Nature and fields of Psychology PDF

Nature and fields of psychology Before starting scientific study of psychology, we will see one popular misconception of psychology that is Psychology students or professional can read minds. The most common reaction I receive when I tell people I am studying psychology...

Nature and fields of psychology Before starting scientific study of psychology, we will see one popular misconception of psychology that is Psychology students or professional can read minds. The most common reaction I receive when I tell people I am studying psychology is, “oh, so can you tell what I’m thinking?” According to the American Psychological Association, psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior but this does not mean that psychologists can read minds or are analyzing you. Through various assessments and interactions, they can gauge a person’s mental state and understand them but reading a person’s mind directly is not possible. So now we will see what is psychology actually. In this session we will see what is Psychology? its definition, nature , scope and history of psychology. The word Psychology has its origin from two Greek words ‘Psyche’ and ‘Logos’, ‘psyche’ means ‘soul’ and ‘logos’ means ‘study’. Thus literally, Psychology means ‘the study of soul’ or ‘science of soul’. The first definition of the Psychology was the study of the soul: The earliest attempts at defining Psychology have the most mysterious and philosophical concept, namely that of soul. What is soul? How can it be studied? This concept is abstract, we can not see soul, therefore it’s not possible to study it scientifically. This led some ancient Greek philosophers to define psychology as the study of the mind. 2. In terms of the study of the mind: Although the word mind was less mysterious and vague than soul, yet it also faced the same questions, namely what is mind? How can it be studied, etc. This definition was also rejected. 3. Then some psychologist began to study consciousness as a subject matter of psychology The description and explanation of the states of consciousness is the task of Psychology which is usually done by the instrument introspection—process of looking within. This definition was also rejected because of following reasons: (i) It could not include the study of the consciousness of animals. (ii) It would not include subconscious and unconscious activities of mind. (iii) The introspection method for the study proved that it is most subjective and unscientific method. 4. Later on psychologist began to study psychology in terms of the study of behaviour: The most modern and widely accepted definition of psychology even today, is the study of behaviour, both humans and animals. Here are some popular definitions of Psychology given by famous psychologists. William McDougall: In his book An Outline of Psychology, defined “Psychology is a science which aims to give us better understanding and control of the behaviour of the organism as a whole”. J.B.Watson definedPsychology as “the science of behaviour” (taking into account the human as well as animal behaviour). N.L. Munn’s Definition “Psychology is the science and the properly trained psychologist is a scientist, or at least a practitioner who uses scientific methods and information resulting from scientific investigations”. Thus, we can infer from this, ‘psychology as a science of human and animal behavior in different contexts, also studies mental processes, experiences.” In doing so, it uses methods of biological and social sciences for example economics, political science and sociology a ect. to obtain data systematically. It makes sense of the data so that it can be organized as knowledge. We will see explanation of these definitions. For understanding these definitions and nature of psychology , its necessary to understand some important words included in the definition. So first we will see , what is mean by mental processes? Mental process: (i) Mental processes are activities of the mind and brain, related to cognition. (ii) We use mental processes when we think or remember something, or solve a problem. (iii) However, these mental activities are -different from neural activities, though they are mutually overlapping processes. (iv) The mind emerges and evolves as our interactions and experiences in this world get dynamically organized in the form of a system which is responsible for the occurrence of various mental processes. (v) Mental processes include reasoning, learning, thinking, problem solving, perception, etc. The second important word in this definition is Experience Experiences: Experiences can be defined as the learning acquired through everyday life situation. (i) Experiences are subjective in nature, different for every individual. (ii) We cannot directly observe or know someone’s experience. (iii) Only the experiencing person can be aware or conscious of his/her experiences. Thus, experiences are imbedded in our awareness or consciousness. (iv) Experiences are influenced by internal and external conditions of the experiences. (v) The nature of the experience can only be understood by analyzing a complex set of internal and external conditions. (vi) Experiences are important because most of our learning is based on experiences. Third important word is behaviour. Behaviour refers to any response of an organism given to internal or external stimulus, that can be measured. Stimulus is any object, event or person which attracts your attention. Behavior involves three aspects/ components 1. Conative orAffective component or feeling part of our response , this involves a person’s feelings / emotions / attitude about the object. Example: when you see beautiful rose you will feel nice, happy Or when you will hear harsh sound you will feel bad, develop negative attitude towards that stimulus or object. This type of response is called as conative behaviour. 2. Second aspect of behaviour is called as Cognitive component: this involves a person’s belief / knowledge about an object. Our understanding or interpretation of the stimulus. For example: If you are hearing some person is talking to you, then understanding what he/she is talking. 3. Third component is Behavioral or action component: the way the attitude we have influences how we act or behave. For example: Nodding head, raising hand, walking, so any observable action. Behaviour can be divided into two broad catagories A. Covert behaviour is that behaviour which we can not observe for example : our thoughs. For example The working of human memory or problem-solving might be thought of as behaviour, even though they cannot be observed directly but must be inferred from their outcome. B. Overt behavior action/reaction a person does can be observed in some ways. A person running to catch a train is an example of overt behaviour. So we can explain behavior as following (i) Behaviours are responses or reactions we make or activities we engage in. Eg. One can feel the heart pounding before taking an examination. (ii) Some behaviours such as thinking may be simple or complex, short or long lasting. (iii) On the other hand, some behaviours can be outwardly seen or sensed and are called overt, for example laughing. (iv) All behaviours can be explained on the basis of S-R (Stimulus Response Relations). Any behaviour, overt or covert, is associated with or triggered by a stimulus. (v) Both stimulus and response can be internal or external. (vi) The same stimulus can have different responses, due to the subjectiv variable. It emphasises upon an individual’s uniqueness and variation that make him different from other. For example some people may feel anxiety during public speech but some may not feel anxious. Thus we have seen psychology as a science of human and animal behavior in different contexts, also studies mental processes, experiences.” Then why we call psychology as a science? So first we try to understand what is science? Science is the body of systematized knowledge that is gathered by carefully observing and measuring events. The observation of events are systematized in various ways but mainly classifying them into categories and establishing general laws and principles to describe and predict events as accurately as possible. A science adopts observation, experiment, comparison and classification as methods of investigation of its data. In descriptive sciences, there is observation with classification. In experimental sciences, observation is supplemented by experiment. Psychology has these characteristics; it clearly belongs within the province of science. To define any field as a science, it generally will cover these key elements: Objectivity When conducting any study, researchers must remain unbiased and objective. They cannot let their own emotions and feelings enter the process. Additionally, while it’s not always possible to fully remove bias, it is necessary to minimize it as much as possible. That’s a main element of science. Empirical evidence Evidence is collected through experiments and observations. Again, this nullifies the entry of belief. While data is being collected, the information is carefully recorded so that other researchers can review the validity and the process. Hypothesis testing To start off the process, an observation is made. Then, scientists, academics, and researchers create their hypothesis, which is a prediction, tentative answers that are rooted in theory. These hypotheses should be clearly stated and then tested through unbiased experiments. Predictability Based on the findings of research, scientists should technically be able to forecast and predict the future. Replication When scientists develop experiments, they should be able to be replicated to test if the outcomes are the same given different time and place. When the same results occur based on the same conditions, then that provides credibility and accuracy to the findings, which can give way to the creation of a scientific theory or discovery. Reliability: Scientific knowledge must occur under the prescribed circumstances not once but repeatedly. It is reproducible under the circumstances stated anywhere and anytime. Validity: Validity is the quality of being correct or true. When your methods and design of study, achieves its objectives correctly, study will be valid. Precision: Scientific knowledge is precise. It is not vague like some literary writing. Tennyson wrote, “Every moment dies a man; every moment one is born”, is good literature but not science. To be a good science, it should be written as: “In India, according to the 2001 census, every 10th second, on the average, dies a man; every 4th second, on the average, an infant is born.” Precision requires giving exact number or measurement. Instead of saying “most of the people are against love marriages,” a scientific researcher says, “Ninety per cent people are against love marriages”. By using scientific methods psychologists are able to find answers to questions about the nature of human behaviour, that are far more valid and legitimate than those resulting from mere intention and speculation. The experiments and observations which are made can be repeated and verified by others because of its objectivity, reliability, validity and predictability which are the characteristics of basic science. In coclusion we will see Psychology as a discipline (i) It studies behaviour, experience and mental processes. (ii) It seeks to understand and explain how the mind works and how different mental processes result in different behaviours. (iii) When we observe others, our own point of view or ways of understanding the world influence our interpretations of their behaviours and experiences. (iv) Psychologists try to minimize such biases in their explanations of behaviour and experience in various ways. (v) Some do so by making their analysis scientific and objective. (vi) Others seek to explain behaviour from the point of view of those experiencing persons because they think that selectivity is a necessary aspect of human experience. Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior and has four main goals: The first goal of psychology is to describe behavior. This goal asks “What is happening?” or “What is this individual doing?” This goal allows researchers to collect information and then describe, name, and/or classify what they see. By thoroughly describing a phenomenon or behavior, psychologists can distinguish between typical and atypical behaviors. Describing is the starting point of making sense of things. To achieve the describing goal, researchers can use various approaches, including natural observation, surveys, case studies, and self-reporting tests. As an example, one study observed children’s and teens’ Internet habits, identified their usage patterns, and observed whether the kids shared this information with their parents. The researchers found that the children and teens spent an average of 3.1 hours a day surfing the web. They also observed that the kids were reluctant to tell their parents what they’d searched for on the Internet. Once behaviors have been thoroughly documented and described down to the smallest detail, the researchers can use that information as a starting point for explaining it. After the behavior has been thoroughly described, the next goal is to explain behavior. Explaining the behavior involves an attempt to understand how and why the behavior occurs. The second goal of explaining helps determine why we behave or react in certain ways, or how certain stimuli might affect our mental health, personalities, or relationships. For instance, why do we listen to music or read books? Are our personalities mostly the result of nurture or nature? What causes a person to risk his life for another? A study conducted in 2022, looked at children’s sharing behaviors and examined whether certain cognitive skills might make sharing more likely. The researchers found that a child’s counting or trusting skills were in fact the single biggest predictor of fair sharing behaviors. So not only did the researchers observe children’s sharing skills, but they also explained why some children may have shared more than others — because, with their counting or trusting skills, they were essentially able to count out the items for themselves and their peers. The third goal of psychology is prediction. Once psychologists have described a certain behavior and explained why it happens, they can better predict how and when it might occur again. The goal of prediction asks “When might this behavior occur again in the future?” or “What would happen if I responded this way?” Researchers can use the data they’ve collected from prior studies to predict when, why, and how certain behaviors will happen in the future. Through prediction, psychologists can better.understand the underlying causes of our actions. For example , we generally understand that alcohol can make some people more aggressive. With this information, we might predict that there are more fights at alcohol- serving bars compared to coffee shops. Researchers might take this hypothesis and conduct a study to see if it’s true. Successful prediction is important to the final goal in psychology: modifying behavior. The fourth goal of psychology is to modify behaviors that may be harmful, unproductive, or interfere with daily functioning.The goal of change asks “How can I stop this habit?” Or “What can I do to be a more generous person?” Psychologist use Psychotherapy as a treatment. In cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), for example, you identify and change negative and harmful thinking patterns. This final goal can help bring about positive changes in life, such as decreasing addictive behaviors, reducing depressive symptoms, or improving communication. In conclusion psychology is scientific and systematic.  Emphasis on search for truth. Believe in cause and effect relationship. Stand for the generalization of the observed result. Help in predicting the future development. The field of operation and application of the subject psychology is too vast. It studies, describes and explain the behaviors of living organism. Behavior is to be used to include all types of life activities and experience and cognitive explicit, conscious, unconscious, of a living organism. On the other hand, the term living organism is to be employed to all the living species such as caste, color, age, gender, sex, mental/physical state. Finally, Psychology may be needed for the study of the activities and experience of this living organism. Now we will see the scope of Psychology: Pure psychology: Pure psychology provides the framework and theory. Its contents deal with the formulation of psychological principals and theories. It suggests various methods and techniques for the analysis, modification and improvement of behaviors. Branches of pure psychology 1. General Psychology; 2. Abnormal psychology: 3. Social psychology: 4. Experimental psychology: 5. Physiological psychology: 6. Developmental psychology Applied/ Practical psychology: In applied psychology, the theory generated or discussed through pure psychology finds its practical applications. Branches of Applied/ Practical psychology: 1. Educational Psychology 2. Clinical psychology 3. Industrial psychology 4. Legal psychology 5. Military psychology 6. Political psychology Where do psychologists work? Psychologists are employed in a variety of settings. Although the primary sites of employment are private practice and colleges, many psychologists are found in hospitals, clinics, community mental health centers, and counselling centers. Now we will see historical perspectives of Psychology: Psychology is a relatively new field in the realm of the sciences, only about 125 years old. It began as a science of its own in 1879 in Leipzig Germany, with the establishment of Wundt’s psychology laboratory. He developed the technique of objective introspection. After his laboratory, psychology is started as one field of study and he is called the “father of modern psychology.” After psychology has been started as a science, it went through different schools of thought. These schools of thought can be categorized as old and modern as described below. Early or old schools of psychology There are different schools of psychology. These schools differ in three significant ways. In their object of study, i.e. what they studied. (Conscious mind, unconscious mind, and overt behavior). In their goal (analyze the components of the mind or observing the effect of the environment on behavior). In their method (Introspection, observation, clinical case studies, etc…). Structuralism– structuralism views psychology as a study of structure of mind. It is an expansion of Wundt’s ideas by his student named Edward Titchener (1867-1927). Titchener is the founder of structuralism. The goal of structuralists was to find out the units or elements, which make up the mind such as; sensations, images, and feelings. The best-known method used by them was introspection “looking within” a procedure aimed at analyzing the mental experience into three basic mental elements: images, feelings, and sensations. Second school of psychology is Functionalism- functionalism views psychology as a study of function of the mind. The founder of this school of thought is William James (1848-1910), who was the first American psychologist and the author of the first psychology textbook. Unlike Wundt and Titchener, James focused on how the mind allows people to function in the real world; how people work, play, and adapt to their surroundings, a viewpoint he called functionalism. He developed many research methods other than introspection including questionnaires, Psychometric tests and objective descriptions of behavior. Generally, according to functionalists, psychological processes are adaptive. They allow humans to survive and to adapt successfully to their surroundings. Third school of psychology is Gestalt psychology: Gestalt psychology views psychology as a study of the whole mind. Max Wertheimer, Kofka , Kohler and his colleagues founded this school of thought in Germany in the 20th century. Gestalt psychologists argued that the mind is not made up of combinations of elements. The German word “gestalt” refers to form, whole, configuration or pattern. According to them, the mind should be thought of as a result of the whole pattern of sensory activity and the relationships and organizations within their pattern. In brief, the gestalt psychologists acknowledge consciousness. They held that “the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Means mind is greater than its parts (images, sensations, and feelings). The fourth school of psychology is Behaviorism: behaviorists view psychology as a study of observable and measurable behaviors. John B. Watson is the founder of behaviorism and other proponents include Thorndike and Skinner. For Watson, psychology was the study of observable and measurable behavior and nothing more about hidden mental processes. According to Watson, we cannot define consciousness any more than we can define the soul; we cannot locate it or measure it and therefore it is not the object of scientific study. Next branch is Psychoanalysis: psychoanalysis studies about the components of the unconscious part of the mind. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) is the founder of this school of thought. He was the most controversial and most popular in the study of behavior and mental processes. Sigmund Freud, based on his patients’ reports of depression, nervousness, and obsessive habits, he becomes convinced that many of his patients’ symptoms had mental, not bodily cases. He finally, came to the conclusion that their distress was due to conflicts and emotional traumas that had occurred in early childhood and that were too threatening to be remembered consciously. Freud argued that “conscious awareness is the tip of the mental iceberg beneath the visible tip lays the unconscious part of the mind.” The unconscious which is the subject matter of psychoanalysis contains hidden wishes, passions, guilty secrets, unspeakable yearnings, and conflict between desire and duty. We are not aware of our unconscious urges and thoughts and they make themselves known in dreams, slip of the tongue, apparent accidents and even jokes. He used clinical case studies (hypnosis and Dream analysis) as a method. Now we will see Modern Branches of Psychology Cognitive Perspective: is the first branch The approach that focuses on how people think, understands, and knows about the world. Cognitive psychology focuses on the study of higher mental processes. It is the newly developed area explaining human behavior. Psychologists George Miller and Jerome Bruner established the centre for cognitive study at Harvard University in 1960. Cognition is a mental process in which the information is obtained, processed, transformed, stored, retrieved, and used. The second important branch of modern psychology is Humanistic Perspective: The approach that suggests that all individuals naturally strive to grow, develops, and be in control of their lives and behavior. It was developed by Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers and Viktor Frankl during 1950s and 1960s.The humanistic perspective focuses on freedom in controlling human behavior. This perspective has a very different view on human beings compared to psychoanalysis or behaviorism. Biological Perspective: Every human behavior is related to physiological changes within the body. The working relationship between the body, behavior and mental process is the focus of biological perspective (Kalat, 2001).It describes the role of nerve cells in different aspects of an individual’s behavior in emotion, reasoning, problem solving, intelligence, speaking etc. Evolutionary Perspective: Evolutionary psychology considers how behavior is influenced by our genetic inheritance from our ancestors.It is based on the work developed by Charles Darwin (1859) who popularized the theory of evolution almost 150 years ago.It focuses  on the role of physical structure and behavior play in the adaptation process of an organism to the environment.Evolutionary psychologists are also interested in why certain physical structures developed and how they contribute to adaptation. Last is Socio-cultural Perspective: The socio-cultural perspective explains how our personality, believe, attitudes, skills, and values are shaped by our culture, ethnicity, gender, religion, and others important socio-cultural factors.It is concerned with how people interact with each other to influence and to be influenced by each other. These are different perspectives of psychology, there objectives and method of studying psychology are different from each other.