Theories of Human Development PDF

THEORIES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT It involves eight and each stage contains… PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY – Sigmund Freud This theory is composed of eight stages: PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY – Erik Erikson...

THEORIES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT It involves eight and each stage contains… PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY – Sigmund Freud This theory is composed of eight stages: PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY – Erik Erikson 1. Trust vs. Mistrust COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY – Jean Piaget 2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT – Lawrence 3. Initiative vs. Guilt Kohlberg 4. Industry vs. Inferiority FREUD’S PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY 5. Identity vs. Role confusion 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation Sigmund Freud (1856 – 1939) 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation Based on the observation of mentally disturbed adults. 8. Integrity vs. Despair Described adult behavior as being the result of the TRUST VS. MISTRUST  Infant (12-18 months) instinctual drives of a primarily sexual nature (libido) Child development as being a series of psychosexual If infant needs are met, they develop basic trust. stages in which a child’s sexual gratification becomes… However, when infants experiences inconsistent and inadequate care and is expose to a lot of rejections, they This theory is composed of five stages: develop mistrust. 1. Oral Stage - Provide experiences that add to security, such as 2. Anal Stage soft sounds and touch 3. Phallic Stage AUTONOMY VS. SHAME AND DOUBT  Toddlers (18 months – 4. Latent Stage 3 years old) 5. Genital Stage Toddlers take pride in new accomplishments and as ORAL STAGE  Infant (0-1 years old) much as possible do everything independently. Child explores the world using mouth, especially the If parents let them be, they develop autonomy tongue. Whereas, when they are surrounded by people that do - Provide oral stimulation by giving pacifiers; do not everything for them, they develop sense of shame and discourage thumb sucking. doubt - Provide opportunities for decision making and ANAL STAGE  Toddler (1-3 years old) praise them for their ability to make decisions. Child explores the world using mouth, especially the INITIATIVE VS. GUILT  Preschooler (4-5 years old) tongue. - Help children achieve bowel and bladder control Preschooler initiate motor activities and no longer without undue emphasis on its anal sphincter. respond or imitate other children’s action or of their parent. PHALLIC STAGE  Preschooler (3-6 years old) If they are given freedom and are encouraged to do motor activities, their sense of initiatives strengthen. Child learns sexual identity through awareness of genital However, when they are told what they are doing is - Accept children’s sexual interest, such as fondling silly, stupid, or nuisance, they may develop sense of his or her own genitals, as a normal area of guilt. exploration. - Provide opportunities for exploring new places or LATENT STAGE  School-Aged Child (6-puberty) activities Child’s personality development appears to be non- INDUSTRY VS. INFERIORITY  School-Age Child (6-12 years old) active or dormant. School aged children learn to do things well - Help children have children positive experiences When they are encouraged and their effort are with learning so their self-esteem continues to appreciated, their sense of industry improved. grow. Whereas, when their efforts are not recognized they GENITAL STAGE  Adolescent (Puberty – onwards) may develop a sense of inferiority - Provide opportunities such as allowing child to Adolescent develops sexual maturity and learns to assemble and complete short project so that the establish satisfactory relationship with others. child feels rewarded for accomplishment - Provide appropriate opportunities for the child to relate with opposite and own say relationships. IDENTITY VS. ROLE CONFUSION  Adolescent (13-19 years old) Criticism of Freud’s Theory Adolescent must collect what they have learned about themselves and combine into one whole identity. Freud relied on his knowledge of people seen in his If unable to do, identity crises happens. practice and looked at circumstances to mental illness. Some seeks negative identity because for them it is Gender biased because females are viewed in a less better than to have no identity favorable light than males. Female are less favorable - Provide opportunities to discuss feeling about than men. events important to him or her Freud based his theory on the recollections of his adult patient, not on actual experiences INTIMACY VS. ISOLATION  Young adult (20-40 years old) ERIKSON’S THEORY OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT Young adult seek and form bonds not only with members of opposite sex but also with one’s own sex. Erik Erikson (1902 – 1994) If not confident on the ability to cope with rejection, Psychosocial development they refrain from offering love and friendship because it may lead to develop isolation and loneliness. It is a theory that stress the importance of culture and society in development of the personality.  GENERATIVITY VS. STAGNATION  Middle-Aged Adult (41-65 recordings of a familiar of object rings are parent’s voice objects performance preferred. years old) - This stage - Objects often involves external to Middle-aged adults start to extend concern from just experiences of themselves separation are recognized themselves and their family to community and the anxiety as causes of world. actions. - Throwing People with generativity are self-confident and are able and retrieving object handle different roles at the same time. becomes People without this sense become stagnated. enjoyable INTEGRITY VS. DESPAIR  Older Adult (65 years old – death) Nursing Implications Older adults with integrity feels good about the life choices they have made Creating a safe, stimulating, and supportive While, with those with a feeling of despair wish that life environment for infants to explore their world, achieve could be over again. developmental milestones, and build essential foundations for future cognitive and emotional growth Criticism of Erikson’s Theory THE PREOPERATIONAL STAGE: AGES 2 TO 7 YEARS OLD A criticism of Erikson’s psychosocial development is that life does not occur in easily divided stages, and trying to Toddler’s Age divide it that way can create superficial division Preschooler stage (Initiative thought) Children relearn on a conceptual level of the lessons PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT they mastered as infants at the sensorimotor level Jean Piaget (1896 – 1980) before having language Preoperational thoughts 2-7 years: A Swiss psychologist who introduced the concepts of - Children in this stage can use symbols to represent cognitive development or the way children learn and objects, a significant cognitive advancement think. - Egocentric, unable to see the viewpoint of another Piaget believed that learning proceeded by the interplay - Displays static thinking skills (inability to remember of assimilation and accommodation what they started talking about) Piaget proposed that cognition developed through - Concept of the time is now distinct stages from birth through end of adolescence. - No awareness of reversibility (Opposite action) By “stages” he mean a sequence of thinking and - Unable to state cause-effect relationships patterns with four key features: 1. The stages always happen in the same order Nursing Implications 2. No stage is ever skipped Fostering language and cognitive development, ensuring 3. Each stage is a significant transformation of the safety, providing emotional support, and educing stage before. parents on effective ways to interact and communicate What is “Cognition”? with their children. Derived from the Latin word “Cognoscere” which means THE CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE: AGES 7 TO 11 “to know” or “to recognize” or to “conceptualize” School-Aged Stage A term for mental processes that take place in the brain, Can discover concrete solutions to everyday problems including thinking, attention, language, learning, and recognize cause and effect relationships memory, and perception. Concrete operation thought: This theory is composed of four stages: - Uses memory to learn broad concepts and subgroups of concepts 1. Sensorimotor Stage - Classifications involve sorting objects according to 2. Preoperational Stage attributes such as color, and weight 3. Concrete Operational Stage - Child is aware of reversibility 4. Formal Operational Stage - Understand conversation - Good activity for this period: collecting and THE SENSORIMOTOR STAGE: BIRTH TO AGE 2 classifying natural Infant’s stage Nursing Implications: Babies relate to the world through their senses, using only reflex behavior. Providing educational, emotional, and health support Concept of “permanence”. Neonatal Reflex: 1 month: while guiding children through challenges and stimuli are assimilated into beginning mental image. opportunities of this cognitive development phase. Behavior entirely reflexive Nurses can help children build problem-solving skills, Primary Circular Secondary Coordination Tertiary Invention of New manage stress, and develop healthy and balanced Reaction (1-4 Circular with Circular Means through lifestyle, setting them on a path to continued cognitive months) Reaction (1-4 Secondary Reactions (12- Mental months) Reaction (8-12 18 months) Combinations growth and personal development months) (18-24 months) - Hand mouth - Infants learn - Infants can - Children - Children use THE FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE: AGES 11 AND BEYOND and eye ear to initiate, plan activities become more memory and coordination - Begins to spend recognize, and repeat to achieve specific goals. experimental discovering imitation to solve basic problems Adolescent Stage time observing pleasurable - They can new - They begin to Adolescents are capable of thinking in terms of the - They bring their experiences search and properties of display cognitive thumbs to the from their retrieve toys objects and flexibility possibility of what could be (abstract thought) rather mouths for self- environment. that are events. Toys that than being limited to thinking about what already is soothing and - Preferred temporarily - They develop encourage thumb sucking toys involve out of sight spatial creativity and Formal Operational thought: - Enjoyable interactions - They perception, a multiple uses, - Can solve hypothetical problems with scientific activities include like peek-a- recognize sense of time, like building rattles and boo and shapes and and blocks and reasoning mirrors sizes of understanding colored plastic  - Understand causality and can deal with past, Nursing Implications: Child often asks what the rules present, and future are and if something is right. May have difficulty - Good activity is talk time modifying a procedure because one method may not be right. Follows self-care measures only if someone is Criticisms of Piaget’s Theory there to enforce them. Overestimating the ability of adolescence and POST CONVENTIONAL (LEVEL III) underestimating infant’s capacity Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual rights  Older than 12 KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT Social contract, utilitarian law making perspectives. Lawrence Kohlberg (1927 – 1987) Follow standards of society for the good of all people Kohlberg studied the reasoning ability of boys, and Nursing implications: adolescents can be responsible based on Piaget’s developmental stages, developed a for self-care because they view this as a standard of theory on the way children gain knowledge of right and adult behavior wrong or moral reasoning Stage 6: Universal Principles  Older than 12 Significance Universal ethical principle orientation. Follows Recognizing where a child is developmentally staged at internalized standards of conduct in accordance to the child’s current moral reasoning, Nursing implications: many adults do not reach this helps determine whether they can be depended on to level of moral development carry out self-care activities such as administering their Criticism of Kohlberg’s theory own medicine or whether children have internalized standards of conduct so they do not cheat when away The theory faced frequent criticisms for being male- from external… oriented and having research conducted to entirely boys. Carol Gilligan, a sociologist, argued that there are This theory is composed of three levels: two modes of moral reasoning: the ethic of justice that 1. Pre-conventional focuses on individual rights and the ethic of care that - Stage 1: Obedience and punishment focuses on responsibilities in relationships; that girls - Stage 2: Individualism and exchange 2. Conventional - Stage 3: Good Interpersonal Relationships - Stage 4: Social Order 3. Post-conventional - Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual rights - Stage 6: Universal Principles PRECONVENTIONAL (LEVEL I) Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment  2-3 years of age Child does right because a parent tells him or her to and to avoid punishment - Nursing implications: Child needs help to determine what right actions are. Give clear instructions to avoid confusion Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange  4 – 7 years of age Individualism. Instrumental purpose and exchange. Carries out actions to satisfy own needs rather than societies. Will do something for another if that person does something for him or her - Nursing Implications: Child is unable to recognize that like situations require like actions. Unable to take responsibility for self-care because meeting own needs interferes with this. CONVENTIONAL (LEVEL II) Stage 3: Good Interpersonal Relationships  7 - 10 years of age Orientation to interpersonal relations of mutuality. Child follows rules because of a need to be a good person in own eyes and eyes of others Nursing Implications: Child enjoys helping others because this is a nice behavior. Allow child to help with bed making and other such activities. Praise for desired behavior Stage 4: Social Order  10 – 12 years of age Maintenance of social order, fixed rules, and authority. Child finds following rules satisfying. Follows rules of authority figures as well as parents in an effort to keep the system going