Understanding The Self PDF

**Understanding the Self** Understanding oneself is essential to understand behaviors and beliefs that affects ourselves and others specifically in becoming effective and successful person in life, work, and relationship. Moreover, self-understanding (1) provides a sense of purpose; (2) leads to healthier relationships; (3) helps harness your natural strength; and (4) promotes confidence. This module will introduce you to the basic concepts of self and personality, and how they are related with each other. Self and personality characterized the way we define our existence, also these refers on how we organized our experiences that are reflected to our behavior. On the other hand, people have different ideas about themselves. These ideas represent the self of the person. Moreover, we behave in different ways in a given situation, but people also behave fairly stable in different circumstances. The relatively permanent pattern of behavior represents personality of the person. In details, **Personality** The etymological derivative of personality comes from the word "persona", the theatrical masks worn by Romans in Greek and Latin drama. Personality also comes from the two Latin words "per" and "sonare", which literally means "to sound through". Personality have no single definition since different personality theories have different views on how to define it. However, the commonly accepted definition of personality is that it is a relatively permanent traits and unique characteristics that give both consistency and individuality to a person's behavior (Roberts & Mroczek, 2008). Personality plays a key role in affecting how people shape their lives. It involves the complex relationship of people with their environment, how they cope and adjust through life, and how they respond to demands of physical and social challenges. Personality is the overall pattern or integration of a person's structure, modes of behavior, attitudes, aptitudes, interests, intellectual abilities, and many other distinguishable personality traits. Personality is the conglomeration of the following components: physical self, intelligence, character traits, attitudes, habits, interest, personal discipline, moral values, principles and philosophies of life. **Determinants of Personality** Personality refers to the total person in his/her overt and covert behavior. The determinants of factors of personality are as follows: **Environmental Factors of Personality.** The surroundings of an individual compose the environmental factors of personality. This includes the neighborhood a person lives in, his school, college, university and workplace. Moreover, it also counts the social circle the individual has. Friends, parents, colleagues, co-workers and bosses, everybody plays a role as the determinants of personality. **Biological Factors of Personality.** This further includes: 1\) *hereditary factors* or genetic make-up of the person that inherited from their parents. This describes the tendency of the person to appear and behave the way their parents are; 2\) *physical features* include the overall physical structure of a person: height, weight, color, sex, beauty and body language, etc. Most of the physical structures change from time to time, and so does the personality. With exercises, cosmetics and surgeries, many physical features are changed, and therefore, the personality of the individual also evolves; and 3\) *brain.* The preliminary results from the electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB) research gives indication that better understanding of human personality and behavior might come from the study of the brain. **Situational Factors of Personality**. Although these factors do not literally create and shape up an individual's personality, situational factors do alter a person's behavior and response from time to time. The situational factors can be commonly observed when a person behaves contrastingly and exhibits different traits and characteristics. **Cultural Factors.** Culture is traditionally considered as the major determinants of an individual's personality. The culture largely determinants what a person is and what a person will learn. The culture within a person is brought up, is very important determinant of behavior of a person. Culture is complex of these belief, values, and techniques for dealing with the environment which are shared among contemporaries and transmitted by one generation to the next. **Personality Traits** Personality traits reflect people's characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Personality traits imply consistency and stability---someone who scores high on a specific trait like Extraversion is expected to be sociable in different situations and over time. Thus, trait psychology rests on the idea that people differ from one another in terms of where they stand on a set of basic trait dimensions that persist over time and across situations. The most widely used system of traits is called the Five-Factor Model. This system includes five broad traits that can be remembered with the acronym OCEAN: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism. Each of the major traits from the Big Five can be divided into facets to give a more fine-grained analysis of someone\'s personality. In addition, some trait theorists argue that there are other traits that cannot be completely captured by the Five-Factor Model. Critics of the trait concept argue that people do not act consistently from one situation to the next and that people are very influenced by situational forces. Thus, one major debate in the field concerns the relative power of people's traits versus the situations in which they find themselves as predictors of their behavior. *The Five-Factor Model of Personality* Research that used the lexical approach showed that many of the personality descriptors found in the dictionary do indeed overlap. In other words, many of the words that we use to describe people are synonyms. Thus, if we want to know what a person is like, we do not necessarily need to ask how sociable they are, how friendly they are, and how gregarious they are. Instead, because sociable people tend to be friendly and gregarious, we can summarize this personality dimension with a single term. Someone who is sociable, friendly, and gregarious would typically be described as an "Extravert." Once we know she is an extravert, we can assume that she is sociable, friendly, and gregarious. The most widely accepted system to emerge from this approach was "The Big Five" or "Five Factor Model" (Goldberg, 1990; McCrae & John, 1992; McCrae & Costa, 1987). The Big Five comprises five major traits shown in the Figure 2 below. A way to remember these five is with the acronym OCEAN (O is for Openness; C is for Conscientiousness; E is for Extraversion; A is for Agreeableness; N is for Neuroticism). The table below provides descriptions of people who would score high and low on each of these traits. **Openness** The tendency to appreciate new art, ideas, values, feelings, and behaviors. **Conscientiousness** The tendency to be careful, on-time for appointments, to follow rules, and to be hard working. **Extraversion** The tendency to be talkative, sociable, and to enjoy others; the tendency to have a dominant style. **Agreeableness** The tendency to agree and go along with others rather than to assert one owns opinions and choices. **Neurotism** The tendency to be frequently experience negative emotions such as anger, worry, and sadness, as well as being itnerpersonally sensitive. Understanding of who you are as a person is called **self-concept** and understanding what your motives are when you act is called **self-understanding**. In definition, self-concept is generally thought of as our individual perceptions of our behavior, abilities, and unique characteristics---a mental picture of who you are as a person.For example, beliefs such as \"I am a good friend\" or \"I am a kind person\" are part of an overall self-concept. of self-discovery and identity formation. As people age, self-perceptions become much more detailed and organized as people form a better idea of who they are and what is important to them. According to the book *Essential Social Psychology* by Richard Crisp and Rhiannon Turner: The individual self consists of attributes and personality traits that differentiate us from other individuals. Examples include introversion or extroversion. The relational self is defined by our relationships with significant others. Examples include siblings, friends, and spouses. The collective self reflects our membership in social groups. Examples include British, Republican, African-American, or gay. At its most basic, self-concept is a collection of beliefs one holds about oneself and the responses of others. It embodies the answer to the question \"Who am I?\". The lesson to follow will facilitate learning about the self, and self concept. THE SELF ACCORDING TO PHILOSOPHY Philosophy is defined as the study of knowledge or wisdom from its Latin roots, philo (love) and sophia (wisdom). This field is also considered as "The Queen of All Sciences" because every scientific discipline has philosophical foundations. Various thinkers for centuries tried to explain the natural causes of everything that exist specifically the inquiry on the self preoccupied these philosophers in the history. The Greek philosophers were the ones who seriously questioned myths and moved away from them in attempting to understand reality by exercising the art of questioning that satisfies their curiosity, including the questions about self. The following lecture will present the different philosophical perspectives and views about self. **Socrates** A philosopher from Athens, Greece and said to have the greatest influence on European thought. According to the history he was not able to write any of his teachings and life's account instead, he is known from the writings of his student Plato who became one of the greatest philosophers of his time. Socrates had a unique style of asking questions called Socratic Method. Socratic Method or dialectic method involves the search for the correct/proper definition of a thing. In this method, Socrates did not lecture, he instead would ask questions and engage the person in a discussion. He would begin by acting as if he did not know anything and would get the other person to clarify their ideas and resolve logical inconsistencies (Price, 2000). The foundation of Socrates philosophy was the Delphic Oracle's that command to "Know Thyself". Here, Socrates would like to emphasize that knowing or understanding oneself should be more than the physical self, or the body. According to Socrates, self is dichotomous which means composed of two things: The physical realm or the one that is changeable, temporal, and imperfect. The best example of the physical realm is the physical world. The physical world is consisting of anything we sense -- see, smell, feel, hear, and taste. It is always changing and deteriorating. The ideal realm is the one that is imperfect and unchanging, eternal, and immortal. This includes the intellectual essences of the universe like the concept of beauty, truth, and goodness. Moreover, the ideal realm is also present in the physical world. One may define someone as beautiful or truthful, but their definition is limited and imperfect for it is always relative and subjective. It is only the ideal forms themselves that are perfect, unchanging, and eternal. For Socrates, a human is composed of body and soul, the first belongs to the physical realm because it changed, it is imperfect, and it dies, and the latter belongs to ideal realm for it survives the death. Socrates also used the term soul to identify self. The self, according to Socrates is the immortal and unified entity that is consistent over time. For example, a human being remains the same person during their childhood to adulthood given the fact that they undergone developmental changes throughout their lifespan. **Plato** A student of Socrates, who introduced the idea of a three part soul/self that is composed of reason, physical appetite and spirit or passion. o The *Reason* enables human to think deeply, make wise choices and achieve a true understanding of eternal truths. Plato also called this as divine essence. o The physical *Appetite* is the basic biological needs of human being such as hunger, thirst, and sexual desire. o And the *spirit or passion* is the basic emotions of human being such as love, anger, ambition, aggressiveness and empathy. These three elements of the self works in every individual inconsistently. According to Plato, it is always the responsibility of the reason to organize, control, and reestablish harmonious relationship between these three elements. Plato also illustrated his view of the soul/self in "Phaedrus" in his metaphor: the soul is like a winged chariot drawn by two powerful horses: a white horse, representing Spirit, and a black horse, embodying appetite. The charioteer is reason, whose task is to guide the chariot to the eternal realm by controlling the two independent-minded horses. Those charioteers who are successful in setting a true course and ensuring that the two steeds work together in harmonious unity achieve true wisdom and banquet with the gods. However, those charioteers who are unable to control their horses and keep their chariot on track are destined to experience personal, intellectual, and spiritual failure. **St. Augustine** He is considered as the last of the great ancient philosophers whose ideas were greatly Platonic. In melding philosophy and religious beliefs together, Augustine has been characterized as Christianity's first theologian. Like Plato, Augustine believed that the physical body is different from the immortal soul. Early in his philosophical development he described body as "snare" or "cage" of the soul and said that the body is a "slave" of the soul he even characterized that "the soul makes war with the body". Later on he came to view the body as "spouse" of the soul, with both attached to one another by a "natural appetite." He concluded, "That the body is united with the soul, so that man may be entire and complete, is a fact we recognize on the evidence of our own nature." According to St. Augustine, the human nature is composed of two realms: 1\. *God as the source of all reality and truth.* Through mystical experience, man is capable of knowing eternal truths. This is made possible through the existence of the one eternal truth which is God. He further added that without God as the source of all truth, man could never understand eternal truth. This relationship with God means that those who know most about God will come closest to understanding the true nature of the world. 2\. *The sinfulness of man.* The cause of sin or evil is an act of mans' freewill. Moral goodness can only be achieved through the grace of God. He also stated that real happiness can only be found in God. For God is love and he created humans for them to also love. Problems arise because of the objects humans choose to love. Disordered love results when man loves the wrong things which he believes will give him happiness. Furthermore, he said that if man loves God first and everything else to a lesser degree, then all will fall into its rightful place. **Rene Descartes** A French philosopher, mathematician, and considered the founder of modern philosophy. Descartes, famous principle the "cogito, ergo sum---"I think, therefore I exist" established his philosophical views on "true knowledge" and concept of self. He explained that in order to gain true knowledge, one must doubt everything even own existence. Doubting makes someone aware that they are thinking being thus, they exist. The essence of existing as a human identity is the possibility of being aware of our selves: being self-conscious in this way is integral to having a personal identity. Conversely, it would be impossible to be self-conscious if we did not have a personal identity of which to be conscious. In other words, the essence of self is being a thinking thing. The self is a dynamic entity that engages in metal operations -- thinking, reasoning, and perceiving processes. In addition to this, self-identity is dependent on the awareness in engaging with those mental operations. He declared that the essential self or the self as the thinking entity is radically different from the physical body. The thinking self or soul is a non-material, immortal, conscious being, independent of the physical laws of the universe while the physical body is a material, mortal, non-thinking entity, fully governed by the physical laws of nature. He also maintained that the soul and the body are independent of one another and each can exist and function without the other. In cases in which people are sleeping or comatose, their bodies continue to function even though their minds are not thinking, much like the mechanisms of a clock. He identified the physical self as part of nature, governed by the physical laws of the universe, and available to scientific analysis and experimentation, and the conscious self (mind, soul) is a part of the spiritual realm, independent of the physical laws of the universe, governed only by the laws of reason and God's will. And because it exists outside of the natural world of cause-and-effect, the conscious self is able to exercise free will in the choices it makes. **John Locke** An English philosopher and physician and famous in his concept of "Tabula Rasa" or Blank Slate that assumes the nurture side of human development. The self, according to Locke is consciousness. In his essay entitled On Personal Identity (from his most famous work, Essay Concerning Human Understanding) he discussed the reflective analysis of how an individual may experience the self in everyday living. He provided the following key points: 1\. To discover the nature of personal identity, it is important to find out what it means to be a person. 2\. A person is a thinking, intelligent being who has the abilities to reason and to reflect. 3\. A person is also someone who considers themself to be the same thing in different times and different places. 4\. Consciousness as being aware that we are thinking--- always accompanies thinking and is an essential part of the thinking process. 5\. Consciousness makes possible our belief that we are the same identity in different times and different places. Although Locke and Descartes believed that a person or the self is a thinking intelligent being who has the abilities to reflect and to reason, Locke was not convinced with the assumptions of Plato, St. Augustine and Descartes that the individual self necessarily exists in a single soul or substance. For Locke, personal identity and the soul or substance in which the personal identity is situated are two very different things. The bottom line of his theory on self is that self is not tied to any particular body or substance. It only exists in other times and places because of the memory of those experiences. **David Hume** He was a Scottish philosopher and also an empiricist. His claim about self is quite controversial because he assumed that there is no self! In his essay entitled, "On Personal Identity" (1739) he said that, if we carefully examine the contents of \[our\] experience, we find that there are only two distinct entities, \"impressions\" and \"ideas\". Impressions are the basic sensations of our experience, the elemental data of our minds: pain, pleasure, heat, cold, happiness, grief, fear, exhilaration, and so on. On the other hand, ideas are copies of impressions that include thoughts and images that are built up from our primary impressions through a variety of relationships, but because they are derivative copies of impressions, they are once removed from reality. Hume considered that the self does not exist because all of the experiences that a person may have are just perceptions and this includes the perception of self. None of these perceptions resemble a unified and permanent self-identity that exists over time. He further added that there are instances that an individual is limited in experiencing their perception like in sleeping. Similarly, when someone died all empirical senses end and according to him, it makes no sense to believe that self exists in other forms. As an empiricist, Hume provide an honest description and analysis of his own experience, within which there is no self to be found. Hume explained that the self that is being experienced by an individual is nothing but a kind of fictional self. Human created an imaginary creature which is not real. "Fictional self" is created to unify the mental events and introduce order into an individual lives, but this "self" has no real existence. **Sigmund Freud** A well-known Australian psychologist and considered as the Father and Founder of Psychoanalysis. His influence in Psychology and therapy is dominant and popular in the 20th to 21st century. The dualistic view of self by Freud involves the conscious self and unconscious self. The conscious self is governed by reality principle. Here, the self is rational, practical, and appropriate to the social environment. The conscious self has the task of controlling the constant pressures of the unconscious self, as its primitive impulses continually seek for immediate discharge. The unconscious self is governed by pleasure principle. It is the self that is aggressive, destructive, unrealistic and instinctual. Both of Freud's self needs immediate gratification and reduction of tensions to optimal levels and the goal of every individual is to make unconscious conscious. Freud proposed how mind works, he called this as provinces or structures of the mind. By illustrating the tip of the iceberg which according to him represents conscious awareness which characterizes the person in dealing with the external world. The observable behavior, however, is further controlled by the workings of the subconscious/unconscious mind. Subconscious serves as the repository of past experiences, repressed memories, fantasies, and urges. The three levels of the mind are: 1\. *Id.* This is primarily based on the pleasure principle. It demands immediate satisfaction and is not hindered by societal expectations. 2\. *Ego.* The structure that is primarily based on the reality principle. This mediates between the impulses of the id and restraints of the superego. 3\. *Superego.* This is primarily dependent on learning the difference between right and wrong, thus it is called moral principle. Morality of actions is largely dependent on childhood upbringing particularly on rewards and punishments. According to Freud, there are two kinds of instinct that drive individual behavior -- the *eros* or the life instinct and the *thanatos* of the death instinct. The energy of *eros* is called *libido* and includes urges necessary for individual and species survival like thrist, hunger, and sex.in cases that human behaior is directed towards destruction in the form of aggression and violence, such are the manifestations of *thanatos.* **Gilbert Ryle** A British analytical philosopher. He was an important figure in the field of Linguistic Analysis which focused on the solving of philosophical puzzles through an analysis of language. According to Ryle, the self is best understood as a pattern of behavior, the tendency or disposition for a person to behave in a certain way in certain circumstances. He opposed the notable ideas of the previous philosophers and even claimed that those were results of confused conceptual thinking he termed, category mistake. The category mistake happens when we speak about the self as something independent of the physical body: a purely mental entity existing in time but not space **Immanuel Kant** A German Philosopher who made great contribution to the fields of metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics. Kant is widely regarded as the greatest philosopher of the modern period. Kant maintained that an individual self makes the experience of the world comprehensible because it is responsible for synthesizing the discreet data of sense experience into a meaningful whole. It is the self that makes consciousness for the person to make sense of everything. It is the one that help every individual gain insight and knowledge. If the self failed to do this synthesizing function, there would be a chaotic and insignificant collection of sensations. Additionally, the self is the product of reason, a regulative principle because the self regulates experience by making unified experience possible and unlike Hume, Kant's self is not the object of consciousness, but it makes the consciousness understandable and unique. Transcendental apperception happens when people do not experience self directly, instead as a unity of all impressions that are organized by the mind through perceptions. Kant concluded that all objects of knowledge, which includes the self, are phenomenal. That the true nature of things is altogether unknown and unknowable (Price, 2000). For Kant, the kingdom of God is within man. God is manifested in people's lives therefore it is man's duty to move towards perfection. Kant emphasized that people should always see duty as a divine command (Price, 2000). **Paul and Patricia Churchland** An American philosopher interested in the fields of philosophy of mind, philosophy of science, cognitive neurobiology, epistemology, and perception. Churchlands' central argument is that the concepts and theoretical vocabulary that people use to think about the selves--- using such terms as belief, desire, fear, sensation, pain, joy--- actually misrepresent the reality of minds and selves. He claims that the self is a product of brain activity. The behavior of the self can be attributed to the neuropharmacological states, the neural activity in specialized anatomical areas. Neurophilosopy was coined by Patricia Churchland, the modern scientific inquiry looks into the application of neurology to age-old problems in philosophy. The philosophy of neuroscience is the study of the philosophy of science, neuroscience, and psychology. It aims to explore the relevance of neurolinguistic experiments/studies to the philosophy of the mind. Patricia Churchland claimed that man's brain is responsible for the identity known as self. The biochemical properties of the brain according to this philosophy of neuroscience is really responsible for man's thoughts, feelings, and behavior. Paul Churchland is one of the many philosophers and psychologists that viewed the self from a materialistic point of view, contending that in the final analysis mental states are identical with, reducible to, or explainable in terms of physical brain states. This assumption was made due to the physiological processes of the body that directly affecting the mental state of the person. The advent of sophisticated technology and scientific research gives hope to understand the connection between the physical body and the mind/brain relationship that integrated in the self. Being an eliminative materialist, he believes that there is a need to develop a new vocabulary and conceptual framework that is grounded in neuroscience. This new framework will be a more accurate reflection of the human mind and self. **Maurice Merleau-Ponty** A French philosopher and phenomenologist. He took a very different approach to the self and the mind/body "problem." According to him, the division between the "mind" and the "body" is a product of confused thinking. The self is experienced as a unity in which the mental and physical are seamlessly woven together. This unity is the primary experience of selves and begin to doubt it when an individual use their minds to concoct abstract notions of a separate mind and body. Developed the concept of self-subject and contended that perceptions occur existentially. Thus, the consciousness, the world, and the human body are all interconnected as they mutually perceive the world. According to him, the world and the sense of self are emergent phenomena in the ongoing process of man's becoming. Phenomenology provides a direct description of the human experience which serves to guide man's conscious actions. He further added that, the world is a field of perception, and human consciousness assigns meaning to the world. Thus man cannot separate himself from his perceptions of the world. Perception is not purely the result of sensations nor it is purely interpretations. Rather consciousness is a process that includes sensing as well as interpreting/reasoning. THE SELF ACCORDING TO SOCIOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY Sociology and Anthropology are two interrelated disciplines that contributes to the understanding of self. Sociology presents the self as a product of modern society. It is the science that studies the development, structure, interaction, and collective behavior of human being. On the other hand, Anthropology is the study of humanity. This broad field takes an interdisciplinary approach to looking at human culture, both past and present. The following set of sociologists and anthropologist offered their views about self. **George Herbert Mead and the Social Self** Mead is an American philosopher, sociologist, and psychologist. He is regarded as one of the founders of social psychology and the American sociological tradition in general. Mead is well-known for his theory of self. He postulated that, the self represents the sum total of people's conscious perception of their identity as distinct from others. Mead argued that the self like the mind is social emergent. This means that individual selves are the products of social interaction and not logical or biological in nature. He claimed that the self is something which undergoes development because it is not present instantly at birth. The self arises in the process of social experience and activity as a result of their relations to the said process as a whole and to other individuals within that process. In other words, one cannot experience their self alone, they need other people to experience their self. The social emergence of self is developed due to the three forms of inter-subjective activity, the language, play, and the game. He proposed the stages of self formation: 1\. *Preparatory Stage.* Mead believed that the self did not exist at birth. Instead, the self develops over time. Its development is dependent on social interaction and social experience. At this stage, children's behaviors are primarily based on imitation. It was observed that children imitate the behaviors of those around them. At this stage, knowing and understanding the symbols are important for this will constitute their way of communicating with others throughout their lives. 2\. *The Play Stage.* Skills at knowing and understanding the symbols of communication is important for this constitutes the basis of socialization. Through communication, social relationship are formed. Now children begin to role play and pretend to be other people. Role-taking in the play stage is the process of mentally assuming the process of another person to see how this person might behave or respond in a given situation (Schefer, 2012). The play stage is significant in the development of the self. It is at this stage where child widens his perspective and realizes that he is not alone and that there are others around him whose presence he has to consider. 3\. *The Game Stage.* Here, the child is about eight or nine years of age and now does more than just role-take. The child begins to consider several tasks and various types of relationships simultaneously. Through the learnings that were gained in stage two, the child now begins to see not only his own perspective but at the same time the perspective of others. In this final stage of self development, the child now has the ability to respond not just to one but several members of his social environment. *Generalized other* the person realizes that people in society have cultural norms, beliefs and values which are incorporated into each self. This realization forms basis of how the person evaluate themselves. The self, according to Mead is not merely a passive reflection of the generalized other. The responses of the individual to the social world are also active, it means that a person decides what they will do in reference to the attitude of others but not mechanically determined by such attitudinal structures. Here, Mead identified the two phases of self: 1\. the phase which reflects the attitude of the generalized other or the "me"; and 2\. the phase that responds to the attitude of generalized other or the "I". In Mead's words, the \"me\" is the social self, and the \"I\" is a response to the \"me\". Mead defines the \"me\" as \"a conventional, habitual individual and the "I" as the "novel reply" of the individual to the generalized other. Generally, Meads theory sees the self as a perspective that comes out of interactions, and he sees the meanings of symbols, social objects, and the self as emerging from negotiated interactions. **The Self as a product of modern society among other constructions** **Georg Simmel** Simmel was a German sociologist, philosopher, and critic. He was intensely interested in the ways in which modern, objective culture impacts the individual's subjective experiences. In contrast to Mead, Simmel proposed that there is something called human nature that is innate to the individual. This human nature is intrinsic to the individual like the natural inclination to religious impulse or the gender differences. He also added that most of our social interactions are individual motivations. Simmel as a social thinker made a distinction between subjective and objective culture. The individual or subjective culture refers to the ability to embrace, use, and feel culture. Objective culture is made up of elements that become separated from the individual or group's control and identified as separate objects. / There are interrelated forces in modern society that tend to increase objective culture according to Simmel. These are urbanizations, money, and the configuration of one's social network. Urbanization is the process that moves people from country to city living. This result to the concentration of population in one place brought about by industrialization. This paved way to the organization of labor or increased division of labor, which demands specializations wherein this creates more objective culture. Simmel also stressed that the consumption of products has an individuating and trivializing effect because this enables the person to create self out of things. By consumption, an individual able to purchase things that can easily personalized or express the self. People used commodities to create self-concept and self-image. Simmel also said that products used in the modernity to express and produced the self is also changing. It becomes more and more separated from subjectivity (subjective culture) due to division of labor and market economy. Many products are easily replaced, subjected to the dynamics of fashion and diversification of markets which leads to inappropriate sign use. Money creates a universal value system wherein every commodity can be understood. Money also increases individual freedom by pursuing diverse activities and by increasing the options for self expression. Money also makes the individual to be less attached to the commodities because the individual tends to understand and experience their possession less in terms of their intrinsic qualities and more of their objective and abstract worth. Additionally, money also discouraged intimate ties with people. Money comes to stand in the place of almost everything -- and this includes relationship! Money further discourages intimate ties by encouraging a culture of calculation. Because of urbanization, Simmel observed that social networks also changed. Group affiliations in urban is definitely different from rural settings wherein the relationship are strongly influenced by family. An individual tends to seek membership to the same group which makes the family as basic socialization structure. This natural inclination to join groups is called by Simmel as organic motivation and the grouping is called primary group. This group is based on ties of affection and personal loyalty endure over long periods of time, and involve multiple aspects of a person's life. On the other hand, in the modern urban settings, group membership is due to rational motivation or membership due to freedom of choice. This characterized the secondary group which is goal and utilitarian oriented, with a narrow range of activities, over limited time spans. As a result, it is more likely that an individual will develop unique personalities. Moreover, Simmel said that a complex web of group affiliations produces role conflicts and blasé attitude. Role conflict is a situation that demands a person of two or more roles that clash with one another. Blasé attitude is an attitude of absolute boredom and lack of concern. This is the inability or limited ability to provide emotional investment to other people. **The Self and Person in the Contemporary Anthropology** The four subfields of anthropology -- Archeology, Biological Anthropology, Linguistics, and Cultural Anthropology, suggest that human beings are similar and different in varying ways and tendencies. For example, people have the same need for food and water, but they have different means on how to satisfy them. These similarities and differences make life so interesting. As one learn facts/information that make them similar to the other, they will also discover that they have GED 101 UNDERSTANDING THE SELFdifferent characteristics the define them. This knowledge aims to highlight the uniqueness of each person and making them value life and existence even more. The subfields of Anthropology are as follows: o **Archeology.** Focus on the study of the past and how it may have contributed to the present ways of how people conduct their daily lives. Archeologists have so far discovered the unique ways in which human beings adapted to the changes in their environment in order for them to survive. Among their discoveries around the world is the species, *homo sapiens* did not become extinct because of their ability to think, use tools and learn from experience. In relating to the contemporary society, people still aim for survival, for their basic needs to be fulfilled and to live legacy to their society. o **Biological Anthropology.** Focus on how the human body adapts to the different earth environments. Among the activities of Anthropologists are identification of probable causes of diseases, physical mutation, and death, evolution, and comparison of dead and living primates. They are interested in explaining how the biological characteristics of human being affects their way of living. Accordingly, human beings at present still share the same biological strengths and vulnerabilities. Like eating balanced nutrients and minerals that are beneficial to all human beings while being exposed to a virus in a pandemic might cause negative implications to many. o **Linguistic Anthropology.** Focused on using language as means to discover a group's manner of social interaction and their worldview. Anthropologists in this field want to discover how language is used to create and share meanings, to form ideas and concepts and to promote social change. Furthermore, they also study how language and modes of communication changes over time. o **Cultural Anthropology.** Focused in knowing what makes one group's manner of living forms an essential part of the member's personal and societal identity. This encompasses the principles of *Theory of Cultural Determinism* which suggests that the human nature is determined by the kind of culture he is born and grew up in. Cultural diversities are manifested in different ways and different levels of dept. The following are the ways in which culture may manifest itself in people: **Symbols.** These are the words, gestures, pictures or objects that have recognized or accepted meaning in a particular culture. Example: colors have similar meaning across all cultures. **Heroes.** These are persons from the past or present who have characteristics that are important in culture. They may be real of work of fictions. Example: Fiction -- Thor, Captain America; Real -- Jose Rizal, Apolinario Mabini. **Rituals.** These are activities participated by a group of people for the fulfilment of desired objectives and are concerned to be socially essential. Example: Wedding, *fiesta,* Christmas celebration, graduation, etc. **Values.** These are considered to be the core of every culture. These are unconscious, neither discuss or observed, and can only be inferred from the way people act and react to situations. Example: hospitality, respect for elders etc. The field of Anthropology offers another way by which a person can view themselves. As self is formed or determined by the past and present condition, by biological characteristics, the communication and language use, and the lifestyle we choose to live. **The Self Embedded in the Culture** **Clifford Geertz** Clifford Geertz was an Anthropology Professor at the University of Chicago. He studied different cultures and explored on the conception of the self in his writings entitled, "The Impact of the Concept of Culture on the Concept of Man" (1966) in his fieldwork at Java, Bali and Morrocco. The analysis of Geertz (1966) in his cultural study about the description of self in Bali is that the Balinese person is extremely concerned not to present anything individual (distinguishing him or her from others) in social life but to enact exclusively a culturally prescribed role or mask. In one instance, Geertz (1973) gave an example of the stage fright that pervades persons in Bali because they must not be publicly recognizable as individual selves and actors points precisely to the fact that agency or an ability to act in one's own account is an integral ability of human beings---an ability which continually threatens the culturally established norm of nonindividuality **THE SELF IN THE WESTERN AND ORIENTAL/EASTERN** **THOUGHT** Cultural differences and environment creates different perceptions of the self. The most common distinction between people and cultures is the Eastern-Western distinction. Eastern are known as the Asian countries, and Western represents the Europe and Northen America. It must be noted that countries who are geographically closer to each other my share commonalities, but factors that may create diffrences must be considered. **Individualistic versus Collective Self** Understanding individualism and collectivism could help in the understanding of the cross-cultural values of a person. Not every culture is at one end or the other of the spectrum, but the majority tend to favor one over the other in everyday life. *Individualistic Self* Individualism is not the idea that individuals should live like isolated entity, nor the idea that they should never get or give help from others, nor the idea that an individual never owes anything to other people. Individualism is the idea that the fundamental unit of the human species that thinks, lives, and acts toward goals is the individual. This means that we can form our own independent judgments, act on our own thoughts, and disagree with others. Each adult individual can consider what is in his own best interests. Each can act on his own private motivations and values and can judge other people as good people to form relationships with, or as bad people to be avoided. Each can decide whether to cooperate with others to solve problems. Each can choose to think for himself about the conclusions that the majority of others in a group come to, accepting or rejecting their conclusions as indicated by his own thought. Example of the description would include an individual identifies primarily with self, with the needs of the individual being satisfied before those of the group. Looking after and taking care of ourselves, being self-sufficient, guarantees the well-being of the group. Independence and self-reliance are greatly stressed and valued. In general, people tend to distance themselves psychologically and emotionally from each other. One may choose to join groups, but group membership is not essential to one's identity or success. Individualist characteristics are often associated with men and people in urban settings. Western cultures are known to be individualistic.*Collective Self* Collectivism is the idea that the fundamental unit of the human species that thinks, lives, and acts toward goals is not the individual, but some group. In different variants, this group may be the family, the city, the economic class, the society, the nation, the race, or the whole human species. The group exists as a super-organism separate from individuals: A group may make its own decisions, acts apart from the actions of individuals, and has its own interests apart from those of the individuals that compose it. Under collectivism, individuals are analogous to ants in the protection of their queen ant. The individual ant doesn't have minds of their own, and generally cannot disagree with the hive. Any ant that acts in a way contrary to the interests of the group is a malfunctioning ant. If an ant does not follow the certain pattern of how they protect their queen, it will be entirely unable to support itself, find other ants that support other queen ant and will surely die in short order. If the malfunctioning ant stays within the group, it will be a threat to the line appropriate to protecting the queen ant. Examples of the collectivist thinking is when our identity is in large part, a function of our membership and role in a group, e.g., the family or work team. The survival and success of the group ensures the well-being of the individual, so that by considering the needs and feelings of others, one protects oneself. Harmony and the interdependence of group members are stressed and valued. Group members are relatively close psychologically and emotionally, but distant toward non-group members. Collectivist characteristics are often associated with women and people in rural settings. Asian countries are known to be collective in nature. **The Social Construction of the Self in Western Thought** Self has been an area of interest by French and English philosophers, and evident in the ideas of Greek philosophers like Socrates and Plato. Descartes in 17th century emphasized the self in his dictum "I think therefore I am" which claims that cognitive basis of the person's thoughts is proof for the existence of the self. Kant believed that the self is capable of actions that entitles it to have rights as an autonomous agent. Here are some qualities imparted to the Western subjective self. It sketches some features on subjectivity and ways of thinking of western persons. This provides an impressionistic profile through the use of a few strokes characterizing some ways of being and thinking of many western persons. o *Western self as analytic*. Since analytic and inductive modes of thinking were prominent for person in western cultures, to see objects as divisible combinations of yet smaller objects. Real things are not only visualized but immaterial things like thoughts, ideas and memories would be given emphasis. o *Western self as monotheistic.* Monotheism can be known as the rigid consequence of the doctrine of normal human being. It is like forcing the concentration of supernatural capabilities. o *Western self as individualistic.* The emphasis on individualism has direct and indirect effects on both the presentation of self (in public ways) and the experience of the self (in private awareness). o *Western Self as materialistic and rationalistic.* The western accentuation of rational, scientific approach to reality has tended to define spiritual and immaterial phenomena as potentially superstitious and dangerous. In any society, belief system is stratified and composed of a hierarchy of interrelated, causal-explanatory models. **The Self as Embedded in Relationships and through Spiritual Development in Confucian Thought** Confucius was born in the period of the Zhou Dynasty in 551 BCE in the state of Lu. He grew up poor although he was descended from scholarly family. Confucius philosophy is known as humanistic social philosophy which focusses on human beings and the society in general. Confucianism is centered on *ren* which can be manifested through the *li* (propriety), *xiao* (filiality), and *yi* (rightness). For Confucius, *ren* reflects the person's own understanding of humanity. It is found within each person and can be realized in one's personal life and relationship. *Ren* guides human actions that makes life worth living which can be realized through *li, xiao,* and *yi:* o *Li* the propriety. Rules of propriety should be followed to guide human actions. These rules are the customs, ceremonies, and traditions that forms the basis of *li*. According to Confucius, "to master oneself and return to propriety is humanity" (Koller, 2007). Self mastery involves self development. Self mastery is characterized by self-control and the will to redirect impulses to change these to socially accepted expression of human nature. *Li* conforms to the norms of humanity, thus one must fulfill their duties and responsibilities in this five (5) relationships: father and son, ruler and subject, older and younger brothers, husband and wife, friend and friend. o *Xiao* the filiality. This is the virtue of reverence and respect for the family. Parents should be revered for the life they and given. Children show respect to their parents by exerting efforts to take care of themselves. Reverence for parents and family is further demonstrated by bringing honor to the family, making something of himself and to earn respect of other. If, however, the person is having difficulty giving his family the honor that they deserved, he should just do this best to not disgrace the family. Relationship that exist in the family reflect hoe the person relates to others in the community. The family is the reflection of the person. How the person interacts socially and the values they emulate can all be traced back to their family environment. This forms the bases of the person's moral and social virtues (Koller, 2007). o *Yi* the rightness. The right way of behaving which is unconditional and absolute. Right is right, and what is not right is wrong. Actions must be performed and carried out because they are right actions. Confucius emphasized that actions should be performed because they are right and not for selfish benefits that they provide. **PHYSICAL SELF** BODY IMAGE AND SELF ESTEEM The understanding of the Physical self is shaped by biological and environmental factors. The Biological blueprint involves Heredity and its important factors. Heredity is defined as the transmission of traits from parents to offspring. The traits are made up of specific information embedded within one's gene. Genotype refers to the specific information embedded within one's genes; not all genotypes translate to an observed physical characteristic. Phenotype is the physical expression of a particular trait. Each individual carries 23 pairs of chromosomes, which are threadlike bodies in the nucleus of the cell and the storage unit of genes. The 23rd pair, also known as sex chromosomes, determines the sex of an individual. Maturation is known as the completion of growth of a genetic character within an organism or the unfolding of an individual's inherent traits or potential. According to Santrock (2014), self-understanding is the individual's cognitive representation of self which consists of substance and the content of self-conceptions. Self-understanding can be described as simple to perplex and involve a number of aspects of the self. It also changes throughout the life span as the person grows older. **Physical Self** refers to the concrete dimensions of the body, it is the tangible aspect of the person which can be directly observed and examined. **Physical Characteristics** are the defining traits or features of a person's body. This is also the first thing people see when they look at another person that could include facial features, hairstyle, clothes, or figure. They encompass everything that one can describe about a person or group of people, by just looking Erik Erikson believed in the importance of the body from early development because the physical as well as intellectual skills will somehow serve as a basis to whether a person has achieved a sense of competence and be able to manage and face the demands of life complexities. William James, on the other hand, considered the body as the initial source of sensation and necessary for origin and maintenance of personality. According to Santrock (2016), puberty is not the same as adolescence because puberty ends prior to the end of the adolescent period. **Puberty** is a brain neuroendocrine process occurring primarily in early adolescence that triggers the rapid physical changes. **The Pituitary gland** is the master endocrine gland that controls growth and regulates functions of all the other endocrine glands including gonads. This promotes physical changes such as height, widening of the hips and increase in fatty tissues in the breast of girls and responsible for boy's growth of facial and body hair, muscles, and changes in voice. **Perspectives in Understanding Physical Self** 1\. Psychodynamic Perspective Freud's theory of the ego was primarily known as body ego, that solidifies the importance of body in understanding the self. The development of a body self mainly has three stages: 1\. Early psychic experience of the body in which sensations like tactile like in infants enable babies to discriminate bodies from their surroundings, which contribute to the sense of self. 2\. Next is defining body surface boundaries which is the stage of being awareness of body image in contrast to surface boundaries. 3\. Last stage is the distinguishing of the body's internal states which is the stage of having cohesion of the body. In these images and experiences of the body and the body, surfaces can be organized into holistic understanding of the body. **Perspectives in Understanding Physical Self** 2\. Cognitive-Behavioral Perspective Focuses on perceptual, cognitive, and affective aspects which is a multidimensional experience that can aid a more precise understanding of the body. The cognitive-behavioral perspective makes multiple distinctions to facilitate precise conceptual and operational definitions of body-image related variables. 3\. Feminist Perspective Relies on the social construction in which there is a possibility of individuals to experience their bodies in distorted ways (especially, women). Women's dissatisfaction with their bodies as a systematic social phenomenon rather than a result of individual pathology (McKinley, 2002) **Factors that affect perception of the Physical Self** 1\. Personal Factors a\. Introspection and Self-reflection. Looking inward is one of the simplest ways to achieve self-knowledge. According to Hewstone, et al., (2015) Introspection is the process is the process by which one observes and examines one's internal state (mental and emotional) after behaving in a certain way. b\. Self-Perception Theory. As stated by Hewstone and Bem (2015), self-perception theory explains that since one's internal state is difficult to interpret, people can infer their inner states by observing their own behavior -- as if they are an outside observer. Physical perception includes all aspects of a person's perception of his physical self. **Factors that affect perception of the Physical Self** c\. Self-concept. According to Hewstone, et al., (2015), self-concept is a cognitive representation of self-knowledge which includes the sum total of all beliefs that people have about themselves. It is a collection of all individual experience involving one's characteristics, social roles, values, goals and fears. Physical concept is the individual's perception or description of his physical self, including his physical appearance. d\. Personal Identity. This is the concept a person has about himself that develops over the years. This includes aspects of his life that he was born into like family, nationality, gender, physical traits as well as the choices he makes, such as what he does for living, who his friends are and what he believes in. **Factors that affect perception of the Physical Self** 2\. Social Factors a\. Attachment Process and Social Appraisal. According to Bowlby (1969), people learn about their value and lovability when they experience how their mothers or caregivers care for them and respond to their needs. b\. Maintaining, Regulating and expanding the self in interpersonal relationships. c\. The Looking-glass Self Theory. Charles Horton Cooley stated that a person's self grows out of society's interpersonal interactions and the perception of others. The view of oneself comes from a compilation of personal qualities and impressions of how others perceive the individual. Factors that affect perception of the Physical Self d\. Social Comparison is a process of comparing oneself with others in order to evaluate one's own abilities and opinions. There are two types of social comparison: Upward social comparison happens when an individual compares themselves to others who are better than them. Downward social comparison happens when an individual compares themselves to someone who is in a worse situation than they are in especially when they are feeling low. e\. Social Identity Theory (Collective Identity). This idea assumes that as a member of the group they will not be discriminated against by an out-group. It will enhance their self-esteem because they feel secured with the shield of group membership where they belong. Social groups include gender, ethnicity, religion, profession, political membership and business organizations. Culture is defined as a social system that is characterized by the shared meanings that are attributed to people and events by its members. The makeup of a body is a collection of cells, combined into organs, which themselves operate in systems. In humans, that body typically takes on a form with two arms, two legs, a torso, and a head. Bodies are shaped in countless ways by culture, by society, and by the experiences that are shared with a social and cultural context Social Constructionist Approach suggests that beauty, weight, sexuality, or race do not simply result from the collection of genes one inherited from one's parents. Essentialism means that bodies are defined entirely by their biological make-up -- bones, muscles, hormones, and the like. Body image can be described as a representation of how individuals think and feel about their own physical attributes. Body image is both internal (personal) and external (society). Body image includes: \(1) how a person perceives his body; \(2) how a person feels about their physical appearance; \(3) how a person thinks and talks to themselves about their bodies; & \(4) a sense of how other people view their bodies. Body image is the mental representation one creates, but it may or may not bear close relation to how others actually see you.Having a sense of understanding that healthy attractive bodies come in many shapes and sizes, and that physical appearance says very little about the character or value of a person, a person can have a positive body image. Self-esteem is the overall evaluation that a person has of himself which can be positive or negative, high or low. Self esteem is a measure of the person's self-worth based on some personal or social standard. It is a global evaluative dimension of the self. Self-esteem is how valuable to himself and others he person perceives himself to be. Needless to say, people with positive or high self-esteem are happier, have a sense of accomplishment and purpose and relate well with others. The impact of culture on body image and self-esteem has been very crucial for sometimes people depend on this as when they define beautiful. Young people put so much pressure on themselves to attain unrealistic ideals to the point of risking mental and physical health is unacceptable. The following are some aspects in culture that may have led to some misconceptions: 1\. Society's ideal for the perfect physical form for men and women. 2\. Images of perfection brought by all types of media i.e. print, television, film, and internet. 3\. Since a standard has been set by society and reinforced by the media, any characteristic that does not conform to the standard is labelled as ugly. Body diversity in size and structure due to genetic heritability is not tolerated. These misconceptions strongly affect how the young form their body image and its influence on their self-esteem. Knowing that adolescence is the period where self-identity is formed, it is important for adults in the environment to listen to these young people and provide proper guidance and support. Yes, beauty is important. But being beautiful still depends how a person defines beauty and the standards he sets to meet this definition. It is a big mistake to base beauty on some else's standard. People are different and each one is uniquely beautiful. **THE SEXUAL SELF: BODY IMAGE and SELF-ESTEEM** Sexual selfhood is defined as how one thinks about himself or herself as a sexual individual. Human sexuality is a topic that just like beauty is culturally diverse. **Historically** In Ancient Greece, it is the **male that assumes the dominant role.** The male symbol, the **penis, was viewed as the symbol of fertility** and how the male body was structured and was greatly admired. Their **wives were considered as objects to be possessed just like property.** **o Women**, on the other hand, were **forbidden to own property** and had no legal and **only function was to bear children.** o The Greek word for woman is ***"gyne"*** means -- bearer of children. In the Middle Ages (476-1450), bore witness to the strong **influence of church** particularly in matters of sexuality. The church decreed that **all sexual acts that do not lead to procreation were considered evil.** o Women were labelled as either **temptress** (like Eve) or a **woman of virtue** (like Virgin Mary) **Religion and Sexuality** In the protestant reformation of the 16th century (1483-1546) Martin Luther, John Calvin and other Protestant leaders initiated a movement against the Roman Catholic Church. **Protestantism believed that sexuality is a natural part of life and that priests should be able to marry and have families.** Martin Luther King and John Calvin believed that the reason for **sexual intimacy was to strengthen the physical and emotional bond between husbands and wives and not just procreation.** By the 17th and 18th century, the Puritans, a group of people who were discontented with the Church of England **rallied for religious, moral and societal reformation.** They had positive view on marital sex and did not tolerate sex outside marriage. **Premarital sex, therefore, was considered immoral.**In the Victorian Era (1837-1901), **homosexuality and prostitution were rampant and considered to be threats to social order.** People in this era were not comfortable in discussing breast or buttocks, they used other terms instead. Through the years and in the 20th century, interest in **sexuality became more evident and accepted in society.** The separation of church and state reduced the influence the church had over sexual mores. Also, the **rise of feminism allowed for changes in employment, home life, and sexual standards for women.** Over time, cultural diversity and social norms offered varied views on what today may be considered as sexually normal. **Sociobiological/Evolutionary** This perspective studies how evolutionary forces affect sexual behavior. According to sociobiological theory, **natural selection is a process by which organisms that are best suited to their environment are most likely to survive.** Traits that lead to reproductive advantage tend to be passed on, whereas maladaptive traits are lost. On the basis of **human sexual behavior, it all** **begins with physical attraction. Beauty is more than just cultural standard.** It is primarily an evolutionary standard for attracting the best male or female in the lot to ensure that **one's genetic characteristics will be passed on to the next generation.** **Biologically** Knowing the structures and functions of the reproductive system is essential to the understanding of sexuality. In the nervous system, it is the **brain that initiates and organizes sexual behavior**. Through the process of sexual reproduction, the next generation of human beings are created by the fusion of the egg cell and sperm cell. **Psychologically...** Rosenthal (2013) also explained that **sexuality is not a mere physical response.** Rather, **it also involves emotions, thoughts and beliefs.** Sigmund Freud was one of the most prominent people to explain sexuality, through his theories. According to him, **human beings are faces with two forces -- sex instinct and libido (pleasure) and death or aggressive instinct (harm toward oneself or towards others).** **In terms of Religion** ⌘ Judaism holds a positive and natural outlook toward marital sex which they consider as blessed by God and pleasurable for both men and women. Sexual connection provides an opportunity for spirituality and transcendence. ⌘ In Islam, family is considered of utmost importance, and celibacy within marriage is prohibited. Muslim men are allowed to have up to four wives but Muslim women can only have one husband. Sex is permitted only within marriage and extramarital sex is penalized. ⌘ According to Taoism (in China), sex is not only natural and healthy, but a sacred union necessary to people's physical, mental, and spiritual being. The sexual union is a way to balance male and female energy. ⌘ In Hinduism, sexuality is seen as spiritual force, and the act of ritual lovemaking is a means of both celebrating and transcending the physical. ⌘ For the Roman Catholic Church, marriage is purely for intercourse and procreation. They further believed that homosexual orientation, in itself is not sinful, but homosexual acts are immoral and sinful. The use of birth control is strongly opposed but they agree to natural family planning and prohibit abortion. **Development of Secondary Sex Characteristics and Reproductive System** Many biochemical events must occur before an organism can reproduce either way. There are two kinds of reproduction: **Asexual Reproduction** The simplest form of reproduction that literally means without sex. A single celled animal grows to a certain stage or size and divides into two identical organisms. **Sexual Reproduction**. there are males and females and reproduction occurs when partners come together. This also involves reproductive cells, including a female ovum (egg) and a male's sperm. **Male Reproductive** **System** **1. Penis** -- a male sexual organ consisting of the internal root and external shaft and glans. **2. Root** -- the portion of the penis that extends internally into the pelvic cavity. **3. Shaft** -- the length of the penis between the glans and the body. **4. Glans** -- the head of the penis; richly endowed with nerve endings. **5. Cavernous bodies** -- the structures in the shaft of the penis that engorge with blood during sexual arousal. **6. Foreskin** -- a covering of skin over the penile glans. **7. Corona** -- the rim of the penile glans. **8. Frenulum** -- a highly sensitive, thin strip of skin that connects the glans to the shaft on the underside of the penis **Female Reproductive System** **Vulva** -- encompasses all female external genital structures--the hairs, fold of skin, and the urinary and vaginal openings. **a. Mons Veneris** -- a triangular mound over the pubic bone above the vulva. **b. Labia majora** -- the outer lips of the vulva. **c. Labia minora** -- the inner lips of the vulva, one on each side of the vaginal opening. **d. Prepuce** -- the foreskin or fold of skin over the clitoris. **e. Clitoris** -- a highly sensitive structure of the female external genitals, the only function of which is sexual pleasure. **f. Shaft** -- the length of the clitoris between the glans and the body. **g. Glans** -- the head of the clitoris; richly endowed with nerve endings. **h. Cruca** -- the innermost tips of the cavernous bodies that connect to the pubic bones. **i. Vestibule** -- the area of the vulva inside the labia minora. **j. Urethra** -- the tube through which urine passes from the bladder to outside the body. ** Primary sexual characteristics** are there from birth (for example, penises and vaginas). ** Secondary sexual characteristics** emerge at puberty (such as low voices and beards in men, and high voices and no facial hair in women). These secondary **sexual characteristics are not used in reproduction**, but are apparent in most dimorphic species. Hormones secreted through the hypothalamus initiate the development of classically male or female secondary sexual traits. **Male:** More pronounced body hair characteristics (beard, chest, etc.) and usually more coarse Heavier musculature Angular features (i.e. square jaw, triangular mid region) Narrow hips Muscular pectorals (chest) Less fat tissue overall Deeper voice **Female:** o Less pronounced body hair characteristics (mostly in pubic region, hair all over is usually finer) o Lighter musculature o Rounded features (i.e. softer facial features, hourglass mid-region) o Wider hips (for child bearing) o More pronounced breasts with more fatty tissue o More fat tissue overall o Higher voice **Puberty is the stage of physical maturation** in which an individual becomes physiologically capable of sexual reproduction. The biological changes include: 1\) neuro-secretory factors and/or hormones; 2\) modulation of somatic growth, and 3\) initiation of the development of the sex glands. In both sexes, these stages reflect the progressive modifications of the external genitalia and of sexual hair. **Secondary sex characteristics** appear at a mean age of **10.5 years in girls** and **11.5 to 12 years in boys.** The rising levels of **plasma gonadotropins** stimulate the ovary to produce increasing amounts of estradiol. **Estradiol is responsible for the development of secondary sexual characteristics, that** **is, growth and development of the breasts and reproductive organs, fat redistribution (hips, breasts), and bone maturation.** The maturation of the ovary at adolescence correlates well with estradiol secretion and the stages of puberty. **Erogenous zones** Areas that can be understood in a certain way we understand our body. These are **areas of the human** **body that have heightened sensitivity.** The stimulation of these areas may result in the foundation and production of **sexual fantasies, sexual arousal, and orgasm.** These are areas that are more sensitive than others all over the body. Varieties of sexual excitement may be provoked that will classify the erogenous zones. **Erogenous zones** **vary from culture to culture and over time.** Essentially, these parts have high concentration of nerve endings, that the result is they are particularly **sensitive to touch, pressure, or vibration** According to Freud's theory, **each stage of psychosexual development must be met** **successfully for proper development;** if we lack proper nurturing and parenting during a stage, we **may become stuck in, or fixated on,** that stage. *Early childhood experiences may haunt a person in later life and influence adult personalities, interests and behaviors.* ***Erogenous zones is different from sexual fetishes.*** According to Freud, a **fetish is an inappropriate object (a shoe for example) that is substituted for a** **woman and used for sexual gratification.** An **erogenous zone is a body part** (a foot, for instance) that **arouses sexual curiosity and draws a man\'s attention to the whole female body.** **Fetishism is an individual personality disorder**, while erogenous zones are sexual preferences shared by most men at a given time or place. Fetishes belong to the science of **psychopathology** while erogenous zones belong to the social world of costume and fashion. **Human Sexual Response** One of the great qualities of a human being is its ability to be modified by experiences. This process is known as **learning and conditioning**, which most of the aspects of human behavior, even sexual behavior appear to be a product of it. Like the **preferences** people have of type of individual as partners -- tall, short, younger, or varieties of partners like heterosexual/homosexual. The classification of behavior as normal or away from normal represents culture based rather than scientifically explained. **Sexual response varies from person to person** and sexual fulfillment can occur without the completion of all phases described by Master and Johnson. Rosenthal (2013) has included the stage of **desire prior to excitement** which is a drive or motivation to seek out sexual objects or to engage in sexual activities. **LUST** o When people are in the stage of lust, **they feel physically attracted and drawn to their object of affection.** There are elements of mystery that make things exciting. **o Lust is driven by the desire for sexual gratification.** The evolutionary basis for this is from people's need to reproduce, a need shared among all living things. **LUST** Through reproduction, organisms pass on their genes, and contribute to the **perpetuation of** **their species.** The **hypothalamus** of the brain plays a big role in this, **stimulating the** **production of the sex hormones testosterone and estrogen from the testes and ovaries.** While these chemicals are often stereotyped as being male and female, respectively, both play a role in men and women. As it turns out, **testosterone increases libido** in just about everyone. The effects are less pronounced with estrogen, but some **women report being more sexually motivated around the time they ovulate, when estrogen levels are highest.** ATTRACTION o Attraction is characteristic that **causes pleasure or interest** by appealing to a person's desires or tastes, and causes one to be drawn to the other. o In this stage, **a person may begin to be obsessed about their object of affection and crave for his** **presence.** A person may don't feel like sleeping or eating. People can certainly lust for someone they are attracted to, and vice versa, one can happen without the other. Attraction has brain **behavior**, which explains the pathways that **controls "reward"** first few months of a relationship. **Dopamine is the main player in the brain's reward pathway.** When it is released, people feel good. In this case, these things **spending time with loved ones with high levels of dopamine and related hormones (norepinephrine) are released.** o These chemicals **make people energetic**, **and euphoric** that can lead to decreased appetite and insomnia -- which actually means **a person is so "in love"** that this person cannot eat or cannot sleep. In addition, norepinephrine plays a large role in the fight or flight response, which has a say when people are stressed and kept them alert. **ATTACHMENT** This stage involves wanting to make a **more lasting commitment** to your loved one. All the goals are dedicated to the object of affection being a part of a person's life. Dopamine decreases and attraction goes down. o If things are going well, it gets **replaced by the hormones oxytocin and vasopressin,** which create the **desire to bond, affiliate with, and nurture your partner.** You want to cuddle and be close and share your deepest secrets with her. *You plan and dream together.* Robert Palmer **compares love with an addiction.** This was verified in a study in which 17 participants who were madly in love were asked to go to the lab and bring a picture of their loved one. Participants were placed in a brain scanner (fMRI functional magnetic resonance imaging) which measures the neural activity of the brain. Their brain activity was recorded that when participants gazed at a photo of their beloved, **regions in the brain were activated.** Those parts are closely associated with the **anticipation of reward and with focused attention.** This is the **dopamine system in the brain which is the same system involved in pleasure and addiction.** Fisher, et al (2006) concluded that, rather than defining love as an emotion, **"being in love" can be considered a strong motivation** -- an addictive craving to be with the other person (Hewstone et al, 2015). Early passionate love is not an emotion in and if itself. Rather, it is best characterized as a **"motivation or goal-oriented state that leads to various specific emotions, such as euphoria or anxiety".** Unlike many emotions, love is not associated with any specific facial expression, and I am focused on a single reward. **The emotions associated with love -- elation, anxiety, joy, fear -- may come and go. But motivation to be with the beloved -- remains.** Love can be characterized by concern for other's well-being, a desire for physical presence and emotional support. In a study of Tennov in 1979, though **sex is an important component of romantic love, 95% of women and 91% of male respondents did not agree with the statement that "the best thing about love is sex.** **Intimacy** This includes the ***desire emotional closeness, sharing.*** **Passion** This is the hot component of love which can be described as ***intensely romantic or sexual desire for another person*** usually accompanied by physical attraction and physiological arousal. **Commitment** This is the cold component of love. It is the ***decision to maintain the relationship through good times and bad times.*** **Behavioral** **Reinforcement Theory** rewards = positive feelings The better the feeling associated with the behavior of a person, the more likely it is for the behavior to be repeated. **Physiological Arousal Theory** bodies experience a physiological change first It is based on the interpretation of the brain would interpret an emotion associated with this experience **Evolutionary Theories** love arose due to some sociobiological need. Males tend to look for young, healthy females mates to carry their offspring. Females prefer males who have the resources to support them and their offspring. Based on social psychological data from Rosenthal (2013), the **factors that would** **determine with whom people fall in love** are: **o Physical attractiveness:** though beauty is in the eye of the beholder) **o Reciprocity**: people tend to like an individual who also like them) **o Proximity**: being around anytime physically or virtually) **o Similarities**: same age, religion, education, race, physical attractiveness, intelligence, and socio-economic class) **The Diversity of Sexual Behavior:** **Solitary, Heterosexual, Homosexual, Transsexual Bisexual** **And Human sexual behavior** is any activity, solitary, by pair or by group which includes sexual arousal. **stimulating self that caused arousal usually done Solitary behavior** is a behavior with the inte**ntion of private.** This behavior is more **common to males.** There is **in** great individual variation in frequency. Solitary behavior provides pleasure for self with emotional content with sole control to the degree of pleasure. **Socio-sexual behavior** is generally divided into **heterosexual** behavior (male with female) and **homosexual** behavior (male with male or female with female). Rosenthal (2013) defined **sexual orientation** as a person's predisposition or inclination regarding sexual behavior, emotional attachment or physical attraction to one or both sexes. The phrase "sexual orientation" is preferred over "sexual preference" which implies a conscious or deliberate choice of a sexual partner. **Heterosexuality** -- it is the attraction to members of **opposite sex.** **Homosexuality** -- refers to a person whose sexual orientation is toward another of the **same sex.** It is the attraction to members of the same sex. a\. Lesbian -- is the term used to describe a woman whose sexual and romantic attraction toward women. b\. Gay - is a man whose sexual and romantic attraction is towards other men. **Bisexual** -- is a person who may be **sexually oriented to both men and women.** **Transsexual** -- these are people experience a gender identity that is inconsistent with, or not culturally associated with, their assigned sex, and desire to permanently transition to the gender with which they identify, usually seeking medical assistance. **Pansexual (Gender Blind)** -- is a new sexual orientation of persons who are sexually attracted to people regardless of their sex or gender identity. **Sexually Transmitted Diseases(STD)** are also known as Sexually Transmitted Infections **(STI),** together With genereal disease, these are infections that are **commonly spread by sexual intercourse.** o These are infections that are passed from one person to another **through sexual contact,** **blood transfusion, breastfeeding, and a certain amount of saliva.** **o Most STD's affect both men and women**, but in many cases the health problems they cause can be **more severe for women.** **o If a pregnant woman has an STD, it can cause serious health problems for the baby.** Antibiotics can treat STDs caused by bacteria, yeast, or parasites. There is **no cure for STDs** caused by a virus,but medicines can often help with the symptoms and keep the disease under control. o Some **causes of STDs are: bacteria, parasites, yeast, and viruses.** These STDs can be dangerous, although in today's generation it can be treated in different ways, but if not, **it can Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) or Immune Deficiency Syndrome lead to Human even or Acquired Acquired** **Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS)** **HIV/AIDS** (Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome) HIV is a virus while AIDS is a condition or syndrome. HIV can lead to infections that **attack and destroy the CD4 (T-cells)** of the immune system which is the body's natural defense against such illness as tuberculosis, pneumonia, and cancer. HIV without treatment can lead to AIDS but not all cases of HIV develop AIDS. Only untreated HIV may lead to AIDS. **Genital Herpes.** This is a sexually transmitted infection **caused by a large family** **of viruses of different strains.** These strains produce other non-sexually transmitted diseases such as **chicken pox and mononucleosis**. When signs do occur, they typically appear as one or more blisters on or around the genitals or rectum. The **virus remains in the body for life** and the lesions may recur from time to time. **Genital Warts (Venereal Warts or Condylomata Acuminata)** are caused by the **human papillomavirus**, a virus related to the one that causes common skin warts. Genital warts usually first appear as small, hard painless bumps in the vaginal area or around the anus. **If untreated, they may grow and develop a fleshy, cauliflower-like appearance.** **Gonorrhea.** This is caused by bacterium *Neisseria gonorrheoeae* which thrives in the moist mucous membranes linings of the mouth, throat, vagina, cervix, urethra, and the anal tract. Most women who are infected have no symptoms. Even when a woman has symptoms, they can be so non-specific as to be mistaken for a bladder or vaginal infection. The **most common symptoms of gonorrhea are a vaginal discharge or vaginal bleeding between periods.** Untreated cases can lead to serious complications, including PID, ectopic pregnancy and infertility. Symptoms for **males are discharge from the penis and burning sensations during urination.** **Syphilis.** This is caused by bacterium *Treponema palligum*, a spirochete. If left untreated, syphilis may progress through four phases: 1\. Primary (chancre sores appear); 2\. Secondary (general skin rashes occur); 3\. Latent (a period that can last for several years with no overt symptoms); and 4\. Tertiary (cardiovascular disease, blindness, paralysis, skin ulcers, liver damage, mental problem and even death may occur). **Chlamydia.** This is one of the **most common sexually transmitted infections**, named for *Chlamydia trachomatis*, an organism that **spreads through sexual contact and infects the genital organs of** **both sexes.** Many people with chlamydial infection, however, **have few or no symptoms** of infection; it often goes undiagnosed and untreated. Once diagnosed with chlamydial infection, a person can be treated with an antibiotic. **METHODS OF CONTRACEPTION (Artificial and Natural) Hormonal method** of contraception (prevents the release of an egg or ovulation) Oral Contraceptives (pills), patch, ring, implants, injectable **Barrier methods** (methods that physically or chemically block the sperm from reaching an egg and provide a barrier between direct skin to skin contacts) Diaphragm, Cervical Caps, Male and Female Condoms or spermicides **Behavioral Methods:** Calendar Method, Abstinence or celibacy, outer-course, withdrawal **Sterilization** individual permanently incapable (procedures that make an of conceiving or fertilizing a partner) Tubal Ligation Vasectomy **Intrauterine Device** (IUD) It is a small device that is placed in the uterus by a doctor to prevent pregnancy. **Emergency Contraception** It is a measure that protects against pregnancy after unprotected sex has already occurred. It could be through IUD or higher dosage of pills.

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