Teens, Screens, and Social Connection PDF

Teens, Screens, and Social Connection An Evidence-Based Guide to Key Problems and Solutions Alma Spaniardi Janki Modi Avari Editors 123 Editors Alma Spaniardi Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Weill Cornell Medicine NewYork-Presbyterian New York, NY, USA Janki Modi Avari Office of Me...

Teens, Screens, and Social Connection An Evidence-Based Guide to Key Problems and Solutions Alma Spaniardi Janki Modi Avari Editors 123 Editors Alma Spaniardi Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Weill Cornell Medicine NewYork-Presbyterian New York, NY, USA Janki Modi Avari Office of Mental Health-New York City Children’s Center New York, NY, USA ISBN 978-3-031-24803-0    ISBN 978-3-031-24804-7 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-24804-7 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland 4 Social Media’s Influence on Identity Formation and Self Expression Maryann Tovar, Mineudis Rosillo, and Alma Spaniardi Introduction Adolescence is a time when young people strive for independence and separation from their family of origin. The ultimate goal of adolescence is the achievement of a unique identity. Conflicts between adolescents and parents are often directly related to this search for identity and include differences in core values, dress, and behavior. Friendships and peer relationships are of vital importance at this age, as acceptance and belonging to a social group are of central significance. The internet is a new arena in which adolescents can explore and test the limits of their identities. They are able to control and manipulate their digital persona in a way that may not reflect the reality of their “true” offline identity. This provides many opportunities for identity exploration, but also presents particular challenges and pitfalls. This chapter will discuss theories of identity development and apply these to the current digital landscape faced by adolescents today. We will also discuss the intersection of culture, race, sexuality, and social media. M. Tovar Department of Health Science, University of Carabobo, Valencia, Carabobo, Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela M. Rosillo (*) Department of Clinical Psychology, Bicentennial University of Aragua, Maracay, Aragua, Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela A. Spaniardi Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, New York Presbyterian-Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 A. Spaniardi, J. M. Avari (eds.), Teens, Screens, and Social Connection, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-24804-7_4 49 50 M. Tovar et al. Theories of Identity Identity is defined as a subjective experience of who an individual feels they are and includes one’s core beliefs, values, and goals [1]. A well-developed identity remains consistent over time. People who do not have a sense of who they are or their role in society can develop identity confusion. A main developmental task of adolescence is to explore and develop an individual identity, which will guide life choices during the transition to adulthood. Two major accepted theories of development pertaining to adolescence include Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development and James Marcia’s Identity Statuses. Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development includes eight stages from infancy to late adulthood (see Table 4.1) [2]. Each stage has a task, or conflict, which needs to be resolved in order to move on to the next stage. The tasks build upon each other throughout the lifespan and mastery of each one in sequence is required to continue moving forward. Successful completion of a task leads to competency and failure can lead to feelings of inadequacy. According to Erikson, the primary task of adolescence is to establish an identity through the task of Table 4.1 Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development Stage Infancy (birth to 18 months) Important Basic conflict Events Trust vs. Mistrust Feeding Early Childhood (2–3 years) Autonomy vs. Toilet training Shame and Doubt Preschool (3–5 years) School Age (6–11 years) Initiative vs. Guilt Industry vs. Inferiority Exploration Play School Adolescence (12–18 years) Identity vs. Role Confusion Young Adulthood (19–40 years) Middle Adulthood (40–65 years) Intimacy vs. Isolation Generativity vs. Stagnation Social Relationships Identity Relationships Maturity (65 to death) Ego Integrity vs. Despair Work and parenthood Reflection on Life Outcome Infants develop a sense of basic trust if caregivers dependably meet their needs. Toddlers develop a sense of self-­ control and learn to do things for themselves. Preschoolers learn to initiate tasks and carry them out. Children apply themselves to tasks and learn to cope with social and academic demands. Adolescents test roles and develop a sense of self-identity and personal identity. Young adults form intimate reciprocal relationships with other people. Adults have a sense of contribution and search for balance between productivity and feeling useful. Adults with success at this stage feel a sense of satisfaction and fulfillment when looking back at their life. 4 Social Media’s Influence on Identity Formation and Self Expression 51 Identity versus Role Confusion. The core questions of adolescence include “Who am I?” and “Who do I want to be?” [2]. Erikson identified a period of psychological moratorium during adolescence, where committing to an identity is put on hold, while the young person explores options and experiments with different identities [3]. A stable and strong sense of identity marks achievement of the developmental task. Social isolation or becoming lost in the crowd can result from unsuccessful resolution of the task. In current times, identity formation is more commonly achieved later in young adulthood as opposed to during adolescence [4]. Marcia’s Identity Statuses Psychologist James Marcia recognized exploration and commitment as important factors in adolescent identity formation. He described four developmental identity statuses: diffusion/confusion, foreclosure, moratorium, and achievement (see Table 4.2) [5]. Identity diffusion refers to an individual who neither explores nor commits to an identity, while Identity Foreclosure is commitment to an identity without exploration of other options. Identity Diffusion is typically the status of children and young adolescents. A moratorium occurs during active exploration of options without commitment. Identity Achievement is when a commitment to an identity is made after the different options have been explored. Identity Achievement is often not achieved by the end of adolescence, but later into young adulthood. Unlike Erikson’s stages, Marcia’s statuses are not sequential and it is not necessary for an adolescent to progress through all the statuses to reach identity achievement. The theory also allows for multiple identity statuses simultaneously for different aspects of identity (religious, career, etc.) [6]. Table 4.2 Marcia’s Identity Statuses Exploration Low Low Commitment Identity Diffusion There is no commitment and no motivation to question relevant issues. High Identity Foreclosure There is no exploration toward developing an identity, but instead identity is based on the choices or values of others. High Identity Moratorium Several options are explored, but no decision is made. Commitments are absent or vague. Identity Achievement The development of a coherent and committed identity based on their own decisions. 52 M. Tovar et al. The Digital World and Identity Both Erikson’s and Marcia’s theories of development were conceived prior to the evolution of the internet; however, social media provides an additional multifaceted platform for adolescents to explore and experiment with their identities. The majority tweens and teens spend much of their day socializing via smart phones, computers, tablets, and other technology. According to a report by Common Sense Media, the amount of time spent on various individual screen activities increased by 42 minutes a day since 2015. Nearly 62% of youth spend more than four hours a day on screens and 29% use screens more than eight hours a day [7]. There are multiple platforms that adolescents can use online, including social media (Instagram, Facebook), online forums (Reddit), and group text messaging (Snapchat). The ability to curate an identity online is often easier than in the real world. In fact, many adolescents maintain multiple identities online across the same or different platforms. In terms of defining an identity in the digital world, there are several ways of presenting yourself to others online. A profile refers to an online identity an internet user establishes on a website, social media, or online community. Selfies refer to photos that one takes of oneself, typically using a smartphone camera. As the name indicates, this is a self-portrait photograph, which can be used to represent an online identity when posted to a profile or can be used as an avatar. The use of photo filters further allows for personalization, or even falsification of one’s identity. Photo filters range from the silly (adding rabbit ears or devil horns) to the more deceptive (adding a beard, glasses, or full face of makeup). The term catfishing on social media describes a person who impersonates someone else or creates a fake persona online to find friends or romantic interests. Usernames or also define an individual online. The names can be chosen to describe certain attributes, interests, or aspects of personality. Adolescents can have multiple different social media accounts and maintain a different persona on each one depending on who their followers are. A teenager can share vastly different images and content across two or more accounts. For example, adolescents can present a more wholesome identity to family and friends while maintaining another account with different (sometimes more sexualized or inappropriate) content for close friends or strangers. Parents are unaware that they are following a “fake” account, while friends or strangers see a totally different side of their child. A common term for this is finsta, which stands for fake Instagram account, and it can also allow for a more anonymous way to interact online. It has been found that having multiple online personas can be both positive and negative with regards to identity development. The freedom for self-exploration provided online can provide an adolescent the ability to express and accept different facets of themselves. Conversely, trouble in integrating these multiple self-­ representations can lead to a more diffuse and fragmented sense of self [8]. 4 Social Media’s Influence on Identity Formation and Self Expression 53 Anonymity Versus Exposure The internet and social media can result in adolescents having to grow up in a more public way than ever before. The mistakes and missteps of youth can become a permanent part of their digital history. Relatives and friends have the ability to post pictures and information about the adolescent without their consent. At best, this visibility can cause youth to be cautious about what is revealed online. Adolescents can choose what is displayed [9], but also delete or untag material that others post. In this way, social networking can lead to increased self-awareness. Younger adolescents have been found to be more engaged in online impression management than older adolescents [10, 11]. This mirrors identity exploration, leading to eventual developmental achievements in identity formation. There are many opportunities for adolescents to experiment with self-­presentation online and to do this in an anonymous way. Anonymity on the internet is an opportunity for exploration and self-expression beyond everyday online and real life activities [12]. Anonymity can be freeing to adolescents in certain circumstances, but surprisingly can also result in an opposite, more restrictive online presentation. This is because an anonymous audience is unknown and less predictable, which can lead to self-consciousness and insecurity in the individual posting. It has been found that anonymity can be frightening and overwhelming for adolescents [13]. The ability to present oneself online without direct identifiers can lead to reduced self-awareness and decreased responsibility for one’s actions, leading to online antisocial behaviors [14]. One example of this phenomenon is referred to as trolling. This term refers to a person who posts provocative, insulting, or offensive comments to purposely antagonize an individual or disrupt online communities. Another danger of online anonymity is being catfished or lured into a friendship or romantic relationship by someone who has fabricated an online persona. Often the goal of catfishing is for harassment or to scam or steal a victim’s identity. Adolescents display their real life persona in many social networking sites. Even when interacting on these platforms, which are not anonymous, they are aware that they are easily able to manipulate their true selves by hiding or changing certain aspects of their identity. This is often seen when teenagers change their name, location, or age. It is common for adolescents to label themselves as older than they really are in order to meet site age limits or interact with adults. Online Versus Real World Identity in Minority Youth On social media, it is possible to express and develop aspects of one’s personality that is kept hidden in real world contexts. Since the internet has no geographical constraints, the opportunity for identity exploration and connecting with others is vastly expanded. This may be especially important for minority youth [15, 16] and can help to reinforce an individual’s ethnic identity beyond their own 54 M. Tovar et al. environment [17]. When they create their profile on social media, they tend to emphasize the cultural aspects of themselves [18]. Similarly, sexual minority youth feel more comfortable expressing their sexuality online versus offline [19]. Despite this potential for freedom of expression, a study of adolescent girls identifying as sexual and ethnic minorities showed that they often hide their sexual identity on social media [20]. As a stronger more coherent identity is formed, aspects of self that have been explored online can be transferred to real daily life offline [21, 22]. It is an important step to be able to integrate views of online and offline identity into the real world. This change is evident in adolescents who start to present their real self on social media as opposed to using the platform for identity exploration [23]. Social Media, Self-Presentation, and Self Esteem Friends and peer groups are very important during adolescence and expressing a certain image can solidify identity and belonging in a group. Self-presentation and learning social rules are developmentally important to preadolescents and adolescents. Social media adds another platform, and complexity, in which adolescents engage in impression management. This refers to the process of curating an online presence that gains peer approval [24–26]. Many young people are very savvy when it comes to social media self-­ presentation and maintain carefully crafted online personas. There are industries and professions created around online impressions, most notably Instagram Influencers. This refers to individuals who have built a reputation around a certain niche on Instagram. As the name suggests, they influence styles and trends. Young people often look to popular Instagram Influencers as guides as they explore their own identity. This can be problematic, as the lifestyle that is portrayed through social media sites rarely reflects reality, which breeds displeasure and negative self-­ evaluation when an adolescent uses their life as a comparison. Overall, the studies remain mixed in terms of social media sites and self-esteem, with some showing a positive effect and others a negative effect [27–29], as well as increased symptoms of depression and anxiety associated with social media [30]. The feedback that adolescents receive on their social media sites is closely associated with their experience online. This is likely due to the relationship between positive feedback on users’ profiles and their self-esteem [31]. Social media feedback refers to likes given to a post by others on the network. This interpersonal feedback is often visible, either publicly or to the users’ own network (“friends” or “followers”). It is common for an adolescent to check multiple times after posting on social media to see if others have “liked” the post. The stress of creating posts that gain enough “likes” as well as participating and “liking” the posts of friends can add up to a tremendous social demand and cause stress to adolescents [32]. Of course, not all feedback is positive. Instagram does not have a “dislike” option, but users can leave negative comments for all to see. Negative reactions on social networks are related to adverse outcomes, including depressive symptoms 4 Social Media’s Influence on Identity Formation and Self Expression 55 [33]. Fortunately, positive feedback that is supportive and validating is more common than negative feedback on social sites [34]. The social validation received can result in an improved self-esteem [35], but paradoxically can create dependence on social approval, which is related to decreased self-esteem. Overall, the amount of feedback received can shape the identity development of adolescents [36]. The search for external validation, both in real life and online, can lead to a fragile self-esteem in teens and preteens [37]. The danger is when self-concept and self-­ esteem are tied to extrinsic traits, such as appearance or number of online followers. The goal of achieving extrinsic rewards and social validation seeking is negatively related to measures of well-being and self-esteem [38, 39]. Extrinsic rewards have also been found to decrease intrinsic motivation. The challenge is managing the fleeting social validation from “likes” and comments on a post, as well as the stress from constant comparison and search for perfection. LGBTQ Identity Online Identity development in adolescence naturally includes questions about sexual identity. Currently, there exist many recognized subcategories of sexual and gender identity, including pansexual and gender fluid. For Lesbian Gay Bisexual Transgender Queer Plus (LGBTQ+) youth, the internet and social media play an important part in the exploration of sexual identity, as well as provide information about sexual identity and health [40, 41]. The anonymity of the Internet allows adolescents to ask questions without feeling the stigma, shame, or discomfort that they might experience in real life [42]. There is also the opportunity to share experiences and obtain support from others in the community. Sexual minority youth can use social media to connect with others who are not geographically close. Video diaries or blogs can share personal stories of challenges or coming out which can provide comfort and support to those adolescents exploring their sexual identities. Many adolescents develop long distance romantic relationships and feel a strong bond despite never having met their partner in real life. The internet allows adolescents to engage in relationships online that may not be available to them in real life. There are many opportunities online for people to connect, such as dating sites, instant messaging, chat rooms, and social networks. In regards to online relationships, studies have found that young people who are unable to disclose details about their personal lives in their real life often are involved in online relationships [43]. Online relationships can lead to positive connections with both heterosexual and homosexual peers, feelings of group belonging, and increased self-acceptance [44–46]. These relationships have a positive impact on LGBTQ+ youth's sexual and mental health, self-esteem, and quality of life [47]. Despite these benefits, research suggests that LGBTQ+ youth's internet use may also negatively influence decision making and offline behavior. A risk of close online relationships is decreased involvement in real life offline community and support systems, including friends and family [48]. There is concern that internet use fosters social isolation and depression. Research has also found 56 M. Tovar et al. that online dating is associated with unprotected sex and an increased number of partners [49, 50]. The Internet has played a critical role in facilitating identity exploration and coming out at a younger age. The development of a sexual identity can involve many questions, doubts, insecurities, and conflicts. For the young LGBTQ+ community, both the internet and social networks provide a platform to explore sexual identity and share information. The anonymity of these communities can be an advantage, since it allows adolescents and preadolescents to ask questions without a feeling of shame or discomfort that they might experience in real life. For young people belonging to the LGBTQ+ community, online relationships are often of great importance as they provide a space where they feel included and supported [47].  ultural Viewpoint: Sex Education and Growing Up LGBTQ+ C in Latin America Growing up LGBTQ+ in Latin America can be challenging, as acceptance, education, and knowledge of gay rights are scarce. Despite the difficulties, this experience has been greatly improved and enriched by the presence of the internet. Youth in Latin American countries are provided with few sources of information on sexuality or sex education. It is common that parents warn their daughters not to get pregnant after their menarche and encourage sons to look for as many girls as possible, but without bringing babies into the house. Latin America becomes the region with the second highest rate of unwanted pregnancies in the world, with around 18 percent of births corresponding to those under 20 years of age. One and a half million adolescent women between 15 and 19 years old have babies in the region each year according to UNFPA (The United Nations Population) [51]. Being able to access quality information via the internet provides education about safe sex practices to protect against pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases. In recent years, many organizations have raised their voices about the rights and freedom of sexual expression, and although progress has been made, the majority of the population of Latin America and the Caribbean “strongly disapproved” of same-­ sex marriage [52]. In Latin America, same-sex marriage is legal in 9 countries: Mexico, Chile, Cuba, Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay, Colombia, Ecuador, and Costa Rica. Argentina was the first country to enact a same-sex marriage law at the national level in Latin America, on July 21, 2010, while Chile was the country that most recently adapted its legal framework to allow these unions [53]. The LGBTQ+ community can encounter both positive and negative experiences online. There can be exposure to homophobic communities that present themselves under anonymity, but there are also networks that empower and create cultural and artistic support where the LGBTQ+ identity is safeguarded and enriched. Overall, the trend in attitudes toward homosexuality in both adolescents and adults in Latin America and the Caribbean has been more positive over the past ten years [52]. 4 Social Media’s Influence on Identity Formation and Self Expression 57 The internet provides a forum for young people to unite over shared ideals and goals to further LGBTQ+ rights. Growing up in Latin America, being lesbian, gay, bisexual, transsexual, transgender, queer, can be a survival game, which unfortunately, many cannot win. Between 2014 and 2020, at least 3514 LGTBQ people were murdered in Latin America and the Caribbean. Of these, 1401 of them for reasons related to prejudice against their sexual orientation or gender identity. In 2019 alone, 327 cases were recorded during the 2020 pandemic, according to Sin Violence LGBTI [54]. Being able to connect with the online LGBTQ+ community provides support and a safe forum for those who do not feel comfortable expressing who they are in their real lives for fear of violence. Latin America has a long way to go, but undoubtedly, the union of our efforts is what has allowed advancement in the education and promotion of rights and support for the most vulnerable communities. The ability for LGBTQ+ youth in Latin America to access information and join an international community is invaluable. This source bridges the gap in available information about sexuality and health that is greatly needed. Clinical Application It is important for mental health professionals and others working with children to understand the normal developmental stage of identity formation. This is a time of natural exploration and experimentation with different identities. The internet presents both advantages and challenges in identity formation and expression. Asking in an open and nonjudgmental way about a youth’s online activities and personas can give much information about their inner life. This can provide for interesting material for psychodynamic therapy. It also allows for guidance and problem solving. It is important to discuss with young people the differences between real life and the reality presented by those online, who only show the high points or fabricate a perfect life. Although most adolescents understand this distinction, it is easy for them to fall into the social comparison trap, leading to feeling that their life or they themselves are lacking. It is to be expected that an adolescent will not be necessarily forthcoming with the activities they are engaging in online. It is also common that they will withhold certain aspects to maintain their own privacy. Parents often have little to no understanding of what their child is doing online. Some are not interested, while others seem to avoid looking into it. That being said, there are families who are very involved in their children’s online life. These families often have the agreement that children will share their online accounts and passwords with their parents. Online supervision is the best way to maintain safety. It is preferable to have teens be aware that their parents are monitoring and periodically keeping track of what they do online versus surreptitiously following their online activities. This is very family dependent, but therapists can guide families toward the appropriate level of supervision and facilitate open dialogues about expectations regarding internet use. 58 M. Tovar et al. Youth who are questioning their sexual identity can be referred to websites that will provide them quality information and support as they explore. This is preferable to getting information from the internet at large, although as mentioned in the text, online communities and social support can be very important for adolescents. At the time of this printing, the CDC had compiled a list of LGBT youth resources including information for educators, professionals, family, and friends. This list can be accessed through the CDC website: https://www.cdc.gov/lgbthealth/youth-­ resources.htm [55]. Both Erikson and Marcia identify adolescence as a time of exploration. Young people have always naturally experimented and tried different identities during this stage of development. The internet and social media provide a vast new arena and allowing for this exploration to take place both online and offline. Issues of anonymity self-presentation, self-esteem, and consolidation of real-life and online self are important considerations. In terms of sexual identity and identification, the growth of the Internet has played a critical role in facilitating identity exploration and coming out at a younger age. Online relationships can lead to positive interactions with heterosexual and homosexual peers, greater social support, and feelings of belonging to a group. These elements can contribute to a positive self-esteem and self-identity. The anonymity of the internet allows young people to ask questions about identity and sexual health without feeling the stigma, shame, or discomfort that such questions can bring in “real life” interactions. As a result, online communities and support networks have grown in popularity. However, the negative aspects of these communities are episodes of identity crisis and negative influences in decision making. Multiple Choice Questions 1. People who do not have a sense of who they are or their role in society can develop: A. Ego Integrity B. Identity Confusion C. Identity Foreclosure D. Identity Achievement Correct Answer: B 2. Which is true regarding the search for external validation online through seeking “likes” on social media posts? A. This type social validation builds a strong sense of identity. B. It can lead to a fragile self-esteem in teens and preteens. C. It is a cause of depression in all users of social media. D. There is no effect on any group of social media user. Correct Answer: B 3. Has the use of the internet in adolescents had a significant impact on the exploration of their identity? A. It has not had a significant impact as it inhibits young people from asking specific questions about identity and sexual health without the approval of a trusted authority figure. 4 Social Media’s Influence on Identity Formation and Self Expression 59 B. 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