) with Mount Meru at its centre. Jambu-dvipa (land of berries) surrounded by a salt-water ocean was inhabited by living beings, and Bharata – varsa (valley) was the land south of Mount Meru The term Jambudvipa is used by Ashoka perhaps to represent his realm in 3rd century BCE. Same terminology is then repeated in subsequent inscriptions for instance Mysorean inscription from the 10h century AD which also describes the region, presumably India, as Jambudvipa. The Prakrit name Jambudīpasi (Sanskrit "Jambudvīpa") for "India" in the Sahasram Minor Rock Edict of Ashoka, circa 250 BCE (Brahmi script) Another, at Kubatur (Shimoga district Karnataka), expressly states that Chandra Gupta ruled the Naga-khanda in the south of the Bharata- kshetra of Jambu dvipa  India origin- Continental drift theory Continental drift theory was proposed by Alfred Wegener in 1912. According to Wegener’s Continental Drift theory, all the continents were one single continental mass (called a Supercontinent) – Pangaea and a Mega Ocean surrounded this supercontinent. The mega ocean is known by the name Panthalassa. According to this theory, the supercontinent, Pangaea, began to split some two hundred million years back. PANGAE(I)A India plate moved from Africa 550 Million years ago to now India. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aavrXK0SnT U Where are Indians from? Indians are called by different names: -Indian as in India (derive from Indus) -Hindustani as in Hindustan (derived from Hindu) -Bharatiya as in Bharat (derived from kingdom Bharata) However, there are a lot of questions and speculations of their genealogy Archaelogists have used methodologies like DNA- tracing and comparison as well as Carbon-dating  Where did we come from? An anthropological, migrations and genetics-based perspective on modern Indians. Where did Indians come from? Archaelogical Evidence suggests that there were 4 main migrations and Documented or direct evidence of other migrations/invasions: 1. Out of Africa migrants: the first wave of homo sapiens came to india 65,000 years ago out of Africa. They are the first Indians. 2. Harappa migration: the migration of agriculturalists between 7000 BCE and 3500 BCE from Iran mixing with the first Indians forming Harrapan civilization 3. Aryan migrations: the migration of pastoralists from the central Asian Steppes between 2000 BCE and 1000 BCE 4. Tibeto-Burmese and Austro-Asiatic migration: they migrated from East Asia around 4000 years ago  Periods of Time in History Hunters to Use of Bronze Farmers Tools Paleolithic Neolithic Bronze Age Before Common Common Upto 3000 - 1000 Era Era 8000 - 4000 BCE CE 10000 4000- 1000 - 200 10000 - 8000 3000 Iron Age Mesolithic Chalcolithic Use of Polished Stone Use of Copper IronTools Tools Tools Style of Archaelogical Artifacts similar in India Afghanisthan Persia 4700BCE Harrappa  Evolution from Bharatavarsha to Meluha, Mehrgarh, Indus Valley to Sindhu/Hindu to India and Hindustan The kingdom known as Bharatavarsha that referred to the land north of the ocean and upto the snow-capped mountains was named either after  Bharata, the son of Shakuntala and Dushyanta or  Bharata, the son of Rishabh Dev – the 1st Tirthankara Meluha refers to the Indus Valley civilization. Meluha is a Sumerian word which refered to the ‘trading partner’ in the bronze age. Indus Valley civilization flourished but suddenly died around 1900 BCE. The Indus-Saraswati people extended in the West from Afghanistan- Pakistan border right upto Yamuna in the East and Gujarat in the South. This region, especially the land between Saraswati and Ganga rivers was known as Aryavarta or the Land-of-the-Noble. The Mesopotamians with whom ancient Indians ahd extensive trade relations, referred to this region as Meluha. Mehrgarh Harappa Vedic Culture 1900-1500 7500 – 5500 BCE Mehrgarh  Mehrgarh Harappa Vedic Culture 1900-1500 7500 – 5500 BCE Rakhigarhi  Mehrgarh Civilization Mehrgarh is a large Neolithic and Chalcolithic site located at the foot of the Bolan pass on the Kachi plain of Baluchistan (also spelled Balochistan), in modern day Pakistan. Mehrgarh (7000 – 2800 BCE) is the earliest known Neolithic site in the northwest Indian subcontinent. Archaelogical evidence discovered of -  Farming (wheat and barley),  Herding (cattle, sheep, and goats)  Metallurgy.  Dentistry  Mehrgarh's importance to understanding the Indus Valley is its nearly unparalleled preservation of pre-Indus societies. Emperor Agnidhra, the grand-son of the FIRST MAN - Swayambhu Manu is believed to have ruled over the ENTIRE globe, then known as the Jambu- dweep. While retiring, Agnidhra divided his kingdom (aka the entire planet) into 9 Continents or Divisions handing them over to his 9 sons to rule. The peninsular stretch spreading from Himalayas to the Ocean, came under Emperor Nabhi, the great-grandson of Manu, according to Hindu as well as Jain scriptures, was married to Marudevi, and their eldest son was the Saint-King Rishabh Dev. Rishabh Dev was the first Tirthankara according to the Jain tradition. The Srimad Bhāgavatam also counts Him as the 8th of the 24 Incarnations of Lord Vishnu. Rishabh Dev’s sons Bharat and Bahubali, were fighing for the illusive title of Chakravarti (Emperor- of-Entire-World) but during the fight Bahubali was overcome with In Hymns 2.1.31 and 2.1.32, the Vishnu Puraan states- remorse, renounced the world and began to meditate on the spot and Bharat became the Emperor. As per the scriptures, it is THIS Rishabh was born to Merudevi, Bharat was born to Rishabh, Bharat after whom our country is named. Bharatvarsha was named from Bharat, and Sumati arose from Bharat. [2.1.31] This country is known as Bharatavarsha, Since the time the father entrusted the Kingdom to the son, And himself went to the forest for ascetic practices. [2.1.32] Dushyant and Shakuntala's son was called Sarvadaman, ‘the subduer-of-all’ by the caretakers in the ashram where he grew up. By the time he was six, he could subjugate lions and tigers with his bare hands, a remarkable feat and mentioned in various scriptures. Interestingly, there is an Indus-Saraswati Seal that depicts a man subduing two tigers with his bare Sarvadaman washands! renamed Bharat as he was 'cherished by all' in his father's kingdom. Bharat grew up to be a great warrior and a Chakravarti Raja who conquered and united the entire continent of India,  Evolution from Bharatavarsha to Meluha, Mehrgarh, Indus Valley to Sindhu/Hindu to India and Hindustan Thus Bharatavarsha is ancient India. It means the land of people who belong to the Bharata clan. Sindhu is an ancient kingdom that stretched along the bank of river Indus (Sindhu) located near southern Punjab and Pakistan. Hindustan refers to the Hindu/Sindhu Hindustan is derived from the Persian word ‘Hindu/Sindhu’ Today, it is called India, derived from the river Indus. How we are influenced by the ancient Civilization? Ancient civilization influenced our culture - customs, practices and beliefs Ancient Civilization influenced language Ancient Civilization influenced science and literature Ancient Civilization influenced spirituality Ancient Civilization influence food and cutlery Ancient Civilization influence architecture and design Ancient Civilization influence the topography or geography  The legacy of early civilizations and cultures Mehrgarh & Indus-Saraswati 7000 BCE to 2500 BCE: Mehrgarh refers to neolithic (new stone age) of the Balochistan in Pakistan. -mud houses -herding and farming -pottery Indus Valley civilization (2900 BCE to 1900 BCE) -transportation and trade -city and drainage system, -metallurgy -metrology -arts and crafts, seal -agriculture -religion  Urbanization Harappan era 2900 BCE – 1900 BCE Covered 1500 km from the Arabian Sea coast to the upper reaches of the Yamuna river Uniform and highly regulated town planning with bricks of the same (4:2:1) ratio across all Harappan sites excavated Harappan script and standardized weights and measures were used Janapadas and Mahajanapadas 1500 BCE – 500 BCE By 1000 BCE wheel turned pottery Circular hutments with wooden frames and mud floors Use of bronze and copper Emergence of horses for transport and in armies Reached peak during Mauryan Empire Tamil Sangam literature in the South along ports (Puhar) and on river banks (Madurai) Trade via land and sea with the Romans until the collapse of the Roman Empire Kautilya’s Arthashastra (2nd – 3rd century BCE) mentions each city having a Nagarika Anga Chieftainships aka Janapadas Asmaka Avanti 4700BCE Chedi Gandhar a Kamboja Kasi Kuru Kosala Magadha Malla Matsya Panchala Surasena Vajji Vatsa  Evidence of Happenings and Reign Cave Inscriptions Pillar Carvings Temple Inscriptions Treatises and Writings of Greeks Jain texts Buddhist texts Puranas Spirituality is belief about reality beyond the material. Philosophy makes sense of the world, life, society with or without supernatural forces. Mythology presents a cultures understanding of the world, life and death using stories, symbols and rituals. India ancient spirituality and religion Harappan age had the Pasupathi seals, seals with peepal tree, amulets and talisman which indicated life after death. Vedic gods were Indra (god of war) and Varuna (god of peace), were religion was more materialistic, not based on temples therefore not geographically restricted. Buddhism and Jainism Hinduism (Vedic Culture) Bhakti Movement  Veda 4 Vedic Culture The Vedas are the religious texts which inform the religion known as Sanatana Dharma meaning “Eternal Order” or “Eternal Path”.  Rig , Saama, Yajur, Atharvana They consist of Samhita, Brahmana, Aranyaka and Upanishad (Vedanta) and contain chants called Sukta (Medha, Bhagya, Sri, Purusha, Rudra, Ganesha Atharvashirsham) Mantra (Saraswati, Gayatri, Mahamrityunjaya) Upanishad 108 - 200 The term "Upanishad" comes from the words upa (near), ni (down), and sad (to sit). The Upanishads are a group of texts in Hindu sacred literature that are considered to reveal the ultimate truth.  Katha, Kena, Iso, Mundaka, Prasna, Taittiriya, Chhandogya, Brihadaranyaka, Mandukya, Aitareya, Kaushitaki, Svetasvatara and Maitrayani. Purana 18 (Mukhya) and 18 (Upa) a vast genre of Hindu literature about a wide range of topics, particularly about legends and other traditional lore. The Puranas are known for the intricate layers of symbolism depicted within their stories  Siva, Vishnu, Garuda, Varaha, Kurma, Narasimha, Brahma, Naradiya,, Skanda, Matsya, Agni, Linga, Padma, Bhavishya, Bhagavata, Markandeya, Durvasa Itihasa 2 A story that tells about what happened in the past in the land of India. Itihasas are usually epic poems.  Ramayana  Mahabharata The Vedic Period was marked by – Chieftains and clans elected by council or Sabha Oligarchies (multiple kingdom states with independent rulers) were challenged by monarchies(Rajya) in the Gangetic plains and eventually by empires (Samrajya) Vedic cultural practices (Yajna or vedic fire sacrifice rituals) e.g. Ashwamedha Yajna, Rajasuya Yagna The Vedic ritual consisted of sacrificial offerings to propitiate the Gods, Offerings included milk, ghee, yoghurt, rice, barley, an animal, or anything of value. Vedic practices were based on Śrauta (what is heard) and Smarta (what is remembered) Rashtra (Nation) found in the Samhita of the Yajur Veda was used with  Mathematics Geometry, Standardization and measurement is evidenced in the town planning of Harappa Jain metaphysics and mathematics defined and delineated different forms of infinity The Vedas are articulated and composed using Mathematics that the modern world is still discovering – Geometry, Trigonometry, Probability, Combinatorics The concept of infinity – ananta, purnam, aditi and asamkhyata – and zero (shunya) was conceptualized The Yajur Veda mentions counting of numbers upto 1018. called parardha. Baudhayana’s Sulbha Sutra (6th century BCE) is the earliest Mathematical treatise showing the use of Pythagorus theorem as well as square roots (although for the most part proofs are not shown) Apastamba (2nd century BCE) introduced concepts such as acute and obtuse angles and right angles Taittiriya Samhita shows how to make squares, triangles rectangles and circles using measurement and geometry in the fire altars Pingala (3rd century BCE) used laghu and guru as 0 and 1 to describe syllables and determine the meter of a Sanskrit verse or pada (binary system). Pingala also expressed knowledge of the Fibonacci sequence Tallaksana (1053)Mahauga (1062) and Asankhyeya (10140) are mentioned in Buddhist and Jain texts  Philosophy Philosophy (love of wisdom) is less related to the supernatural than religion is. Schools of philosophy were thus divided into Astika and Nastika translated by the British into Orthodox and Heterodox Nastika meant those who deny Vedic ways focusing on moksha or the liberation cycle of life and death. Astika school is focussed on Dharma and Nastika school on Moksha Later Moksha was adopted to all the schools of philosophy either through introspection (Gyan), devotion (Bhakthi) or social responsibility (Kriya). The Astika schools, originally called Sanatana dharma, is collectively referred to as Hinduism in modern times. Nastika schools: (Sramana) Defied Vedic authority, condemning its costly and violent rituals, complex structure, caste system, and the existence of God. 5 most studied Nastika schools are:  Ajivikas (Nanda Vacha is founder) Rejects God, Karma and emphasized that everything is pre-destined and living beings are helpless before destiny  Charvaka or Lokayukta ( Charvaka is the founder) Rejects, Atman, Brahman, Karma, rebirth and that nothing beyond the physical world perceived by the senses exists  Ajnanas  Radical skeptics – believed that Moksha is unattainable  Buddhism  Jainism Astika schools: Comprising Shada Darshana Samkhya: oldest school of philosophy founded by Kapila Muni (Shasti Tantra). It is not based on the Vedas and does not believe in a Universal Being. Deals with rationality and the Jiva as a composite of Purusha (spirit) and Prakriti (nature). Nyaya: founded in 2nd century BCE by sage Gautama (Nyaya Sutra). It deals with formal reasoning, logic, analysis, epistemology, theology, and metaphysics. Mimamsa: founded in 4th century BCE by sage Jaimini( Purva Mimamsa) ritualistic text dealing with Karmakanda emphasizing Dharma and Karma. Vedanta: founded around 4th century BCE by Badarayana( Brahma Sutra) intellectual rather than ritualistic. Vaiseshika: founded in 1st century CE by sage Kanada (Vaiseshika Sutra) It complements the Nyaya school and deals with philosophy, metaphysics and paramanu Yoga: founded in 4th century CE by Patanjali. It deals with similar issues as the samkhya – seeking to connect Purusha with Prakriti using social norms(yama, niyama), body(asana), breath(pranayama), mind(pratyahara, dhyana, dharana)and the occult (samadhi) in achieving moksha.  Haryanka Dynasty Bimbisara (born c. 558—died 491 BCE) was one of the early kings of the Indian kingdom of Magadha who ruled for 52 years (Sri Lanka chronicles) The Puranas mention that he ruled for 28/38 years He was instrumental in unifying the separate Mahajanapadas through conquest and annexation which laid the foundations for the Mauryan empire. He is also known for his policy of religious tolerance by enabling any religion which came to his kingdom to flourish and also encouraged arts and crafts He was a great friend and protector of the Buddha.  Haryanka Dynasty Bimbisara was the first major ruler of India whose existence can be established with any certainty. He built the city of Rajagriha, famous in Buddhist writings and established a solid foundation of administration and trade in his kingdom and has been remembered in Indian history as an able ruler. His son Ajatashatru (492 – 460 BCE) who followed convened the First Buddhist Council at Rajagriha just after the death of Buddha in 483 BCE Udayin, son of Ajatashatru, Aniruddh, Manda and Nagadasaka followed  Sisunaga Dynasty According to Sri Lankan chronicles, the people of Magadha revolted during the reign of Nagadasaka and placed an amatya (minister) named Sisunaga as the king. Sisunaga dynasty lasted from 413 to 345 BCE. Sisunaga The most important achievement of Sisunaga was to conquer Avanti (capital at Ujjain) and make it a part of the Magadha empire. Shifted capital from Girivraja to Vaishali Kalasoka Son of Sisunaga shifted the capital to Pataliputra. He conducted the Second Buddhist Council at Vaishali. He was killed in a palace revolution that brought the  Nanda Dynasty Mahapadma Nanda/ Ugrasena He is called the “first historical emperor of India.” (Chandragupta Maurya is the First Emperor of India) Although details vary the Puranas as well as Greek, Jain and Buddhist texts agree that he did not have Kshatriya lineage. His reign lasted for 28 years during which time the empire grew from the Kuru country (North) - Godavari Valley (South) and from Magadha in the east to Narmada on the west. Dhana Nanda Referred to as Agrammes or Xandrames in Greek texts. He is credited with the invention of Nandopakramani (a particular standardised measure). Alexander turned back because his soldiers feared his army He became unpopular with his subjects owing to an oppressive way of extorting taxes Maurya Dynasty Mauryan empire: 321 BCE to 185 BCE The Mauryan empire cover most part of the Indian subcontinent from the end of the 4th century to the beginning of the 2nd century Some known rulers are Chandragupta Maurya Role of Chanakya in the building of the Mauryan empire : Bindusara -Policy -Political Strategist Ashoka -economist Brihadratha (the last emperor)  Time frame- Mauryan dynasty.. migration migration Africa Aryan 2000-1000 6500 CE BCE BCE 0 321- 7000-3500 185 BCE BCE Harappa migration Mauryan dynasty Maurya Dynasty Central administration of the Mauryans King District administration Village administration Municipal administration Judicial Administration Military organization A modern statue Chandragupta was born about 340 BCE & died depicting Chandragupta at about 295 CE. Maurya at Chandragupta's life and accomplishments are Laxminaraan Temple, described in  Ancient and historical Greek DelhI Greek and Roman sources, which are the oldest surviving records that mention Chandragupta. These include works written by Megasthanes, who was a contemporary of Chandragupta,  Hindu, Hindu texts such as the Puranas and Arthashastra; later composed Hindu sources such as in Vishakhadatta’s Mudrarakshasa, Somadeva’s Kathasaritsagara and Kshemendra’s Brihatkathamanjari  Buddhist, Buddhist sources are those dated in 4th centuyr BCE or after, including the Sri Lankan Pali texts Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa, and Mahabodhivamsa  Jain texts 7th to 10th century Jain inscriptions at Shravenabelagola; these are disputed by scholars as well as the Svetambara Jain tradition. The second Digambara text interpreted to be  Causes for the rise of Magadha Geographical factors Magadha was located on the upper and lower parts of the Gangetic valley. It was located on the mainland route between west and east India. Magadha was encircled by rivers on 3 sides, the Ganga, Son and Champa making the region impregnable to enemies. Both Rajgir and Pataliputra were located in strategic positions. Economic factors Magadha had huge copper and iron deposits. Had a large population which could be used for agriculture, mining, building cities and in the army. Cultural factors The emergence of Jainism and Buddhism led to a revolution in terms of philosophy and thought. They enhanced liberal traditions. Political factors They had strong standing armies. Availability of iron enabled them to develop advanced weaponry. They were also the first kings to use elephants in the army. The major kings also developed a good administrative system.  4700BCE Jainism 599 – 527 BCE Vardhamana (Mahavira) abandoned all worldly possessions at the age of about 30 and left home in pursuit of spiritual awakening, becoming an ascetic Mahavira practiced intense meditation and severe austerities for 12.5 years, after which he attained Kevala Gnana (omniscience) and Buddhism 566 – 483 BCE Siddhartha Gautama aqttained the state of Nirvana after 49 days of continuous meditation and became the “Enlightened One” in 528 BCE  4700BCE Ashoka 268 – 232 BCE (born 304 BCE) of the Mauryan Empire (322 – 185 BCE) Embraced and spread the teachings of Buddha not only in India but also In Southern, Eastern and Central Asia  Evidence of Happenings and Reign Cave Inscriptions Pillar Carvings Temple Inscriptions Treatises and Writings of Greeks Jain texts Buddhist texts Puranas In the Sramana Period – Kings started raising pillars and inscribing them Edicts were written Stupa building was sponsored Monastic orders were given land grants Pali (a Prakrit language) became the court language and the language of literature Kings were seen as the removers of disorder (Arajakta) and protectors of property of the Praja. Buddhism saw the king as an appointee of the people whereas the Hinduism saw the king as an appointee of the Gods The king was seen as an upholder of Dharma (a broad concept of moral and societal Duty that was central to Buddhism and Jainism as well as  The legacy of early civilizations and cultures Vedic & Post-Vedic Civilization 1500 BCE to 500 BCE:  Urbanization  Emergence of social classes  Organized political system and structure  Flourishing economy  Vedic religion to hindu synthesis Tamil Sangam Civilizations (400 BCE to 500 CE): Patronized by Pandyas of Madurai Assembly of Tamil scholars and poets  Growth of Tamil literature  Sangam Literature reflects the earliest literature of South India. It is a group of texts in old Tamil  Patinenmelkanakku – Works composed between 200 BCE to 100 BCE Oldest surviving Tamil poetry  Patinenkilkanakku Works composed between 100 CE and 500 CE Collection of 18 poetry compositions Mostly composed before the age of the Pallavas Chief works include Thirukkural, Palamoli, Naladiyar, etc. The end of the Vedic period is marked by linguistic, cultural and political changes. The grammar of Panini marks a final apex in the codification of Sutra texts, and at the same time the beginning of Classical Sanskrit Meanwhile, in the Kosala-Magadha region, the Sramana movements objected to the self-imposed authority and orthodoxy of the intruding Brahmins and their Vedic scriptures and ritual. The sramana culture arose in Greater Magadha which reached its zenith under the Mauryan Empire The Achaemenid invasion of Cyrus and Darius I in the early 6th century BCE marks the beginning of outside influence,  The Indo-Scythians from Bactria Kujula Kadphises and Vima Takto In the process of their expansion eastward, Kujula Kadphises and his son Vema Tahktu displaced the Indo-Parthian kingdom, established in northwestern India by the Parthian Gondophares around 20 CE: Kujula defeated Tianzhu and his son, Yangaozhen was called Guishuang (Kushan) king. The most famous Kushan ruler was…the ruler of the Shaka Empire Kanishka (78 CE – 120 CE)  National identity Apex judicial body: Supreme court National flag : Tricolor of Saffron, white with a blue chakra within, dark green National emblem : ______________? National Anthem : ______________? National days: National song : ______________? Republic day Independence day National animal : ______________? Gandhi Jayanti National flower : ______________? National bird : ______________? National tree : ______________? National calender : Saka Calender Satavahana Empire (228 BCE – 224 CE)  Scientific Advancements in early India The Vedic and post-Vedic periods contributed in scientific advancement. Veda' means knowledge. The period Vedic, saw the importance of knowledge and science. Vedic knowledge embraced physics, mathematics, astronomy, logic, cognition and other disciplines. Ancient Indian Universities: Takshila and Nalanda Scientists from ancient India are Kapila, Kanada, Sushruta, Bhaskara, Nagarjuna, Bharadwaja, Aryabhatta, Venkataraman, Ramanujam etc. Scientific Advancements in early India  Scientific Advancements in early India Upavedas are a category of technical works and applied knowledge that are supplementary to the Vedas: Ayurveda: The upaveda of the Rigveda, dealing with medicine Dhanurveda: The upaveda of the Yajurveda, dealing with archery and warfare Gandharvaveda: The upaveda of the Samaveda, dealing with music and sacred dance Arthaśāstra: The upaveda of the Atharvaveda, dealing with economics Sthāpatyaveda: Also known as Śilpaśāstra, this upaveda deals with architecture Silpaveda: This upaveda deals with art and architecture  Scientific Advancements in early India Kalpa- the performance of ritual with its basis of geometry, mathematics and calendrics; Shiksha- phonetics; Chhanda- metrical structures; Nirukta- etymology; Vyakarana- grammar; and Jyotisha- Astrology, Astronomy and other cyclical phenomena  Astronomy Vedic calculation of the days and years: In Vedic rituals, the altars symbolized different parts of the year. Pebbles were placed around the altars for the Earth, the atmosphere, and the sky Ritualists were aware that the length of the year was between 365 and 366 days. 108 was a special number in Astronomy and distances Speed of Light was calculated as 2202 Yojanas per half Nimisha (0.1056 seconds) which converted yields – 1895407 miles per second The calendar of India can be classified into two types: Solar calendar Lunar calendar  Medicine in Ancient India There is a close parallel between Indian and Greek medicine. For example, the idea of breath (prana in Sanskrit, and pneuma in Greek) is central to both. The idea of the correct association between the three elements of the wind, the gall, and the phlegm, which was described first by Plato in Greek medicine, appears to be derived from the earlier tridosha theory of Ayurveda – Vata, Pitta and Kapha  Medicine in Ancient India Common Terms used with reference to the human body in Ancient Indian Medicine Gyan- Indriya Sense organs. Referred to in Sutta Pitaka. Along with Thought or Manas there are 6 sensory faculties Karma Indriya Action Organs Kosha Layers (Annamaya, Pranamaya, Manomaya, Vijnanamaya, Anandamaya koshas) Dhatu Tissue (lymph, muscle, blood, bone, fat, marrow, semen) Chakra Systems, later Psychic Energy centers ( Muladhara, Svadhisthana, Manipura, Anahata, Vishuddha, Ajna, Sahasrara) Chitta Consciousness, Mind. Citta is the object of meditation in Buddhist Sattipatthana Dosha Humours. Vata, Pitta, Kapha (wind, bile and phlegm). Central to Ayurveda Vaidya Meru Danda Spine. The principal channels or nadis -Ida, Pingala and Sushumna run from the base of the spine to the head.  Medicine in Ancient India Theraiyar Kappiyam: Siddha medicine system in the south Theraiyar was one of 18 disciples of Agastya Rishi who practised Siddha Medicine which was a system learnt and practised via Guru-Shishya relationships  Siddha system of medicine is one among the indigenous medical systems of India which evolved from the Dravidian civilization. Literary evidences of Sangam Era state the origin of this system to around 10,000 BC.  Siddha medicine is said to have originated from the Shiva cult and the great sage Agasthiyar is said to be the Father of Siddha Medicine.  They firmly believed that the physical body is an instrument to attain “mukthi” (to become one with the Universal soul) and so preserved it by the practice of  vatham (alchemy),  vaidhyam (treatment),  yogam (Ashtangayogas) and  gnanam (knowledge).  Siddha system is based on the fundamentals of "anda pinda thathuvam" (the relationship between the human body (microcosm) and the universe(macrocosm)) and 96 “thatuvas”  Medicine in Ancient India Sushruta Samhita Sushruta is considered the Father of Surgery The text Sushruta Samhita probably originated in the last centuries of BCE Hindus were prohibited from cutting dead bodies, which limited their knowledge of the human anatomy. Attention was first given to bones and then muscles, ligaments and joints Nerves, Blood vessels and Internal Organs were imperfectly known Mainly dealt with Rhinoplasty and Opthalmology Treatment was not only about surgical operations but used various medicinal plants  Medicine in Ancient India Charaka Samhita: Charaka (100 CE) is known as the Father of Ayurveda Science of longevity (Ayurveda) derived from the Sanskrit word, ‘Ayus’ meaning long life and ‘veda’ meaning knowledge or science is an ‘Upa’ veda of Atharva Veda Belongs to the Takshila school of Medicine Deals with Digestion, Metabolism and the Immune System Greater emphasis on Prevention rather than Cure – addresses Therapeutics Treatment was medicinal as well as dietic  Medicine in Ancient India Rasa Shastra Nagarjuna (400 CE) Compilation of Ayurvedic medicine; Nagarjuna was an Indian philosopher and Saint and the founder of the Madhyamaka school of Mahayana Buddhism. He was born in Amravati (presently the Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh) around 113 AD. Nagarjuna spent most of his life in a hilly area near Amravati. There he conducted extensive studies on the health applications of Mercury & other heavy metals for a significant part of his life. Ayurveda in later periods, began to incorporate Mercury as well as other "toxic" metals as important components of pharmaceutical formulations. Rasashastra is derived from the Sanskrit words Rasa (meaning “essence”, “taste” or “inherent substance or quality”) and Shastra (meaning “knowledge”, “science” or “sacred prescription”).  Medicine in Ancient India Firdous-al-Hikmah Ali ibn-Rabban (800 CE) Oldest encyclopedias of Islamic medicine The text Firdous-al-Hikmah is based on Syriac translations of Greek and Indian sources Contains the Unani system that comes to India Shatavahana Empire Satavahana empire (1nd century BCE- 3rd century CE) The Satavahana are known as the Andhras (in the Puranas) The Satavahana includes the modern day Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and Maharastra. At various points of time, they also ruled modern day Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and Karnataka. Simuka founded the Satavahana Dynasty (year unknown) Some of the rulers are: Satakarni (70-60 BCE) Gautamiputra Satakarni (106-130 CE) Vashishthiputra Pulumayi (130-154 CE) Yajna Sri Satakarni (165-194 CE)  Time frame- Shatavahana Empire 0.. South migration India migration Africa Aryan Chola 860- 2000-1000 6500 1200 BCE BCE CE 0 CE 321- 7000-3500 240- 1st BCE- 185 BCE 280 CE 3rd CE BCE Harappa migration Mauryan Gupta Shatavahana Central and South 0 India Satavahana Empire Life in the era of the Satavahana Empire Government was based on Dharmashastras. The province governor was named Senapathi. Brahmanas and Buddhist monks were exempted from tax People depend on agriculture During this period, there is an intense increase in the use of mineral resources. Other Migrations and Invasions Tibeto-Burmese from the East Austro-Asiatics migration 4000 years ago Greeks,Scythians, Parthians migration Saka (Scythian) migration in the 1 st century Huna invasion 5th-6th century Turks, Afghan and Mongol invaders starting 1000 years ago Mamluk invasion in the 13th century Mughal invasion in the 16th century European invasion 500 years ago Satavahana Empire (228 BCE – 224 CE)  Sangam Literature Sangam, Tamil Literature (CH_01) (youtube.com) Tamil poems composed Tamil Grammatical literature 1st Sangam 1st Sangam Paripaadal Aggattiyam Mudunarai Mudukurugu Kalariyavirai 2nd Sangam Budapuranam 2nd Sangam Aggattiyam Tolkappiam Mapuranam Isai Nunakkam Samagrah Andhra Sahitya Charitra Aarudra Kanchibotla Siva Sankara Sastry Chola Dynasty Cholas (from 860-1200 CE) Historical era: Ancient Period Established: 300 BCE Rise of the medieval cholas: 848 CE Empire at its greatest extent: 1030 CE Disestablished: 1279 CE Succeeded by: the Pandya Dynasty  Time frame- Chola dynasty 0.. South migration India migration Africa Aryan Chola 860- 2000-1000 6500 1200 BCE BCE CE 0 CE 321- 7000-3500 240- 185 BCE 280 CE BCE Harappa migration Mauryan Gupta 0 Chola Dynasty The founder of the Cholas was Vijayala Cholas were the most civilized race of the Deccan The Cholas are remembered as one of the longest-ruling dynasties in southern India. They became prominent in the 9th century after defeating the Pallavas The Cholas extend their control in Sri Lanka and the Malay Peninsula The Chola kings built many temples throughout their kingdoms. Some of the Chola temples are: Brihadeshwara temple, Rajarajeshwara temple, Cholapuram temple, etc Chola Dynasty Rulers of cholas: Vijayala Chola Aditya Chola Parantaka I Rajaraja I Rajendra Chola III (last ruler) Imperial Chola Imperial Chola Imperial Chola Imperial Chola Gupta Dynasty After the fall of Kushanas, Guptas came to power. Some of the rulers are: Sri Gupta 240-280 CE is the founder of the Guptas Dynasty and assume the title of Maharaja Some prominent rulers are: Other later Gupta rulers: -Purana Gupta Ghatotkach Gupta -Narsimha Gupta -Kumar Gupta II Chandra Gupta I -Brahma Gupta Samudra Gupta -Vishnu Gupta Rama Gupta Chandra Gupta  Time frame- Gupta dynasty 0.. migration migration Africa Aryan 2000-1000 6500 CE BCE BCE 0 321- 7000-3500 240- 185 BCE 280 CE BCE Harappa migration Mauryan Gupta 0 Gupta Dynasty During Gupta reign India saw rapid progress Guptas gave new shape and political unity to India Samudra Gupta and Chandra Gupta II were not only great conquerors but also brave commanders and great administrators. The Guptas issued their own coins The Guptas are known of marking their presence through pillar inscriptions Allahabad pillar inscription Eran stone pillar inscription Mehrauli iron pillar inscription Bhitari Pillar inscription Gupta Empire consisted of 26 provinces further subdivided into regions called Vishayas which were governed via an Administrative Council and a Vishayapati Rice,Wheat Barley were always grown in the Indian Subcontinent Sugar Cotton and Spices were grown as well. The Gupta Empire Traded with Rome And China Exporting Cotton and Spices Imported Horses from Gupta Dynasty After the fall of Kushanas, Guptas came to power. Some of the rulers are: Sri Gupta 240-280 CE is the founder of the Guptas Dynasty and assume the title of Maharaja Some prominent rulers are: Other later Gupta rulers: -Purana Gupta Ghatotkach Gupta -Narsimha Gupta -Kumar Gupta II Chandra Gupta I -Brahma Gupta Samudra Gupta -Vishnu Gupta Rama Gupta Chandra Gupta  Time frame- Gupta dynasty 0.. migration migration Africa Aryan 2000-1000 6500 CE BCE BCE 0 321- 7000-3500 240- 185 BCE 280 CE BCE Harappa migration Mauryan Gupta 0 Gupta Dynasty During Gupta reign India saw rapid progress Guptas gave new shape and political unity to India Samudra Gupta and Chandra Gupta II were not only great conquerors but also brave commanders and great administrators. The Guptas issued their own coins The Guptas are known of marking their presence through pillar inscriptions Allahabad pillar inscription Eran stone pillar inscription Mehrauli iron pillar inscription Bhitari Pillar inscription Contributions in Mathematics The most significant of these contributions was the decimal system of notation discovery. Based on the principle of the place value of the first nine numbers, this notation system also depended upon the use of zero. This ancient Indian empire also saw Geometry attaining great heights. It was because of the numerous theorems related to circles and triangles. In 499 AD, Aryabhatta wrote the Aryabhattiyam. It was majorly about algebra, geometry, and mathematics. The list of achievements of the Gupta empire in the field of Mathematics does not end here, as the period also witnessed the cultivation of Trigonometry. The period is also said to have witnessed the rise of Indians over the Greeks as far as Mathematics is concerned. Contributions to the Astrological Field The Vriddhi Garga Samhita, an assortment of old-fashioned Indian learning and sciences, is the leading work before Varahamihira’s Brihat Samhita. Other than the areas on astrology in the Brihat Samhita, Varahamihira likewise made four different works related to astrology, which manage favourable muhurtas for marriage, and propitious omens for the endeavours Achievements in Medicine When it comes to medicine, the most important works were the Charaka Samhita by Charaka and the Sushruta Samhita by Susruta. The two placed high ideals for physicians and suggested that a physician must be a yogi and not charge high for his prescriptions. They suggested that a physician should be kind and support mankind, i.e., he must not be partial to people based on their social class or economical status. During the Gupta period, the process of distillation and the use of disinfectants was discovered by Nagarjuna. By now, the smallpox vaccination was also introduced. The surgical field also noticed a rise as the doctors could amputate and improve deformed ears and noses. Numerous surgical instruments were developed. Astronomy The principal astronomers of this period were Varahamihira and Aryabhatta. One of the notable discoveries by Aryabhatta was that the moon comes over the shadow of the earth or between the earth, which caused the eclipses. He is known to be much more advanced than the  Medicine in Ancient India Charaka Samhita: Charaka (100 CE) is known as the Father of Ayurveda Science of longevity (Ayurveda) derived from the Sanskrit word, ‘Ayus’ meaning long life and ‘veda’ meaning knowledge or science is an ‘Upa’ veda of Atharva Veda Belongs to the Takshila school of Medicine Deals with Digestion, Metabolism and the Immune System Greater emphasis on Prevention rather than Cure – addresses Therapeutics Treatment was medicinal as well as dietic  Medicine in Ancient India Rasa Shastra Nagarjuna (400 CE) Compilation of Ayurvedic medicine; Nagarjuna was an Indian philosopher and Saint and the founder of the Madhyamaka school of Mahayana Buddhism. He was born in Amravati (presently the Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh) around 113 AD. Nagarjuna spent most of his life in a hilly area near Amravati. There he conducted extensive studies on the health applications of Mercury & other heavy metals for a significant part of his life. Ayurveda in later periods, began to incorporate Mercury as well as other "toxic" metals as important components of pharmaceutical formulations. Rasashastra is derived from the Sanskrit words Rasa (meaning “essence”, “taste” or “inherent substance or quality”) and Shastra (meaning “knowledge”, “science” or “sacred prescription”).  Medicine in Ancient India Firdous-al-Himah Ali ibn-Rabban (800 CE) Oldest encyclopedias of Islamic medicine The text Firdous-al-Hikmah is based on Syriac translations of Greek and Indian sources Contains the Unani system that comes to India  Metallurgy Something has been said about the chemical excellence of cast iron in ancient India and about the high industrial development in the Gupta times, when India was looked to , even by Imperial Rome, as the most skilled of the nations in such chemical industries such as Tanning, Dyeing, Soap- making, Glass and Cement. By the 6th century, the Hindus were far ahead of Europe in industrial chemistry - they were masters in calcinations, distillation, sublimation, steaming, fixation, the production of light without heat, the mixing of anesthetic and soporific powders and the preparation of metallic salts, compounds and alloys  Metallurgy Metallurgy was well-advanced in ancient India. The art of metal work is known to Indians for almost 5000 years. Indian craftsmen have been using different metals iron, copper, silver, alloy like bronze, bell metal, white metal They produce items such knives, daggers, spikes, arrowheads, spoons, saucepans, bowls, axes, chisels, tongs, and door fittings dating from 600 BCE to 200 BCE Metallurgy in ancient India was eco-friendly for example Zawar process for zinc Zinc metallurgy traveled from India to China to Europe. Dancing Girl of Harappa Location: Mohenjodaro in Sindh, Pakistan 2300 – 1750 BCE 4 inches tall Method : Lost wax technique A method of metal casting where molten metal is poured into a mould that has been created with wax Made of Bronze indicates knowledge of making alloys of copper and tin. Mehrauli Iron Pillar Location: near Udayagiri caves in Madhya Pradesh Placed by Chandragupta - II Brought to Delhi by Iltutmish and placed in Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque in the Qutub complex. 2300 – 1750 BCE 7.21 meters high Sultanganj Buddha Location: Discovered by a railway engineer E. B. Harris in Bhagalpur, Bihar 2.3 meters tall; weighs 500 kg. Method : Lost wax technique A method of metal casting where molten metal is poured into a mould that has been created with wax Made of pure copper. Belongs to the Gupta period  Important Contributors Varahamihira One of the Navaratnas of court of Vikramaditya Nagarjuna Wrote Rasaratnakara. Was said to have knowledge of alchemy (931 CE) Wrote Rasarnava (12th century CE) Shambhu Saltpeter, sulphur, and charcoal to make gunpowder. Attar, perfume formulations Tuzuk-i-Baburi, Ain-i- Mughals Akbari Industrial steel making. First blast furnace in Kulti in 1870 Colonial British Tata Iron and Steel Co. established in 1907  The ancient India four techniques related to mining and metallurgy are:  Druti vidya: gemology  Bhasmkaran vidya: calcination  Sankaran vidya: alloy making  Pruthhakaran vidya: separation of metal Some others include:  Iron smelting (bronze and iron)mentioned in Rig Veda  Cutting and polishing of gems- Radnadishdyana  Slag removal- kshyarisksahan  Combination of metal with herbs- Dhatusanyog  Brick, tiles, pottery etc- Istikabhajan  Testing of chemicals- Kshyarparikshya  Removal of oils- Snehaniskashan Sources of Chalukyan History Inscriptions constitute the main source of information about the Badami Chalukya history. Important among them are:  the Badami cave inscriptions (578) of Mangalesa  Kappe Arabhatta record of 700  Peddavaduguru inscription of Pulakesi II  the Kanchi Kailasanatha inscription and  Pattadakal Virupaksha Temple inscriptions of Vikramaditya II Hiuen-Tsang, a Chinese traveller visited the court of Pulakesi II At the time of that visit, as mentioned in the Aihole record, Pulakesi II had divided his empire into three Maharashtrakas or great provinces comprising of 99,000 villages each. Vidyapati Bilhana, the famous poet in the court of Vikramaditya VI of the Western Chalukya dynasty of Kalyana, mentions a Administration and the Empire Harsha’s Dynasty (606 CE – 647 CE) It is said that Harshavardhana’s empire reminded many of the great Gupta Empire, as his administration was similar to that of the administration of the Gupta Empire. There was no slavery in his empire and people were free to lead their life according to their wish. In many texts, Harshavardhana has been described as a noble emperor who made sure all his subjects stayed happy. He did not impose heavy taxes on his people and the economy was somewhat self- sufficient. Traveler Xuanzang spent eight years in his empire. Art and Education Harsha was a patron of both art and education. He himself wrote three Sanskrit plays, Nagananda, Ratnavali, Priyadarshika. Hiuen Tsang gives a quite vivid description of the famous Nalanda University which was at its zenith during Harsha’s reign. Nalanda had around 10,000 students and 2,000 teachers. Sources of Chalukyan History Inscriptions constitute the main source of information about the Badami Chalukya history. Important among them are:  the Badami cave inscriptions (578) of Mangalesa  Kappe Arabhatta record of 700  Peddavaduguru inscription of Pulakesi II  the Kanchi Kailasanatha inscription and  Pattadakal Virupaksha Temple inscriptions of Vikramaditya II Hiuen-Tsang, a Chinese traveller visited the court of Pulakesi II At the time of that visit, as mentioned in the Aihole record, Pulakesi II had divided his empire into three Maharashtrakas or great provinces comprising of 99,000 villages each. Vidyapati Bilhana, the famous poet in the court of Vikramaditya VI of the Western Chalukya dynasty of Kalyana, mentions a Chalukya Dynasty Chalukya Dynasty (6th century to 12th century) The Chalukyas of Badami were the Vakatakas' successors in western Deccan. They established their capital in Vatapi, modern Badami, in the Bijapur district of Karnataka. From 543 to 753 CE, they ruled over a large area in the Deccan and united the entire south of India. Jayasimha was the first ruler of the Chalukyas dynasty. But the real founder of the Chalukyan dynasty was Pulakesin I After him, Pulakeshin II ruled over the whole Deccan and was the Badami dynasty's most well-known ruler.  Time frame- Chalukya dynasty 0.. South migration India migration Africa Aryan Chalukya Chola 860- 6th CE- 2000-1000 12th CE 6500 1200 BCE BCE CE century 0 CE 321- 7000-3500 240- 1st BCE- 185 BCE 280 CE 3rd CE BCE century Harappa migration Mauryan Gupta Shatavahana Central and South 0 India Chalukya Dynasty Life during the Chalukya dynasty: At higher levels of Chalukyas, the government was modeled after the administrative systems of Magadha and Satavahana. King was the state's highest-ranking official. Chalukyas followed the Hindu caste system and Brahmins held a privileged position as knowledge and local justice providers. Some women from the royal family held positions of political power in administration, which shows women held high positions in society. People found indoor entertainment by watching wrestling matches (Kusti), watching animals fight (such as cock fights and ram fights), or gambling. Horse racing was a popular outdoor recreation activity. Schools and hospitals are mentioned in records, and they were built near temples. Struggle for Kannauj Islam Islam came from the Arabian peninsula, 7CE, and spread throughout the world Holy Book is Quran is a revelation to Prophet Mohammed, his teachings were compiled by his followers known as Hadith (Hadees) 2 sects Shia: Believe in Ali, Prophet Mohammed’s son-in-law to be the successor. Sunni: Believe Abu Baker, Prophet Mohammed’s father-in-law to be the successor. Sufism is a branch of Islam, better known as Tasawwuf.  The ultimate goal is union with Allah, there is no difference between individual existence and Allah that is unity of being or Wahdat-ul- Wajood  Emerged in 12CE for the love of poetry by Rumi. Mahmud of Ghazni Ghazni was a small kingdom in Afghanistan, which was founded by a Turkish nobleman in the tenth century. One of its successors, namely Mahmud wanted to make Ghazni into a big and powerful kingdom; therefore, he decided to conquer a part of Central Asia. In order to make his large and powerful army, Mahmud had needed a huge property; hence, he decided to attack India to rob Indian wealth (to accomplish his great ambition). The first raid of Mahmud began in A.D. 1,000. In a short period of twenty-five years, Mahmud made 17 raids. Between A.D. 1,010 and 1025, Mahmud attacked only on the temple towns in northern India, as he had heard that there were much gold and jewelry kept in the big temples in India. One of these attacks, which is frequently mentioned while discussing Medieval History, was the destruction of the Somnath temple located in western India. Mahmud was the patron of the famous Persian poet, Firdausi, and Muhammed Ghori Muhammad Ghori was the ruler of the Ghor kingdom, a small kingdom of Afghanistan. He was the supreme ruler of Ghurid Empire. Ghori was more ambitious than Mahmud, as he was not only interested in robbing wealth of India, but also intended in conquering northern India and adding it to his kingdom.. Muhammad’s most important campaign in India was against the Chauhan ruler, Prithviraj III. In 1191, Prithviraj defeated Ghori; this battle is popularly known as the ‘first battle of Tarain.’ In 1192, Muhammad Ghori defeated Prithviraj in the second battle of Tarin. The defeat of Prithviraj opened the Delhi area to Muhammad and he began to establish his power. In 1206, Ghori was murdered and his kingdom in northern India was left in the control of his general Qutb-ud-din Sangama Dynasty Harihara I (Deva Raya) 1336-1343  Bukka I 1343-1379  Harihara II 1379-1399  Bukka II 1399-1406  Deva Raya I 1406-1412  Vira Vijaya 1412-1419  Deva Raya II 1419-1444 Saluva Dynasty Narasimha 1490-? Narasa (Vira Narasimha) ?- 1509 Krishna Deva 1509-1530 Achyuta 1530-1542 Tuluva Dynasty Rama (ruled in practice) 1542- 1565 Tirumala (ruled in practice) 1565-1567 Vijayanagara Empire  Sangama Dynasty (1336 CE – Golden Age of Literature 1485 CE)  Saluva Dynasty (1485 CE – 1505 CE)  Tuluva Dynasty (1491 CE – Vijayanagara Empire was one of the most 1570 CE) kingdoms that rose in powerful  Aravidu Dynasty (1542 CE – medieval times. 1646 CE) Capital: Vijayanagara (1336-1564) Language: Kannada, Telegu, and Sanskrit Religion: Hinduism It was a Hindu empire and covers present-day states Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and some parts of Telangana and Maharastra  Time frame- Vijayanagara Empire 0.. South migration India migration Africa Aryan Chalukya Chola 860- 6th CE- 2000-1000 12th CE 6500 1200 BCE BCE CE century 0 CE 321- 7000-3500 240- 1st BCE-3rd 1336- 185 BCE 280 CE CE 1564 CE BCE Harappa migration Mauryan Gupta Shatavahana Vijayanagara Central and South 0 India Vijayanagara Empire The Vijayanagara Empire was founded by two brothers Harihara I and Bukka I from the Sangama Dynasty. The Vijayanagara Empire is ruled by four important dynasties: Sangama, Saluva, Tuluva, and Aravidu Important rulers of the Vijayanagara Empire are: Harihara Krishna Deva Raya Vijayanagara Empire The glories of the Vijayanagara Empire: Well-organized administrative system The king was the head of the state There is the council of ministers to assist the king The empire was divided into six provinces Naik- the governor was appointed in each province The province was divided into districts and the district was further into smaller villages units The contact point for the villages and central administration is the Mahanayakacharya Mughal Empire It was trade that gave India its first contact with Islam. This came in either 636 or 644 In 711–713, the Arabs moved eastward from Balochistan to conquer Sindh. Descendant of both Temur and Genghis Khan, Babur was called a Mughal, the Persian word for “Mongol.” The dynasty founded after conquering the sultanate of Delhi in 1526 is also called Mughal The Mughal Dynasty was founded by Babur Some of the rulers are: Babur and Humayun (1526-1556) Akbar to Aurangzeb (1556-1707) The Mughal Empire declined in the 18th and 19th century  Time frame- Mughal Empire 0.. South migration India migration Africa Aryan Chalukya Chola Dynasty dynasty Mughal empire 860- 6th CE- 1526-19th 2000-1000 12th CE 6500 1200 BCE BCE CE century 0 CE Centur y 321- 7000-3500 240- 1st BCE- 1336- 185 BCE 280 CE 3rd CE 1564 CE BCE century Harappa migration Mauryan Gupta Vijayanagara dynasty dynasty Shatava Empire hana Central and South 0 India The Maratha Empire (1797 – 1805) Maratha Empire With the decline of the Mughals, Shivaji the Maratha became prominent in the 15th century In the 1750s, the most powerful ruler in India was the Maratha peshwa Nana Saheb. His empire extended across the western Deccan, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Punjab. Nana Saheb died in a battle 1761. Thus, the Marathas in the North India soon evaporated. Nana Sahed was succeded by his son Madhavrav I. But Madhavrav died in 1772 Madhavrav heir Narayanrav was killed by partisans of Raghunathrav, who challenged Narayanrav’s son Madhavrav II. This touched off a civil war. Raghunathrav the uncle of Madhavrav obtained troops from the British East India Company in return for territory and money. And thus the British influence in India British Empire In the eighteenth century, the ships of the British East India Company and the British Royal Navy dominated the Indian Ocean, and the governors of the Company’s three main factories at Chennai, Kolkata, and Mumbai presided over a flourishing trade. After 1750, Company agents in India profited by this autonomy to acquire territory When the Company took over Delhi from Scindia in 1803, it became the guardian of the Mughal emperor. By the 19th century the East India Company annexed most of the Indian states The great revolt in 1857 After the 1857 great revolt The British parliament transferred control from the Company to the “Crown,” the British government. Thus the British empire lasted till up to India’s Independence Day 15 August 1947  Time frame-British empire.. South migration India migration Africa Aryan Chola Chalukya Mughal 860- 6th CE- 1526-19th 2000-1000 12th CE 6500 1200 BCE BCE CE century 0 CE Centur y 321- 7000-3500 240- 1st BCE-3rd 1336- 185 19th -1947 BCE 280 CE CE 1564 CE BCE Century Harappa migration Mauryan Gupta Shatavahana Vijayanagara British Central and South 0 India India’s geography before partition India’s geographical and national identity India’s Geographical boundaries Prior to 1947 partitions of India: India covers the Indian subcontinent including now Bangladesh and Pakistan Modern India Geography: India covers the south, north, and lower Himalayan range and the western ghats Neighbouring countries of India: China, Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Myanmar, Bhutan, Maldives, and a bit of Afghanistan (J&K) Modern-day India geography Source: Dewangan, S., Alva, S., Joshi, N., & Bhattacharyya, P. (2021). Experience of neural machine translation between indian languages. Machine Translation, 35(1), 71-99. India is one of the most linguistically diverse countries in the world, with 121 languages and 270 mother tongues. The 22 languages recognized by the Indian constitution are: Assamese, Bengali, Bodo, Dogri, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Kashmiri, Konkani, Maithili, Malayalam, Manipuri, Marathi, Nepali, Oriya, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Santali, Sindhi, Tamil, Telugu, and Urdu. These languages are listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution. They are also the major literary languages of India, with a large amount of written material in each  Classical Language status Indian classical languages, also known as Shastriya Bhasha, refer to languages with a deep historical background, rich literary traditions and a unique cultural heritage. Criteria The language must have a recorded history and literary tradition spanning 1500-2000 years, and it must possess a vast collection of ancient texts and literature that remains highly regarded. The language also needs to have a unique literary heritage, not derived from another language. There may be, thus, a clear distinction between the classical language and its modern forms.  Classical Language status The Union Cabinet has granted classical language status to 5 more Indian languages:  Marathi,  Bengali,  Pali,  Prakrit and  Assamese. They join the existing list of classical languages –  Tamil,  Sanskrit,  Telugu,  Kannada,  Malayalam and  Odia. Tamil was the first language to receive classical status in 2004, while Odia was sixth in 2014.  Time frame.. migration migration Africa Aryan 2000-1000 6500 CE BCE BCE 0 7000-3500 BCE Harappa migration  Maurya, Gupta, Chola, Shatavahana, Chalukya, Vijayanagara, Mughal, Maratha and British empires – their role in integrating the nation as one economic, political and cultural entity. The need to integrate the states as a nations The coming of different religions The integration of different cultures The importance of unity, equality and uniformity in implementing economic and political systems and policies The integration of different languages and culture Shared trade and commerce