Introduction to English Linguistics PDF

Introduction to English Linguistics  PHONETICS 1 Speech production and the vocal tract The production of sounds There are 3 processes associated with the production of speech sounds Initiation: The creation of the airstream Phonation: Airstream modification by the vocal folds (cords)...

Introduction to English Linguistics  PHONETICS 1 Speech production and the vocal tract The production of sounds There are 3 processes associated with the production of speech sounds Initiation: The creation of the airstream Phonation: Airstream modification by the vocal folds (cords) Articulation: Further modification of airstream by articulators (lips, tongue etc) Breathing Speech Production Processes and the Vocal tract 1. Initiation (of airflow) Your airflow can be initiated in two ways egressive: breathing out ingressive: breathing in at three different locations pulmonic (lungs) velaric (velum) glottalic (glottis / larynx) The pulmonic egressive airstream is the primary airstream of all the world’s languages Important chambers in the head and neck used in speech production Nasal cavity Oral cavity p h a r y n x Pharynx + Oral Cavity = the Vocal Tract 2. Phonation (voicing of sound) The larynx is a box of cartilage Inside the larynx is the glottis containing the vocal folds The vocal folds can open and shut like curtains Consonant speech sounds are either: Voiceless: if air passes freely from the lungs through the larynx or Voiced: if the vocal folds are brought together and the air is forced through making the folds vibrate Exercise 1. (i) Put your fingers on your larynx (Adam’s apple, voice box) 1. produce and hold [s] (hissing like a snake) 2. produce and hold [z] (sound like a bee) Exercise 2. With your neighbour, say the words below aloud. Decide whether the sound associated with the underlined segment is voiced or voiceless and tick the appropriate box. Voiced Voiceless Voiced Voiceless push □ □ rose □ □ bother □ □ window □ □ many □ □ fly □ □ Stop □ □ bath □ □ 3. Articulation The interaction of active and passive articulators modifies the airstream at various points along the vocal tract. Active Articulators These are typically the lips or some part of the tongue. Tip Blade Front Back Root Tip Parts of the tongue used to describe speech Summary: The Vocal Tract and Organs of speech. The lungs = pulmonic egressive airstream Three cavities of the head and neck (i) the pharynx (ii) the oral cavity (mouth) (iii) the nasal cavity The larynx and the vocal folds voiced Glottis open or closed? voiceless Labelling a consonant Each consonant sound has a description consisting of three parts. 1. Voicing 2. Place of articulation 3. Manner of articulation. Voicing: state of the glottis (open or closed) Place of articulation: the location of the passive articulator in the vocal tract Manner of articulation: the degree to which the flow of air is obstructed. Static places of Articulation These are the static places of articulation along the vocal tract (hard) palate alveolar velum (soft palate) ridge lips uvula teeth epiglottis glottis PLACES OF ARTICULATION Labial (bilabial): Labial sounds formed by the articulation of the upper and lower lips, e.g. [p] as in pit. Labio–dental: Labio–dental sounds are produced by the lower lip and the teeth, specifically the upper incisors, e.g. [f] as in fat. The lip is the passive articulator, and the upper incisors are the active articulators. Inter-dental (dental): Inter-dental sounds involve putting the tip of your tongue in contact with or actually between both sets of teeth. Make the sound at the beginning of thick and prolong it. Feel where your tongue is. Alveolar: Immediately behind the teeth there is a bony ridge called the alveolar ridge To produce an alveolar sound, the blade (or tip and blade) of the tongue touches the alveolar ridge. In English, alveolar sounds include: tip [t], dip [d], sip [s], zip [z], and nip [n]. Post–alveolar: Post–alveolar sounds are produced by the blade of the tongue articulating with the junction of the alveolar ridge and the hard palate. In English the sound at the beginning of church is post–alveolar. Palatal: A palatal sound is produced by bringing the front of the tongue up into the hard palate. There is only one in English [j] = the sound in yacht, yak etc. Velar: The back of the tongue is raised towards the velum. [k] in cat, [g] in golf, are velar. Glottal: The sound associated with the [h] in hang is a glottal sound. There is only one glottal sound in English. MANNERS OF ARTICULATION The proximity of the active and passive articulators affects the airstream in various ways, these are the ‘manners of articulation.’ Stops (also called plosives) [p b t d k g] Two-stage production. The articulators form an air–tight seal; the air flow is completely obstructed. It is then released forcefully ( = plosion). close & = stop hold release = plosion Exercise: Say ‘pat’ then say ‘rap’, concentrating on the [p] in both words. Can you perceive a difference in its production? Fricatives The active articulators impede the flow of air but do not stop it completely; the air stream becomes turbulent and an audible hiss is produced. [f v s z] are some fricatives of English. Affricates A complete obstruction is released gradually; the air, which has built up behind the obstruction squeezes through the gap creating audible friction. English has only two: [ʧ] church and [ʤ] judge. Approximants (also called semi vowels, glides) the vocal tract is narrowed but not enough to produce friction: no audible hiss is produced. The sound at the beginning of yacht [j] is an approximant. Trills [r] and Taps [ɾ] These sounds involve rapid vibration of the active articulator. Most Englishes does not use trills. Some English accents turn a [t] into a tap in words like ‘butter’. Nasal vs Oral Nasal sounds are made by relaxing the velum: air can flow from the lungs into the nasal cavity. Nasal sounds are always a minority in a language. There are three in English [m, n, ŋ]. All other sounds are oral. Central The air stream exits over the centre of the tongue. The side rims of the tongue form an air tight seal with the upper molars and gums. Exercise Make an [s] but instead of breathing out, breath in. The centre of your tongue should feel cold as the air passes over it. [s] is a central sound. Lateral For lateral segments, a closure is formed at some point in the centre of the vocal tract. Air passes round this obstruction and out over the sides of the tongue. Exercise Make an [l] but breath in. This time the sides of your tongue should feel cold as the air passes over them. The only lateral in English is [l]; all other segments are central.  The Consonant Sounds of English ORAL STOPS voiceless labial stop /p/ put, capable, cup voiced labial stop /b/ but, abandon, cub voiceless alveolar stop /t/ tab, butter, put voiced alveolar stop /d/ done, edit, pad voiceless velar stop /k/ cat, succulent, break voiced velar stop /g/ get, begging, drug NASAL STOPS voiced labial nasal /m/ mint, examine, drum voiced alveolar nasal /n/ nut, money, can voiced velar nasal /ŋ/ Ngaire, singer, drink  The Consonant Sounds of English FRICATIVES voiceless labio–dental /f/ fly, coffee, calf fricative voiced labio–dental fricative /v/ verb, having, cave voiceless dental fricative /Ɵ/ thin, ether, moth voiced dental fricative /ð/ the, either, bathe voiceless alveolar fricative /s/ sing, blessing, cats voiced alveolar fricative /z/ zinc, razor, breeze voiceless post–alveolar /ʃ/ ship, brushing, crush fricative voiced post–alveolar fricative /ʒ/ pleasure, rouge voiceless glottal fricative /h/ hope, ahead  The Consonant Sounds of English AFFRICATES voiceless post–alveolar affricate /tʃ/ chip, catching, clutch voiced post–alveolar affricate /dʒ/ jump, digest, rage APPROXIMANTS voiced labio–velar approximant /w/ watch, away voiced alveolar lateral approx. /l/ lie, pulling, pull voiced alveolar (central) approx. /ɹ/ roast, pouring voiced palatal approximant /j/ you, union