Civic Engagement Textbook PDF

CIVIC ENGAGEMENT BY FLORIAN BOONEIAM AND MANATSAWIN DEEMARK Your Name: _____________________________ Your Student ID: _____________________________ Thammasat University www.tu.ac.th Copyright © 2024 by Florian Booneiam and Manatsawin Deemark This publication is in copyright. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopying, recording, or other electronic or mechanical methods, without the prior written permission of the authors, except in certain noncommercial uses permitted by copyright law. First published in 2023 The publisher has no responsibility for the persistency or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and do not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate. 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TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES vi PREFACE: THE IMPORTANCE OF CIVIC ENGAGEMENT vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ix CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO CIVIC ENGAGEMENT 10 1.1 Civic Engagement and Society 10 1.2 Society and Citizens 11 1.3 Equality, Justice, and Rule of Law 12 1.4 Freedom and Representation 13 1.5 Values and Beliefs 14 1.6 Diversity and Inclusion 15 1.7 Challenges of Civic Engagement 16 1.8 Assignments 18 CHAPTER 2: DEMOCRACY AND CIVIC DUTIES 20 2.1 The Origin of Democracy 20 2.2 Popular Sovereignty 21 2.3 Direct Democracy 22 2.4 Forms of Government 23 2.5 Democratic Institutions 25 2.6 Separation of Power in a Democracy 26 2.7 Representative Democracy 27 2.8 Threats to Democracy 29 2.9 Elections and Democracy 30 2.10 Civic Duties 31 2.11 The Importance of a Constitution 34 2.12 The Difference between Rights and Freedoms 35 2.13 Political Freedom and Civil Liberties 36 2.14 The History of Democracy in Thailand 37 2.15 Thailand’s Constitution 39 2.16 Ignorance and Indifference 40 2.17 Equality and Equity 41 2.18 Assignments 43 CHAPTER 3: HUMAN RIGHTS 44 3.1 The History of Human Rights 44 3.2 The Universal Declaration of Human Rights 45 3.3 Natural Law 46 3.4 Feudalism 48 3.5 Modern Forms of Feudalism 49 3.6 Enlightenment 50 3.7 Thailand and Human Rights 51 3.8 Section 112 52 3.9 ASEAN and Human Rights 53 3.10 Minorities and Human Rights 54 iii 3.11 LGBTQIAN+ and Human Rights 55 3.12 Data Protection an Human Rights 56 3.13 National Security and Human Rights 57 3.14 Cybercrime and Cyberbullying 57 3.15 Organized Crime and Human Rights 59 3.16 Assignments 61 CHAPTER 4: MEDIA AND DEMOCRACY 62 4.1 Traditional and New Media 62 4.2 Information Accessibility 63 4.3 Media Communication and Collaboration 64 4.4 Media and Freedom of Speech 65 4.5 Media and Censorship 66 4.6 Misinformation and Disinformation 67 4.7 Media and Fake News 68 4.8 Clickbaiting and Cancel Culture 69 4.9 Social Media and Mental Health 70 4.10 Mobile Journalism (MoJo) 71 4.11 Media Ethics and Democracy 72 4.12 Assignments 74 CHAPTER 5: SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS 75 5.1 Exploring SDGs 76 5.2 Current State of the SDGs 82 5.3 Greenwashing and SDG-Washing 83 5.4 International Cooperation and National Interests 84 5.5 Bio-Circular-Green Economic Model (BCG) 85 5.6 Social Enterprises 86 5.7 Millennials, GenZs, and SDGs 88 5.8 Assignments 91 CHAPTER 6: THEORIES AND CONCEPTS FOR CIVIC PROJECTS 92 6.1 Stakeholder Analysis 94 6.2 Data Collection Techniques 98 6.3 The Difference Between Survey and Questionnaire 100 6.4 Pretests, Posttest, and Survey Questions 102 6.5 The Iceberg Model of Behavior 104 6.6 Root-Cause Analysis (RCA) 107 6.7 The Triple A Model (AAA) 109 6.8 Assignments 113 CHAPTER 7: CREATING YOUR PROJECT PROPOSAL 115 7.1 Getting Started 116 7.2 Cover Page and Topic Introduction 118 7.3 Problems and Six Civic Qualities 120 7.4 Relevant SDGs 122 7.5 Data Collection Table 124 7.6 Root-Cause Analysis 127 7.7 Project Poster 130 7.8 SMART Principle 133 iv 7.9 SWOT Analysis 135 7.10 Timeline 136 7.11 Assignment 138 CHAPTER 8: PROJECT REVIEW 139 8.1 Background and Overview 140 8.2 Goals and Evaluation Table 140 8.3 Project Results 141 8.4 Critical Feedback 142 8.5 Assignment 144 CHAPTER 9: PRACTICE QUIZ 145 9.1 Answer Sheet 145 9.2 Practice Quiz 146 9.3 Answer Key 149 REFERENCES 150 INDEX 156 v LIST OF FIGURES Figure 5.1: The Sustainable Development Goals Poster 76 Figure 6.1: The Data Collection Table 97 Figure 6.2: The Iceberg Model of Behavior 106 Figure 7.1: Example of a Cover Page 118 Figure 7.2: Example of an Introduction 119 Figure 7.3: Example of the Problems and Six Civic Qualities 122 Figure 7.4: Example of relevant SDGs 124 Figure 7.5: Example of a Data Collection Table Part 1 126 Figure 7.6: Example of a Data Collection Table Part 2 127 Figure 7.7: Example of a Root-Cause Analysis 129 Figure 7.8: Example of a Project Poster 133 Figure 7.9: Example of the SMART Principle 134 Figure 7.10: Example of a SWOT Analysis 136 Figure 7.11: Example of a Timeline 137 Figure 8.1: Example of a Goals and Evaluation Table 141 Figure 8.2: Example of the Project Results 142 Figure 8.3: Example of a Critical Feedback 144 vi PREFACE: THE IMPORTANCE OF CIVIC ENGAGEMENT Civic engagement is the active participation of individuals and groups in their communities with the aim of achieving change and good contributions for all. Democracy cannot work without civic engagement, which has been shown to have multiple advantages for people, communities, and hopefully governments. According to research, civic engagement can reduce socioeconomic inequities and increase social cohesiveness by uniting disparate groups of people to work toward common goals. As a result, the community may develop greater empathy and understanding, leading to a more equal and inclusive society. Additionally, civic engagement can assist people in acquiring crucial abilities and talents, such as critical thinking, leadership, and communication, that will aid them both personally and professionally (Milner, 2002). Also, research establishes a link between civic engagement and increased political effectiveness and confidence in a government (Mettler and Soss, 2004). This suggests that people are more likely to believe that their government is attentive to their needs and concerns when they feel like they have a say in the decision- making processes that affect their life. Also, people who are actively involved in their communities are better able to hold elected officials accountable for their decisions and call for increased accountability and responsibility from the government. Civic engagement in Thailand has been impacted by the country's political history. In particular, the 2014 coup and the subsequent military-led government's restrictions on freedom of speech and assembly have had a significant impact on civic engagement. The military government's use of the lèse majesté law to silence dissenting voices has also limited freedom of expression and contributed to self- censorship among citizens (Baker & Phongpaichit, 2019). However, there has been an increased interest in understanding and promoting civic engagement in Thailand in recent years, as the youth have become more vocal and active in their participation in public affairs. Thousands of young people marched in the 2020 student-led demonstrations against the government's response to the COVID-19 vii pandemic and its democratic deficit, expressing their growing dissatisfaction with the lack of democracy and accountability in Thailand's political system (BBC, 2020). There have also been efforts to promote civic engagement at the grassroots level. For example, community-based organizations have played an important role in promoting environmental and social justice issues (Baker & Phongpaichit, 2019). These organizations have been instrumental in advocating for issues such as community rights, land reform, and natural resource management. This textbook aims to motivate you to reflect on your role as a member of Thammasat University, Thai society, and a citizen. We cannot wait for others to take the first step if we want to see change happen any time soon. Instead, we must work together to be that change. It is necessary to recognize that change begins with individual action, and each of us has the power to contribute to a better society. Remember, the first step to change is always the hardest. viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This textbook would not exist without the hard work, dedication, countless conversations, and lively discussions I had over the past three years with my co- author, Manatsawin Deemark. Special thanks go to the Academic Affairs Department of Thammasat University for financially supporting this textbook, and to the director, colleagues, and staff members in the Business Communication International Program for giving us their valuable feedback amidst their own busy schedules. Last but most importantly, I owe my deepest gratitude to my beloved family, especially my spouse and my nong chai, who never stopped believing in and encouraging me. Any errors of omission and commission in this textbook are attributable to me alone. Florian Booneiam As a student, I have collaborated with my co-author and mentor, Florian Booneiam, to thoroughly examine TU100: Civic Engagement from various perspectives. I would like to express my sincere appreciation to the Academic Affairs Department of Thammasat University and the Thammasat University Printing House for publishing this book. Lastly, I am grateful to my family, girlfriend, and mein bruder for providing me with this excellent opportunity to be a part of this book project and for their academic support and guidance throughout the writing process. Without the support of these important individuals, this textbook would not have been possible. Our collective efforts were aimed at providing the greatest benefit to current and future students. Manatsawin Deemark ix CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO CIVIC ENGAGEMENT TU100 is one of the most underrated courses offered to undergraduate students at our university. This may be due, in part, to a misunderstanding of the course's scope. The aim is not to complete a mediocre project in the next 15 weeks, but to gain a deeper understanding of how we can shape society. Civic engagement will empower us to think creatively and engage with others for the betterment of our socio-economic environment. 1.1 Civic Engagement and Society Civic engagement is an essential aspect of a democratic society, as it not only defines the relationship between citizens and the state but also contributes to the overall functioning of a democratic system. Civic engagement refers to the active participation of individuals in public affairs, including voting, joining community organizations, volunteering, and advocacy. In a democratic society, citizens play a crucial role in shaping the policies and decision-making processes that affect their lives. Civic engagement promotes democratic values such as equality, justice, rule of law, freedom, and representation. When individuals participate in the political process, they can express their opinions and help to create a society that aligns with their values and beliefs. Civic engagement also strengthens the accountability of elected officials, as citizens can hold their elected representatives accountable for their actions. This helps to prevent corruption and ensure that policies are made in the best interest of the people. Moreover, civic engagement contributes to the development of a sense of community and a shared sense of responsibility among citizens. When individuals are actively involved in the public arena, they become more connected to their neighbors and their community. This creates a sense of unity and fosters a collective responsibility to work together to address local and national issues. Civic engagement also helps to create a more informed and engaged population, as individuals become more aware of the issues and policies that affect their lives. 10 In addition, civic engagement is crucial in promoting diversity and inclusion in a democratic society. When individuals from different backgrounds and perspectives are encouraged to participate in the political process, this helps to create a more inclusive and representative government. This is important in a democratic society, as the government must reflect the diverse interests and needs of its citizens. 1.2 Society and Citizens Society refers to a larger group of people that encompasses all citizens, as well as non-citizens, in a specific geographical area. It encompasses the collective relationships, norms, and cultural practices of a group of people, regardless of their citizenship status. In contrast, the term citizens refers specifically to individuals who are legally recognized as members of a particular country and who are entitled to its rights and protections. Another difference between society and citizens is that society encompasses a wider range of individuals than just citizens. Society is made up of individuals of all ages, genders, ethnicities, and economic status, while citizens are limited to those who are legally recognized as such by a country. For example, Thai society has immigrants, refugees, or even temporary visitors, but not all of them may be Thai citizens. This means that Thai society is a much more diverse group of people than just Thai citizens. A third difference between society and citizens is the level of involvement and influence that each group has in shaping the norms and values of their community. As mentioned before, a society is the result of the collective actions and beliefs of all of its members, including citizens and non-citizens. However, citizens have a greater level of influence and control over their society, as they have the right to vote and participate in the political process. This means that, for example, Thai citizens have a greater say in the direction and future of our society, while non-citizens (think of your foreign instructors) may not have the same level of influence. 11 1.3 Equality, Justice, and Rule of Law Equality, justice, and the rule of law are three concepts that are often confused or used interchangeably, but in reality, they refer to different ideas and principles that guide the functioning of a society. According to Wilson (2019), equality refers to the idea that all individuals are equal and should be treated equally under the law. This means all people living in Thailand should have the same rights and opportunities, regardless of their race, gender, religion, or socio-economic status. The principle of equality is important because it helps to prevent discrimination and ensure that everyone has an equal shot at success and happiness. However, while equality is an important goal, it is not always attainable in practice. There may be cases where individuals have different abilities or needs that require different treatment. For example, a Thai student with dyslexia requires different support than a student without dyslexia. Justice refers to the fair and impartial administration of the law (Wilson, 2019). This means that everyone should receive equal treatment under the law and that the law should be applied consistently and impartially. The principle of justice requires that everyone be held accountable for their actions, regardless of their status or wealth. Additionally, it requires that individuals have access to a fair and impartial legal system that can enforce their rights and protect them from abuses of power. Just because your family is wealthy does not excuse you from obeying the law, and corrupt police officers will be sacked, even if they are well-connected. Pro- democracy protesters will not be locked up just because they exercise their freedom of speech. The rule of law refers to the idea that everyone is subject to the law, including those in positions of power. This means that no one is above the law, and regardless of their status, everyone must comply with it. The rule of law requires that the law is applied consistently and objectively, and that everyone has equal access to the legal system (Wilson, 2019). It also requires that the law is transparent, and everyone knows what the law is and what is expected of them. Not knowing that you violated the law is not an excuse, and everyone has the right to appear in a court of law. 12 1.4 Freedom and Representation Freedom refers to the state of being free from external constraints or control, but this does not imply one can be free from the rule of law. It is the absence of coercion (= forcing your friend to do something against their will) and the ability to make decisions and act on one's own accord. Freedom is often viewed as an individual right, and it encompasses several areas, including political, economic, and personal freedom. Political freedom refers to the right to participate in the political process, including the right to vote and express opinions freely. Additionally, citizens have the freedom to join political parties or to run for office. Economic freedom refers to the right to own property, engage in trade, and participate in a free market. However, it should be noted that this freedom does not allow individuals to abuse their wealth to manipulate others. Personal freedom refers to the right to privacy, freedom of religion, and freedom of speech, all of which are frequently violated by governments and coup leaders in Southeast Asia. On the other hand, representation refers to the act of speaking or acting on behalf of others. In the context of politics, representation means that citizens elect individuals to represent their interests in government, for example, members of the Thai parliament. Representatives are expected to act in the best interests of their constituents (the people living in the district of the representatives) and make decisions that reflect their views. Representation also involves the ability to hold representatives accountable, such as through regular elections or the recall process. The difference between freedom and representation lies in the fact that freedom is an individual right, while representation is a collective responsibility. Freedom provides Thai citizens with the power to make decisions for themselves, while representation provides Thais with the ability to participate in the decision- making process through their elected representatives. In a democratic system, both freedom and representation are essential. Freedom allows individuals to pursue their interests, while representation ensures that the interests of the broader community are represented and protected. 13 1.5 Values and Beliefs Values are the principles and standards that we hold in high regard. Inglehart, Basanez, and Moreno (2010) argue that they are what we believe to be right, important, and desirable. Values are usually the guiding force in our lives and help us make important decisions. For example, honesty, integrity, and respect are common values that many Thais hold. Values are often a reflection of our moral and ethical principles and are often shaped by our upbringing, cultural background, and personal experiences. Beliefs are convictions or opinions that are not necessarily based on facts or evidence. Beliefs are subjective and may vary from person to person. For example, someone may believe in a particular religion, political ideology, or conspiracy theory. Beliefs can be influenced by cultural, social, and personal factors. They are often rooted in personal experience and subjective interpretation. Values and beliefs also differ in their level of rigidity. Values are usually more stable and long-lasting, and they often remain unchanged despite life’s challenges and changes. Beliefs, however, can be influenced by new information and experiences, and they may change over time. Another difference between values and beliefs is that values are universal (lying is bad), while beliefs are specific (if you do not believe in Jesus, you won’t be saved). Values such as honesty, compassion, and fairness are held by people of all cultures, religions, and backgrounds. Beliefs, however, can vary widely depending on cultural and personal factors. For example, beliefs about the afterlife (think of heaven and hell) or the existence of extraterrestrial life (aliens) are different for different people. 14 1.6 Diversity and Inclusion Diversity can refer to various aspects of a person's identity, such as race, ethnicity, gender, age, religion, sexual orientation, and ability. It is important to acknowledge and celebrate diversity because it enriches our society by bringing a variety of perspectives, ideas, and experiences to the table (Healey and Stepnick, 2020). This allows us to learn from each other, challenge our own beliefs and assumptions, and ultimately grow as individuals and as a community. Inclusion is about ensuring that all individuals feel valued, respected, and included in all aspects of society. This means creating an environment where everyone feels comfortable sharing their experiences, opinions, and ideas. Inclusive practices can include language sensitivity, such as using gender-neutral terms like "chairperson" instead of the masculine "chairman," flexible working arrangements, and accommodations for people with disabilities. It is important to strive for inclusion because it promotes a sense of belonging and helps individuals to reach their full potential. One important way to promote inclusion in Thailand is to actively engage in diversity initiatives. This can include things like mentorship programs, cultural events, and education and training programs. By encouraging diverse groups to participate and engage with one another, we can create a sense of community and help individuals feel like they belong. 15 1.7 Challenges of Civic Engagement As much as society wishes to promote civic engagement, we must not ignore the challenges that hinder it, including: Low voter turnout: One of the most significant challenges of civic engagement is low voter turnout, particularly among certain groups, such as young people and marginalized communities. This can lead to unequal representation and a lack of diversity in the decision-making process. Lack of trust in government and political institutions: A growing distrust of Thailand’s government and its political institutions can lead to a lack of motivation among citizens (especially among younger generations) to participate in the political process. When people believe that their voices and opinions do not matter, they are less likely to become engaged in civic life. Limited access to information: In order for us people to make informed decisions, we need access to accurate and relevant information. However, access to information can be limited, particularly for those who live in rural areas or lack access to the internet and other communication technologies. In addition to infrastructure problems, one current challenge in Thailand, for example, is ongoing censorship or state-sponsored propaganda used to justify excessive spending by certain institutions and agencies. Disengagement from local communities: As our Thai society becomes more globalized, younger people can become detached from their local communities and may not feel a strong connection to the issues affecting them. This lack of connection can lead to a lack of motivation to become involved in civic engagement, particularly when younger people move from rural areas of central Thailand to the capital or abroad. Political polarization: Support by Thailand’s establishment, political polarization can create a hostile environment for civic engagement, particularly when younger Thais feel that their opinions and beliefs are not respected or valued. This can discourage people from participating in the political process and limit the diversity of perspectives and opinions in decision-making processes. 16 Addressing these challenges requires a multi-faceted approach that includes increasing access to information, building trust in government and political institutions, and creating a supportive and inclusive environment for civic engagement. 17 1.8 Assignments A1.1 How can you, as a student, contribute to a better society by adhering to the five democratic values? ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ A1.2 Explain and provide an example for each of the following values in your own words: Rule of Law, Freedom, and Representation. ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ A1.3 What is the core value or belief that you live by, and in what way does it benefit your life? ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ 18 A1.4 In our diverse society, how can we foster harmonious coexistence while embracing differences in gender, ethnicity, beliefs, and other factors? ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ 19 CHAPTER 2: DEMOCRACY AND CIVIC DUTIES It is safe to assume that most people are familiar with the term "democracy," but they may find it challenging to define it accurately. The word "democracy" originates from the ancient Greek words "demos," which means "people," and "kratia," which means "rule." In short, the term "democracy" means "the rule of the people." 2.1 The Origin of Democracy As Arblaster (1987) defines it, democracy is a form of government in which power is held by the people, either directly or through elected representatives. The origin of democracy can be traced back to ancient Greece, specifically in the city- state of Athens in the 5th century BCE. It represents a belief in the ability of ordinary people to govern themselves, called popular sovereignty, and make decisions that are in the best interest of their community. The Athens of the 5th century BCE was a direct democracy, meaning that all citizens were directly involved in the decision-making process. This was made possible by the fact that the Athenian population was relatively small, with only a few tens of thousands of citizens. All citizens were eligible to participate in the assembly, where they would debate and vote on issues affecting the city. The development of democracy in Athens was shaped by a number of factors, including the decline of traditional forms of government, such as monarchy, and the growth of trade and commerce. The merchants and traders of Athens saw the need for a more equal and just society, where their interests could be protected. This led to the development of democratic institutions, such as the assembly (what we would later call “parliament”) and the courts, which allowed citizens to participate in the governance of the city. The Athenian democracy was not perfect, as it excluded women, slaves, and foreign residents from the political process. However, it was still a significant step forward in the history of democracy, as it marked the first time in human history that 20 a large number of people were given the opportunity to participate in the governance of their own community. The legacy of Athens has had a lasting impact on the development of democracy. The idea of democracy spread throughout the ancient Mediterranean world and was later taken up by the Roman Republic. Over time, democracy evolved and developed in different forms, such as representative democracy, which is the most common form of democracy in the world today. 2.2 Popular Sovereignty Popular sovereignty is a fundamental principle of democratic governance that states that the ultimate source of authority in a political system lies with the people. This means that the people have the right to make decisions about the way they are governed and that the government is accountable to them. Today’s idea of popular sovereignty dates back to the Enlightenment (17 th- 18th century in Europe), when thinkers such as John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and Thomas Jefferson argued that government should be based on the consent of the governed. They believed that people had the right to overthrow a government that failed to protect their rights and interests, and that the role of government was to serve the people and protect their rights. As appealing as that idea might sound, we live in an era of misinformation and disinformation, where narratives and fake news spread quickly, and can result in attacks on democracy. Just look at the January 6, 2021 insurrection at Capitol Hill in Washington, D.C. by Trump supporters. In a democratic system based on popular sovereignty, citizens have the right to participate in the political process through elections, public discussions, and other means. This allows them to hold their elected representatives accountable and ensure that the government is acting in their best interest. In practice, popular sovereignty is not always fully realized, as political systems can become dominated by small groups with different interests. However, 21 the principle of popular sovereignty remains a key element of democratic governance, serving as a reminder that the government is accountable to the people and that the people have the power to change their government if it fails to serve their interests. Afterall, any democratic government is the government of the people, by the people, and for the people. 2.3 Direct Democracy Direct democracy is a form of political system in which citizens have the power to make decisions directly rather than indirectly through elected representatives, e.g., members of parliament. In a direct democracy, all citizens have an equal say in the decisions that affect their lives and communities. This system of government is characterized by the absence of intermediaries between the people and the state, and by the equal participation of all citizens in decision-making processes. One of the key features of direct democracy is the use of referendums. Referendums are direct votes on specific issues, and they provide citizens with the opportunity to make decisions on important matters without the intermediation of elected officials. In a direct democracy, referendums can be used to decide on a wide range of issues, from constitutional reforms to specific policies or projects. Referendums allow citizens to express their opinions on important issues, and they provide a means for governments to gauge public opinion on a given issue. Another important feature of direct democracy is the use of citizens' initiatives. Citizens' initiatives are proposals for new laws or policies that are initiated by citizens rather than by elected officials. In a direct democracy, citizens have the power to propose new laws and policies, and to force a vote on their proposals if they gather enough signatures from other citizens. This allows citizens to take the initiative in shaping the policies and laws that affect their lives, and it provides a means for citizens to hold their government accountable. 22 One of the benefits of direct democracy is that it increases civic engagement in the political process. By giving citizens the power to make decisions directly, direct democracy encourages citizens to participate more actively in the political process, and to take a more active role in shaping the policies and laws that affect their lives. This increased engagement can lead to greater trust in the political system and a stronger sense of ownership over the decisions that are made. In a direct democracy, citizens have the power to make decisions directly, and to hold their government accountable for its actions. This helps to ensure that policies and laws are shaped by the needs and desires of the people, and not just by the interests of elected officials or special interest groups. However, direct democracy also has its challenges and limitations. One of the main challenges is that direct democracy can be time-consuming and difficult to implement in practice. Holding frequent referendums and citizens' initiatives can be costly, and it can take time for citizens to make informed decisions on complex issues. Additionally, direct democracy can be vulnerable to the influence of special interest groups and political extremism, which can undermine the democratic process and lead to poor decision-making. 2.4 Forms of Government Forms of government are the different ways in which a state or society is organized to exert power and control over its citizens. Governments can range from democracies, where power is held by the people, to autocracies, where a single person or group holds all power. Understanding the different forms of government is important because it allows people to understand the ways in which their own country is run and the ways in which other countries may operate. One of the most common forms of government is a democracy, where citizens have the right to vote and influence government decisions through the election of representatives. In a democratic government, the people hold the power, and the government is responsible for protecting their rights and freedoms. There are two types of democracies: direct democracy, where citizens make decisions directly, and 23 representative democracy, where citizens elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf. Examples of democratic countries include the United States, United Kingdom, and India. Another form of government is a dictatorship, where one person or a small group of people hold all power. Dictatorships can be further divided into autocracies, where the ruler has absolute power, and oligarchies, where a small group of people hold power. In a dictatorship, the ruler or group is not accountable to the people, and they can make decisions without considering the opinions of the citizens. Examples of countries with a dictatorship form of government include North Korea, Saudi Arabia, and Cuba. Monarchies are also a form of government, where a single ruler, usually a king or queen, holds power. In a monarchy, the ruler is typically appointed through a combination of hereditary succession and religious beliefs. The monarch may have limited power, or they may have absolute power, depending on the country. Examples of countries with a monarchy form of government include the United Kingdom, Norway, and Japan. A republic is a form of government in which the people hold power through elected representatives. The head of state is usually a president, and the government is responsible for protecting the rights and freedoms of the citizens. Republics can also be divided into parliamentary and presidential systems. In a parliamentary republic, the prime minister is elected by the parliament and holds executive power, while in a presidential republic, the president is elected directly by the people and holds executive power. Examples of countries with a republic form of government include India, the United States, and France. Finally, a theocracy is a form of government in which religious leaders hold power. Theocracy can be further divided into two types: religious dictatorship, where one religious leader holds power, and religious democracy, where religious leaders hold power, but the government is still accountable to the people. Examples of countries with a theocracy form of government include Iran and the Vatican City. 24 2.5 Democratic Institutions Democratic institutions are the cornerstone of modern democracies and play a vital role in ensuring the protection of individual rights, the maintenance of social order, and the preservation of democratic principles. These institutions are the formal and informal mechanisms and procedures that have been established to govern a society and ensure that the power of the state is properly regulated, accountability is maintained, and the rights of citizens are protected. One of the key democratic institutions is the legislature, which is responsible for making laws that govern a society. Like the Thai parliament, this institution is comprised of elected representatives who are tasked with passing legislation that reflects the will of the people. The legislature also provides a forum for public debate and discussion, allowing citizens to voice their opinions and participate in the decision-making process. In a democratic society, the legislature is subject to checks and balances, ensuring that no one group or individual can exercise too much power. Another key democratic institution is the judiciary, which is responsible for interpreting and enforcing laws. The judiciary acts as an independent body, ensuring that the law is applied fairly and equitably. This is essential in protecting the rights of citizens and preventing the abuse of power by the state or other groups. The judiciary also acts as a check on the legislative and executive branches of government, ensuring that they act within the bounds of the law. The executive branch of government is responsible for implementing the laws passed by the legislature and enforcing them. This branch of government is typically led by a president or prime minister, who is elected by the people. The executive is responsible for managing the day-to-day operations of government, including the administration of justice, the management of the economy, and the maintenance of national security. 25 2.6 Separation of Power in a Democracy Separation of power is an essential concept for the functioning of democracies (Campbell, 2004). The idea behind this principle is to divide the power of the government into different branches and prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful and dominating the others. The branches of government in a democracy typically include the legislative, executive, and judicial branches, as stated above, each of which is responsible for specific functions and has a specific role to play in the functioning of the government. When power is centralized, like in some Southeast Asian countries, it can lead to corruption, abuse of power, and the violation of individual rights. By separating power among different branches, each branch acts as a check on the others, ensuring that no one branch becomes too powerful. This helps to ensure that the government operates in a transparent and accountable manner and that the rights of citizens are protected. One of the key benefits of the separation of power is that it promotes a system of checks and balances. Each branch of government has the power to check and limit the actions of the others, ensuring that no one branch becomes too powerful. This helps to prevent corruption, as each branch has the ability to scrutinize the actions of the others and hold them accountable. This also guarantees that the government is responsive to the needs and concerns of citizens, as each branch is required to work together to achieve the common good. Another reason why separation of power is vital for democracies is that it promotes the rule of law. The judicial branch of government is responsible for interpreting the laws and upholding the constitution, making sure that the government operates within the framework of the law. This helps to prevent arbitrary rule and ensures that the government operates in a fair and impartial manner. In addition, the separation of power also helps to promote stability and security within the government. When power is concentrated in one branch, it can lead to political instability, as different branches may be in conflict with each other. 26 By separating power, each branch has a clear role and responsibility, which helps to ensure that the government operates smoothly and efficiently. 2.7 Representative Democracy Representative democracy is a form of government in which citizens elect individuals to represent them and make decisions on their behalf, for example in the parliament or the senate. This type of system is designed to ensure that the voices and opinions of the people are heard and considered when decisions are made about their lives and the future of their communities. In order for representative democracy to work effectively, citizens must be informed and engaged in the political process. This means that they must take an active interest in the issues that affect their lives, as well as in the actions of their elected representatives. They must also have access to information about what their representatives are doing, and they must be able to hold their representatives accountable for their actions. In many representative democracies, citizens have the right to vote in elections, which is a critical tool for ensuring that the people have a voice in the decision-making process. This allows the people to select representatives (members of parliament) who they believe will best represent their interests and make decisions that are in line with their values and beliefs. Parliament acts as a central platform where representatives of the people gather to deliberate and make decisions that affect the lives of citizens. It serves as a medium through which the government and citizens can interact and engage in discussions that shape the nation. First and foremost, parliament is crucial for democracy as it provides a space for representation of diverse interests and voices. As stated above, the members of parliament represent different social, economic and political interests of their constituents and by doing so, parliament becomes a reflection of the diversity of the nation. This representation is crucial for democracy because it ensures that all 27 voices are heard and that decisions are made based on the interests of the majority of the citizens. This makes parliament a platform for dialogue and negotiation where conflicting interests can be reconciled. Secondly, parliament plays a vital role in overseeing the government’s activities. The government is accountable to parliament and members of parliament have the power to hold the government to account through various means such as debates, motions, and question sessions. This helps to ensure that the government is transparent and accountable to the citizens. Through this, parliament acts as a check and balance mechanism that protects the rights of citizens and ensures that the government operates in a manner that is consistent with democratic principles. Thirdly, parliament is important for democracy because it acts as a legislative body that makes laws that are binding on all citizens. Members of parliament deliberate and pass laws that are in the best interests of the nation. This is crucial because laws provide a framework for the functioning of society and ensure that the rights of citizens are protected. Parliament also ensures that the laws are not discriminatory and that they serve the needs of all citizens. Finally, parliament is important for democracy because it provides a space for democratic participation. Citizens can partake in the democratic process by electing members of parliament who will represent their interests in parliament. Through this, citizens are empowered to shape the direction of the nation and to influence decisions that affect their lives. This makes parliament an essential component of a democratic system that empowers citizens and ensures that their voices are heard. 28 2.8 Threats to Democracy As a political system, democracy has been embraced by many nations around the world as a means of ensuring political stability, protection of human rights and freedoms, and representation of the people's interests. However, in the 21st century, democracy is facing a number of significant threats, which if not addressed, could potentially undermine the very foundations of this political system. One of the primary threats to democracy is the rise of authoritarianism. In many countries, authoritarian leaders have been able to consolidate their power, erode the rule of law, and restrict the freedom of the press, thereby undermining the democratic process. Authoritarian leaders often use propaganda and misinformation to control public opinion, suppress dissent, and maintain their grip on power. Additionally, they may engage in tactics such as voter suppression, manipulation, and limiting the role of civil society in order to maintain control over the political system. Another threat to democracy is the rise of populism. Populist movements have gained significant traction in recent years, driven by public frustration with the traditional political elite, economic hardship, and growing distrust of the mainstream media. The yellow and red shirts in Thailand are such populists who often claim to represent the interests of the common people while demonizing those they see as their political opponents. This can lead to the erosion of political institutions, the breakdown of civil discourse, and the marginalization of minority groups. Corruption, as mentioned earlier, is another serious threat to democracy. Corruption can undermine the integrity of democratic institutions, distort the political process, and undermine public trust in government. In some countries, corruption is so widespread that it becomes difficult for citizens to hold their elected representatives accountable for their actions, which further undermines the democratic process. The rise of cyber threats and disinformation campaigns pose significant challenges to democracy as well. In today's interconnected world, it is easier than ever for individuals and organizations to spread false information and manipulate 29 public opinion. This can lead to the erosion of public trust in the democratic process, as well as the spread of conspiracy theories and other harmful forms of misinformation. 2.9 Elections and Democracy Elections are a key aspect of democracy and are considered as the cornerstone of any democratic system. They provide a platform for citizens to choose their leaders and make their voices heard. However, elections alone do not guarantee that a country is a democratic state. Democracy is a complex system that involves multiple elements and institutions, and mere elections are not enough to establish a true democratic system. One of the major problems with elections alone as a measure of democracy is that they can be rigged or manipulated. This can lead to the election of leaders who do not represent the will of the people, but rather serve the interests of a small group of individuals or organizations. In such cases, the election results are not a true reflection of the people's will, and the country is not a democracy. Moreover, a true democracy requires the protection of individual rights and freedoms, including freedom of speech, freedom of the press, and freedom of assembly. These freedoms are essential for citizens to express their opinions, participate in political discourse, and hold their leaders accountable. If these freedoms are not protected, it is difficult for citizens to fully participate in the democratic process, and the country is not a democracy. 30 2.10 Civic Duties Civic duties are the responsibilities and obligations of a citizen in a society to maintain the functioning of a democratic system. These duties are essential for the preservation and maintenance of a democratic system as they help ensure the participation of all citizens in the decision-making process and promote accountability and transparency in government. One of the primary civic duties is to participate in elections. Voting is a cornerstone of democracy, as it gives citizens the opportunity to choose their leaders and express their opinions on important issues. By participating in elections, citizens can hold their elected officials accountable and ensure that their voices are heard. In addition, citizens have a duty to educate themselves on political issues and candidates, so that they can make informed decisions when voting. Another important civic duty is paying taxes. Taxes provide the necessary resources for the government to perform its functions, such as providing public services, maintaining infrastructure, and protecting citizens. Paying taxes is also a way of contributing to the common good and showing a commitment to the well- being of one's community. Civic duties also include following the laws and regulations of the society. This includes respecting the rights of others, such as freedom of speech, religion, and the press, as well as participating in the judicial process when called upon. By following the laws, citizens help maintain social order and stability, which is critical for the functioning of a democratic system. For our TU100 course, we concentrate on six civic qualities that are fundamental for building a harmonious society. These are: 1. Respect the law: We acknowledge and abide by the rules and regulations established by a governing authority, such as a government or legal system. This means recognizing the legitimacy of the law and being aware of the potential consequences of violating it. 31 2. Respect for others' rights: We protect the inherent dignity and value of every person by ensuring that their rights are not violated or infringed upon. This is a crucial aspect of ethical behavior and a key principle of any modern and democratic society. 3. Respect differences: We accept and value the unique qualities, characteristics, and traits that make individuals who they are. This includes differences in race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, religion, culture, nationality, language, abilities, and personal beliefs. By embracing diversity and avoiding stereotypes and prejudice, we treat others with dignity and equality, regardless of their differences. Additionally, we actively listen to and seek to understand other perspectives, even if they are different from our own. 4. Respect equality: We respect and value the inherent worth and individuality of each person, treating them as equals in all aspects of life. This involves rejecting discrimination, prejudice, and bias and promoting fairness and impartiality in all interactions and decisions. In short, respect for equality means acknowledging and embracing diversity while treating everyone with the same level of respect, dignity, and fairness. Respecting equality is focused on treating everyone equally, regardless of their differences, while respecting differences is focused on acknowledging and appreciating those differences. 5. Self-dependency: The idea of self-dependency is often associated with personal empowerment and a sense of control over one's life. It emphasizes the importance of taking responsibility for one's own actions and outcomes, rather than blaming others or external circumstances. While being self- dependent can be a positive thing, it's crucial to maintain balance. Excessive self-reliance can lead to feelings of isolation and disconnection from others, while insufficient self-dependency can result in a lack of control over one's life and an over-reliance on others for support. Achieving a healthy level of self- dependency is an ongoing process that requires effort, self-reflection, and a willingness to grow and change. 32 6. Social responsibility: We, as individuals, organizations, and businesses have a duty to act in the best interests of society and the environment, in addition to our own interests. This concept is based on the belief that organizations and individuals should consider the impact of their actions on all stakeholders, including customers, employees, shareholders, communities, and the environment. Social responsibility can take many forms, such as charitable giving, volunteer work, environmental sustainability efforts, and responsible business practices. By taking a socially responsible approach, we can help to create a better world for future generations and build a more sustainable and equitable society. A common criticism of self-dependency is that it can lead to egocentrism and selfishness because it places a strong emphasis on individualism and self-interest. When individuals rely solely on themselves to meet their needs and achieve their goals, they may become more focused on their own wants and desires, and less concerned with the needs and perspectives of others. Over time, this self- centeredness can become ingrained and lead to a sense of entitlement or even narcissism. Individuals may start to prioritize their own interests above all else, even if it comes at the expense of others. Moreover, when individuals are overly dependent on themselves, they may struggle to see the value in collaboration and teamwork. They may feel that they are the only ones capable of achieving their goals and may be less willing to compromise or work with others to find mutually beneficial solutions. Achieving social responsibility requires a strong commitment to taking action, a deep understanding of social issues, and the ability to balance personal priorities with the needs of society and the environment. It can be challenging, especially since many individuals may not fully understand the impact of their actions on society and the environment. Without this awareness, it can be difficult for them to take responsibility for their actions. Additionally, people often prioritize their personal needs and goals over their responsibility to society, as we mentioned in the previous paragraph. They may prioritize their career, family, or personal interests over contributing to their community or protecting the environment. Despite these 33 drawbacks and challenges, aiming for social responsibility benefits all stakeholders in the long run. 2.11 The Importance of a Constitution A constitution is a set of laws and principles that outlines the basic structure and functions of a government. It defines the limits of government power and establishes the rights of citizens. In a democracy, the constitution serves as the supreme law of the land, providing a framework for the functioning of democratic institutions and guaranteeing the protection of individual rights and freedoms (Hayek, 2021). The importance of having a constitution in a democracy cannot be overstated. It provides a foundation for the rule of law, ensuring that the government acts within the bounds of the law and that citizens are protected against arbitrary and unjust actions. It also provides stability and predictability, as the constitution lays out the rules and procedures for government decision-making and the distribution of powers. This helps to prevent the arbitrary use of power by the government and promotes accountability and transparency. Furthermore, the constitution is an important safeguard against tyranny and the abuse of power by the majority. In a democracy, the rights of minority groups and individuals are protected by the constitution, which ensures that the government cannot infringe upon these rights without due process. This helps to prevent the majority from imposing their will on the minority and ensures that the government acts in the best interest of all citizens, regardless of their political or social status. In addition, a constitution provides a framework for the protection of individual rights and freedoms, such as the freedom of speech, religion, and the press. It ensures that the government cannot infringe upon these rights without due cause, and that citizens are protected against unreasonable searches and seizures, self- incrimination, and arbitrary detention (Hayek, 2021). This helps to promote an open and free society, where citizens can express their views and engage in political discourse without fear of repression. 34 2.12 The Difference between Rights and Freedoms Both, rights and freedoms, are essential elements of democracy and play a critical role in ensuring the protection of individual liberties and equality before the law. Rights refer to entitlements or claims that individuals have by virtue of being human. These rights are universal, inherent, and inalienable, meaning that they cannot be taken away and are equally applicable to everyone. They serve as a framework of legal and moral protection against discrimination, oppression, and abuse. Some of the most widely recognized human rights include the right to life, freedom of expression, equality before the law, freedom from torture and slavery, and the right to participate in the political process. Freedom, on the other hand, refers to the power or capacity to act, speak or think without external restraint. It is the absence of obstacles or restrictions that allow individuals to act according to their own judgment and choices. Freedom is often seen as the cornerstone of democracy, as it enables individuals to express their opinions and participate in decision-making processes. Some of the most widely recognized freedoms include freedom of speech, religion, press, assembly, and association. The relationship between rights and freedoms is complex and interrelated. Rights serve as the foundation for freedom, as they establish the boundaries of what individuals can do without fear of interference from the state or others. Freedoms, in turn, provide individuals with the necessary tools to exercise their rights and ensure that they can fully enjoy the benefits of citizenship. 35 2.13 Political Freedom and Civil Liberties While political freedom refers to the presence of political rights and opportunities for citizens to participate in the governance of their country, civil liberties, on the other hand, refer to the protection of individual freedoms from government interference. Political freedom includes the right to vote, participate in political campaigns, hold public office, and form political organizations and parties. In countries with high levels of political freedom, citizens have a voice in the political process and can influence the policies and decisions of their government. This kind of freedom allows for the peaceful transfer of power and a fair competition among political parties. Civil liberties, on the other hand, protect individual rights and freedoms from the state and its agents. This includes the right to free speech, religion, and the press, as well as the right to privacy and protection against unreasonable searches and seizures. Civil liberties are often enshrined in a country's constitution or bill of rights and serve as a safeguard against the abuse of state power. It is important to note that while political freedom and civil liberties are closely related, they are not always mutually reinforcing. A country with high levels of political freedom may not necessarily have strong protections for civil liberties, and vice versa. In some cases, a government may use its power to restrict civil liberties in order to maintain control or silence dissent. On the other hand, a government may be unable to protect civil liberties because it lacks the capacity or political will to do so. 36 2.14 The History of Democracy in Thailand Democracy in Thailand has had a long and tumultuous history that has been shaped by various political and social forces. The country has been ruled by various dynasties and political factions over the centuries, but it was not until the early 20th century that the idea of democracy was introduced (Phongpaichit and Piriyarangsan, 2001). The roots of democracy in Thailand can be traced back to the early 20th century, when King Chulalongkorn introduced reforms aimed at modernizing the country. This period was marked by the introduction of a constitution and a legislative assembly, which was a major step towards democratic governance. However, the king's reforms were limited, and the country was still ruled by an absolute monarchy for many years to come. Thailand was declared a constitutional monarchy in 1932. However, the country remained politically unstable, with frequent coups and political upheavals. In 1973, a student-led uprising against the military government sparked the transition to democratic rule. The country held its first democratic elections in 1975, and a new constitution was enacted that guaranteed civil liberties and political freedoms. However, the transition to democracy was far from smooth, and the country experienced many ups and downs over the years. Military coups and political upheavals continued to disrupt the country, and the military frequently intervened in politics. This trend continued until the late 1990s, when the country began to stabilize, and the military began to take a more passive role in politics. In the early 2000s, the country saw a period of political liberalization and the rise of a new generation of political leaders who were more democratic and progressive. The country held several successful elections, and the government became more accountable to the people. This period also saw the rise of civil society organizations and the growth of a vibrant and independent media. A threat to democracy in Thailand is the military’s repeated interventions in politics. The military has taken control of the government several times since the 37 country’s transition to democracy in 1932, and its involvement in politics continues to undermine the country’s democratic institutions. The military has been accused of suppressing political opposition, limiting freedom of speech, and violating human rights, which has further damaged the public’s trust in the political process. The human rights abuses committed by the military and the government have also become a major threat to democracy in Thailand. There have been numerous reports of arbitrary arrests, detentions, and torture, as well as the suppression of freedom of speech and the press. These abuses have raised serious concerns about the government’s commitment to human rights and the rule of law, and have further eroded the public’s confidence in the democratic institutions. Finally, corruption is another major threat to democracy in Thailand. Corruption is widespread in the country and is considered to be a major barrier to the country’s economic and social development (Phongpaichit and Piriyarangsan, 2001). The lack of transparency and accountability in the political process has created an environment in which corruption can thrive, undermining the public’s trust in the government and the democratic institutions. Despite all the setbacks, the political landscape saw a major shakeup in 2023. Thailand's opposition party Move Forward won 151 of the 500 seats in the lower house in the country's general election on May 14, 2023. Move Forward is a progressive party that has called for radical reform of the country's institutions. The victory was a major setback for the then Prime Minister Prayut Chan-o-cha, who led a coup that ousted an elected government in 2014. Prayut’s ultra-conservative governing coalition won only 15% of the seats. The election, with a voter turnout of over 75%, was seen as a referendum on Prayut's authoritarian rule. The results suggested that most Thais were tired of the status quo and were looking for a political change (Head, 2023). Those hopes for political change were shattered in August 2023 after Move Forward was forced by pro-establishment parties to leave the government coalition, allowing Pheu Thai and Srettha Thaivisin to form a government with the help of junta-appointed, ultra-conservative senators. 38 2.15 Thailand’s Constitution Thailand's current constitution was adopted in 2017 after the military coup that overthrew the government of former Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra. It was the country's 20th constitution and was created to address the political, economic, and social issues that the previous constitutions failed to address (National Public Radio, 2017). One of the key features of the current constitution is the strengthening of the judiciary and the independent agencies. The constitution establishes the Constitutional Court and the National Anti-Corruption Commission to monitor the government's activities and to ensure that the rule of law is upheld. This has helped to reduce corruption in the country and to increase the accountability of the government. The constitution also has provisions for human rights and freedom of expression. This includes the freedom of speech, assembly, and the press. These rights have been instrumental in promoting transparency and accountability in the government, and have helped to reduce human rights violations. Another key aspect of the constitution is the strengthening of the electoral system. The constitution establishes the Election Commission to oversee the conduct of elections and to ensure that they are free and fair. This has helped to increase public confidence in the electoral process and to reduce the likelihood of electoral fraud. The constitution also has provisions for decentralization, which is aimed at giving more power to local communities. This includes the transfer of power from the central government to the local governments and the establishment of local administrative organizations. This has helped to increase the participation of citizens in the political process and to promote development at the local level. Despite the positive features of the constitution, there have been criticisms of its implementation. The constitution has been criticized for failing to address the root causes of political instability and for not providing a clear roadmap for the country's 39 future. Critics also argue that the constitution does not address the issues of corruption and human rights violations, which remain persistent problems in the country. 2.16 Ignorance and Indifference Ignorance refers to a lack of knowledge or understanding about a particular subject. It is not necessarily a negative thing, as it simply means that one has not yet had the opportunity to learn about it. In some cases, ignorance can be remedied through education and exposure to new ideas and information. For example, someone who is ignorant about a certain culture may learn about it by reading books, attending cultural events, or interacting with people from that culture. In essence, ignorance is a lack of awareness. Indifference, on the other hand, refers to a lack of concern or interest in a particular subject. It is not the same as ignorance, as it suggests that the person has had the opportunity to learn about the subject but has chosen not to. Indifference can be caused by a variety of factors, including a lack of personal relevance, boredom, or a feeling of hopelessness. For example, someone who is indifferent to politics may feel that their vote does not matter or that politicians are all the same. One could argue that indifference could mean someone simply does not care. Indifference poses a threat to social responsibility because it creates a lack of concern for the well-being of others and the environment. When people are indifferent, they are not motivated to act in a responsible manner and do not feel the need to contribute to the betterment of society. This apathy can lead to neglect and a disregard for ethical principles, which undermines the principles of social responsibility. Indifference also undermines the collective effort to solve social and environmental problems, as everyone is expected to contribute to the solution. When individuals are indifferent, they do not feel the need to participate, which weakens the collective power to create positive change. This results in a lack of progress and 40 a failure to address important issues, leading to further social and environmental degradation. People with higher social status are often seen as more distant and less approachable, leading to feelings of indifference or apathy towards others. This could be due to a sense of entitlement, a lack of empathy, or a belief that they are superior to others. On the other hand, people with lower social status may experience feelings of marginalization and may be more likely to feel empathy for others, leading to a lack of indifference. However, these are generalizations and individual experiences can vary greatly. 2.17 Equality and Equity Equality refers to treating everyone the same, regardless of their individual differences. It means providing the same resources, opportunities, and privileges to everyone, regardless of their background, abilities, or circumstances. On the other hand, equity refers to providing what is necessary to each person to achieve equal outcomes. It takes into account individual differences and provides support to those who need it most. Equity recognizes that people may have different needs and circumstances, and it seeks to address those differences by providing support and resources that are tailored to each person’s unique needs. For example, equality would mean providing the same textbook to every student in a class. Equity would mean providing each student with the resources they need to succeed, such as additional books for students who are struggling or technology for students who have difficulty seeing the text. Equity is harder to achieve than equality because it requires a more nuanced and complex understanding of the different challenges and barriers that people face. It also requires a willingness to acknowledge that some people may need more support or resources than others in order to achieve equality of opportunity. This can be a difficult concept for some people to accept, as it challenges the idea of treating everyone the same. 41 Additionally, achieving equity requires a sustained commitment to identifying and addressing systemic barriers and biases that prevent certain groups from accessing resources and opportunities. This can involve difficult conversations, changes to policies and practices, and significant investments of time, energy, and resources. 42 2.18 Assignments A2.1 How can you incorporate the six civic qualities into your student life? What challenges might you face, and how would you address them? ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ A2.2 How can you, as a citizen, help to mitigate the threats to democracy? ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ A2.3 “Equity is harder to achieve than equality” – How much do you agree with this statement? What suggestions do you have for making both, equity and equality, more prominent in Thai society? ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ 43 CHAPTER 3: HUMAN RIGHTS Human rights have been a topic of concern and debate since the beginning of human civilization. The concept of human rights refers to the basic rights and freedoms that are entitled to every individual, regardless of race, gender, religion, or nationality. The history of human rights is rich and diverse, reflecting the cultural, political, and philosophical values of different societies throughout time. 3.1 The History of Human Rights The first recorded attempts to articulate the concept of human rights can be traced back to ancient civilizations, such as Greece and Rome. The Greeks believed in the concept of natural law, which held that certain rights and obligations were inherent to every individual and transcended the laws of any particular state. In the Roman Republic, the concept of rights was enshrined in law through the Twelve Tables, which established the principle that no one was above the law and that everyone was entitled to a fair trial (Ishay, 2008). During the Middle Ages (5th to the 15th century), the concept of human rights was overshadowed by religious and political authorities, who held a monopoly on power and used their authority to enforce laws and regulations. This period saw the development of feudalism and the rise of monarchies, which further eroded the rights and freedoms of ordinary people. It was not until the Enlightenment, a period of intellectual and cultural conflicts in Europe, that the idea of human rights began to re-emerge. In the late 18th century, the ideas of the Enlightenment influenced the development of modern human rights. The American and French Revolutions, both inspired by Enlightenment ideals, marked the beginning of a new era in the history of human rights. The American Declaration of Independence, written in 1776, proclaimed that “all men are created equal” and that they are entitled to certain “inalienable rights,” including life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. The French Revolution, which took place a few years later, produced the Declaration of the 44 Rights of Man and Citizen, which proclaimed the rights of all citizens to liberty, property, security, and equality before the law. In the 19th and 20th centuries, the human rights movement gained momentum as people across the world began to fight for their rights and freedoms. The abolition of slavery in the United States and the expansion of voting rights in Europe and North America were two of the key achievements of this period. During this time, international human rights instruments were also developed. 3.2 The Universal Declaration of Human Rights The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted by the United Nations in 1948, outlines the key human rights that are universally recognized and protected. These rights include the right to life, liberty, and security of person; the right to freedom from torture and cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment; the right to freedom of thought, conscience, and religion; the right to freedom of expression; the right to work and to form trade unions; the right to education; the right to marry and to found a family; and the right to participate in the political process. One of the ways that human rights are protected is through the rule of law. This means that everyone is equal under the law and that everyone has the right to a fair trial. The rule of law also ensures that everyone is protected from arbitrary or unjust actions by the government or other powerful actors. Human rights play a critical role in promoting democracy and the protection of civil and political rights. In a democratic society, everyone has the right to participate in the political process, to form and join political parties, and to express their opinions freely and openly. Civil and political rights also include the right to freedom of expression, the right to freedom of assembly, and the right to freedom of the press. Today, human rights remain a critical issue in many parts of the world. Despite the progress that has been made, human rights abuses continue to occur, including state-sponsored violence, discrimination, and poverty. In response, human 45 State-sponsored violence refers to acts of violence that are either directly carried out, endorsed, or supported by a government or its agents against individuals, groups, or other states. This type of violence is typically used as a tool to maintain control, suppress dissent, enforce laws, or achieve political, economic, or social objectives. rights organizations and activists are working tirelessly to promote and protect the rights of all people, both nationally and internationally. 3.3 Natural Law Natural law is a philosophical and moral theory that holds certain principles inherent in nature as the foundation for human behavior (Angier, Benson, and Mark, 2022). This concept of natural law is based on the belief that there are certain universal moral principles that are independent of human laws and that are part of the natural order of things. These principles are said to be evident in nature and can be discerned by human reason and intuition. The idea of natural law has its roots in ancient Greek philosophy and was developed by such thinkers as Aristotle, who held that the purpose of human life was to achieve happiness and that this could only be done by living in accordance with the laws of nature. In the Middle Ages, the concept of natural law was refined and developed by such thinkers as Thomas Aquinas, who argued that natural law was a divinely revealed law that could be discovered by human reason. He believed that natural law was the basis for all human laws and that it provided a standard of morality that should be followed by all people. The basic principles of natural law are often seen as being universal and unchanging. They are thought to be inherent in the nature of things and to apply to all people, regardless of culture, religion, or political system. For example, one of the most fundamental principles of natural law is that every human being has a right to life and should not be intentionally killed. This principle is seen as being inherent in the nature of human beings and is not dependent on any particular law or code of ethics. Natural law is often contrasted with positive law, which is the set of laws that have been enacted by human beings in order to regulate their behavior. Positive law is seen as being dependent on human institutions and cultural norms, and it is often subject to change and revision as society evolves. In contrast, natural law is seen as 46 being unchanging and universal, providing a stable and consistent basis for morality and ethical behavior. However, natural law can be abused in several ways. Firstly, the interpretation of natural law is subjective and can vary from person to person. This can lead to disagreements and conflicts, especially in the political and legal spheres. For example, one person may interpret natural law as meaning that people have a right to self-defense, while another person may interpret it as meaning that the use of force should always be avoided (Angier, Benson, and Mark, 2022). Another way that natural law can be abused is through the manipulation of its principles for political or personal gain. Politicians and leaders can use the concept of natural law to justify their actions and policies, even if they are in conflict with the principles of natural law. This can lead to the exploitation of the vulnerable and marginalized members of society. Moreover, natural law can be used to impose one cultural or religious view on others. The belief in natural law can lead to the idea that there is only one correct interpretation of natural law and that other beliefs and values are inferior. This can result in the oppression of minority groups and the violation of their rights. Finally, natural law can lead to the belief that there is a divine law that supersedes human laws and institutions. This can result in the rejection of the rule of law and the abandonment of democratic principles, leading to the rise of authoritarianism and the suppression of dissent. 47 3.4 Feudalism Kotkin (2020) states that feudalism was a social, economic, and political system that dominated Europe from the 9th to the 15th century. This system was characterized by the dominance of a landed aristocracy, with the monarch having a limited power. The nobility, who held vast estates and land, enjoyed power and privilege, while most of the population, including serfs and peasants, were subject to their rule. Feudalism originated as a result of the decline of the Roman Empire and the subsequent invasions by barbarian tribes. The widespread disorder that followed led to the fragmentation of central authority, and the monarchs were unable to maintain order and control. The lords and barons, who had the power to provide protection and security, stepped in and took control of the land and the people. In exchange for the protection and security, the lords demanded the loyalty and services of their subjects, who became known as serfs. The serfs, who made up the majority of the population, were tied to the land and unable to leave their lords. They were required to perform labor services, such as tilling the soil, working the mines, or manufacturing goods. In exchange for their labor, the serfs received food, shelter, and other necessities from their lords. This system allowed for the lords to maintain their estates, while the serfs were able to survive. The lords, in turn, owed loyalty to the king, and were required to provide soldiers and military support in times of war. The lords also held the right to administer justice and maintain order on their lands, which resulted in the development of regional law codes and customs. The feudal system was also characterized by the use of vassalage, which was the relationship between a lord and his vassal. The vassal was a noble who held lands from a lord in return for military and administrative services. This relationship was formalized by a ceremony in which the vassal took an oath of loyalty to the lord. 48 Despite the widespread poverty and oppression that characterized feudalism, this system allowed for the development of a stable society and a sense of order. The lords and barons, who held power, were able to maintain order and provide protection, which allowed for the development of trade and commerce. 3.5 Modern Forms of Feudalism One of the key characteristics of modern feudalism is the concentration of wealth and power in the hands of a small elite. This can be seen in many countries where a few wealthy individuals or corporations control the majority of the resources and dictate the economic policies that affect the lives of millions of people. The power of these elites is often reinforced by the political and legal systems that protect their interests and maintain the status quo. This can result in the unequal distribution of resources, poverty, and exploitation of the working class (Kotkin, 2020). Another aspect of modern feudalism is the persistence of feudal relationships in certain sectors of the economy. For example, in many developing countries, there is still a large number of workers who are tied to the land and forced to work in conditions that are similar to those of medieval peasants. These workers are often subject to exploitative practices, such as low wages, hazardous working conditions, and a lack of basic rights and freedoms. In some cases, these workers may not even be aware of their rights or have access to legal remedies to protect them from exploitation. However, modern feudalism also includes new forms of exploitation, such as digital feudalism. This refers to the use of digital technologies and platforms to control the production and distribution of goods and services. Companies like Shein, Temu? Amazon and Uber have gained significant power over the workers who depend on these platforms for their livelihoods, and they have the ability to set wages, working conditions, and job security at will. These workers are often not considered employees and are not entitled to the same benefits and protections as traditional employees. 49 3.6 Enlightenment Enlightenment is characterized by a focus on reason, critical thinking, and scientific discovery, and was inspired by the belief that human beings were capable of making their own lives better through the use of reason and education. At its core, the Enlightenment was a response to the religious and political changes that were sweeping Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries. In particular, the revolution was a reaction to the Enlightenment which saw a shift away from the idea of absolute monarchs and divine right, and towards the idea of constitutional government and the protection of individual rights. One of the key figures of the Enlightenment was philosopher John Locke, who argued that the state was not the absolute power over its citizens, but rather a contract between individuals, who had the right to challenge it if it violated their rights. This idea was influential in the American Revolution, where it was used to justify the independence of the American colonies from the British Empire. Another important figure of the Enlightenment was philosopher Immanuel Kant, who believed in the power of reason to provide a moral framework for society. He argued that individuals should be free to think and act for themselves, as long as their actions did not harm others. This idea was influential in the French Revolution, where it was used to support the idea of equality and the abolition of feudal privileges. The Enlightenment also saw a huge increase in scientific and technological knowledge, with the work of figures like Isaac Newton, who revolutionized the field of physics and astronomy, and Johannes Kepler, who discovered the laws of planetary motion. These advances allowed the Enlightenment thinkers to question traditional beliefs and institutions, and to propose new ideas and theories that challenged the status quo. The Enlightenment was also characterized by a new approach to knowledge and education. The philosophers of the Enlightenment believed that education should be based on reason and experience, rather than religious or political dogma. 50 They saw education as the key to individual and societal progress, and argued that everyone should have access to education, regardless of their social status. 3.7 Thailand and Human Rights Despite its beauty and unique offerings, Thailand has faced numerous human rights issues over the years. Human rights in Thailand refer to the rights and freedoms of its citizens, as well as those of the migrant workers and refugees who reside in the country (Selby, 2018). One of the biggest human rights concerns in Thailand is the treatment of migrant workers and refugees. Thailand is a hub for migrant workers, who come from neighboring countries such as Cambodia, Laos and Myanmar. These workers are often subjected to exploitation, abuse, and human trafficking. They are paid low wages, forced to work long hours, and are subjected to living conditions that are inhumane. The Thai government has taken some steps to improve the situation, such as launching anti-trafficking campaigns, but the problem persists. Another area of concern is the lack of freedom of expression in Thailand. The country has a long history of suppressing dissent, and the current military government has continued this tradition. In recent years, the Thai government has introduced laws and policies that restrict freedom of expression, including criminalizing criticism of the monarchy, the military, and the government. Critics and activists who dare to speak out against the government risk being arrested and charged with lèse-majesté, a crime that carries a severe punishment. This has resulted in self-censorship and a chilling effect on freedom of expression, which is essential for a democratic society. Women's rights are another major issue in Thailand (UN Women, n.d.). Despite being one of the few Southeast Asian countries where women have relatively high levels of education and work participation, women still face numerous challenges in the country. For example, the high levels of gender-based violence in Thailand continue to be a serious concern, and the country still has discriminatory laws that limit women's rights and opportunities. For example, women face barriers 51 in accessing reproductive health services, and their rights to make decisions about their bodies and lives are not protected. 3.8 Section 112 Section 112 of the Criminal Code in Thailand is a controversial provision that has been widely criticized for violating human rights and restricting freedom of expression. This section of the law criminalizes lèse-majesté, or insults to the monarchy, and carries a maximum penalty of 15 years imprisonment. This has been a major source of concern among human rights advocates and civil society organizations, who argue that the provision is frequently used to silence government critics and suppress dissent (OHCHR, n.d.). One of the major problems with section 112 is its ambiguity and vagueness. The law does not clearly define what constitutes an insult to the monarchy, leaving it open to interpretation and abuse by the authorities. This has led to a situation where individuals can be arrested and charged for expressing their opinions or engaging in peaceful protests, even if their actions do not pose a direct threat to the monarchy. This has resulted in a chilling effect on freedom of expression and has caused many to self-censor for fear of being arrested or prosecuted. In addition to its impact on freedom of expression, section 112 also undermines the rule of law and the principle of fair trials. The law is frequently used to target government critics and political opponents, leading to a situation where the criminal justice system is used for political purposes. This undermines the independence of the judiciary and undermines public trust in the legal system. Another problem with section 112 is its impact on media freedom and freedom of the press. This section of the law has been used to target journalists who report on sensitive issues or who criticize the government or the monarchy. This has led to a situation where media outlets are self-censoring, avoiding sensitive topics and avoiding reporting on critical issues that may cause offense to the authorities. This has had a negative impact on the quality of journalism and on the ability of the media to perform its role as a watchdog. 52 3.9 ASEAN and Human Rights The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) is a regional intergovernmental organization established in 1967, consisting of ten member states in Southeast Asia. ASEAN’s purpose is to promote peace and stability, economic growth and regional integration through cooperation and dialogue. The organization has been successful in achieving these goals, but there have been questions about ASEAN's commitment to human rights. One of the reasons for this criticism is that ASEAN is a consensus-based organization and decisions are made based on the agreement of all member states. This consensus- based approach can be a hindrance to the protection and promotion of human rights in ASEAN countries. For example, ASEAN member states have different views on the concept of human rights, and some countries may not want to take action that could limit their own power (Duxbury, 2019). Furthermore, ASEAN's human rights policies are largely voluntary and non- binding. The ASEAN Intergovernmental Commission on Human

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