Theory Exam 2 PDF

I. Reproductive System A. Reproductive Themes 1. Modulation of Hormones that Regulate Cycles ○ Hormones: FSH (Follicle-Stimulating Hormone): Stimulates ovarian follicle growth in females and spermatogenesis in males. LH (...

I. Reproductive System A. Reproductive Themes 1. Modulation of Hormones that Regulate Cycles ○ Hormones: FSH (Follicle-Stimulating Hormone): Stimulates ovarian follicle growth in females and spermatogenesis in males. LH (Luteinizing Hormone): Triggers ovulation in females and testosterone production in males. Estrogen & Progesterone: Regulate female reproductive cycles, including menstruation and pregnancy. Prolactin: Stimulates milk production in females postpartum. Oxytocin: Stimulates uterine contractions during labor and milk ejection during breastfeeding. Testosterone: Promotes male secondary sexual characteristics and spermatogenesis. hCG (Human Chorionic Gonadotropin): Maintains the corpus luteum during early pregnancy. 2. Cycles of the Reproductive System ○ Follicular Phase: Development of ovarian follicles; estrogen levels rise. ○ Ovulation: Release of the mature egg from the ovary. ○ Luteal Phase: Corpus luteum forms and secretes progesterone. ○ Menstrual Phase: Shedding of the uterine lining. ○ Pregnancy: Hormonal changes to support fetal development.  ○ Menopause: Cessation of menstruation due to decreased hormone levels. B. Process of Fertilization Oocyte Pathway: Released from the ovary, travels through the fallopian tube, and awaits fertilization. Spermatocyte Pathway: Sperm travels through the cervix, uterus, and fallopian tube to meet the oocyte. C. Fetal Stages of Development Weeks 9-12: ○ Ossification centers appear in bones. ○ Differentiation of external genitalia. ○ Limb movement and brain enlargement (head size ~68mm). ○ Weight ~28g. Weeks 13-16: ○ Rapid body growth and continued ossification. ○ Brain and skull enlargement (head size ~123mm). ○ Weight ~170g. Weeks 17-20: ○ Stronger muscle movements, lanugo (fine hair), and vernix caseosa (protective skin coating). ○ External genitalia distinguishable on ultrasound (head size ~174mm). ○ Weight ~454g.  Weeks 21-38: ○ Significant weight gain (2.5-4.5 kg). ○ Subcutaneous fat deposited; eyebrows and eyelashes appear. ○ Blood cells form in red bone marrow (head size ~335mm). D. Diseases Ovarian Cancer- A type of cancer that begins in the ovaries, which are the female reproductive glands. It often goes undetected until it has spread within the pelvis and abdomen, making it harder to treat. ○ Symptoms: Bloating, pelvic pain, abdominal swelling, and changes in bowel habits. Ectopic Pregnancy- Occurs when a fertilized egg implants and grows outside the uterus, usually in a fallopian tube. This condition is a medical emergency as it can cause severe bleeding. ○ Symptoms: Sharp abdominal pain, vaginal bleeding, and dizziness. Cervical Cancer- Cancer of the cervix, the lower part of the uterus that connects to the vagina. It is commonly caused by the Human Papillomavirus (HPV). ○ Symptoms: Abnormal vaginal bleeding, pelvic pain, and pain during intercourse. Endometriosis- A condition where tissue similar to the lining of the uterus (endometrium) grows outside the uterus, causing pain and, in some cases, infertility. ○ Symptoms: Severe menstrual cramps, chronic pelvic pain, and pain during intercourse.  Breast Cancer- Cancer that forms in the cells of the breasts, often detected through lumps or changes in breast tissue. ○ Symptoms: Lump in the breast, changes in breast shape, nipple discharge, and skin dimpling. STIs: ○ Chlamydia- A bacterial infection that affects the genital tract, often asymptomatic. Symptoms: Painful urination, lower abdominal pain, and discharge. ○ ○ Genital Herpes- A viral infection caused by the herpes simplex virus, leading to sores on the genitals or mouth. Symptoms: Painful blisters or ulcers, itching, and flu-like symptoms. ○ Gonorrhea- A bacterial infection that affects the genital tract, rectum, and throat. Symptoms: Painful urination, pus-like discharge, and pelvic pain. Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH)- Non-cancerous enlargement of the prostate gland in men, often affecting older adults. It can cause urinary issues due to pressure on the urethra. ○ Symptoms: Frequent urination, difficulty starting urination, weak urine stream, and nighttime urination. Gestational Conditions:  ○ Gestational Diabetes- A form of diabetes that develops during pregnancy and affects how your cells use sugar (glucose), leading to high blood sugar levels. Symptoms: Often asymptomatic but can include excessive thirst, frequent urination, and fatigue. ○ Preeclampsia- A pregnancy complication characterized by high blood pressure and signs of damage to another organ system, often the liver or kidneys. Symptoms: High blood pressure, protein in urine, severe headaches, and swelling in hands and feet. II. Endocrine System A. Functions of the Endocrine System Regulation of Development, Growth, and Metabolism Homeostasis of Blood Composition and Volume Control of Digestive Processes Control of Reproductive Activities B. Endocrine Glands and Their Hormones Hypothalamus: Controls the pituitary. Pituitary Gland: ○ Anterior: TSH, PRL, FSH, LH, ACTH, GH  ○ Posterior: ADH, Oxytocin Pineal Gland: Melatonin (regulates sleep). Thyroid: Thyroid Hormones (T3, T4), Calcitonin. Parathyroid: PTH (raises blood calcium). Adrenal Cortex: Cortisol, Aldosterone, DHEA. Adrenal Medulla: Epinephrine/Norepinephrine. Pancreas: Insulin (lowers blood sugar), Glucagon (raises blood sugar). Gonads: Testosterone, Estrogen, Progesterone, Inhibin. Other Organs: Heart (ANP), Kidneys (EPO, Renin), Liver (IGFs), Skin (Vitamin D3). C. Endocrine Disorders Hyper/Hypo Conditions (e.g., Hypothyroidism, Hyperthyroidism) Acromegaly, Pituitary Gigantism Graves' Disease, Goiter Cushing Syndrome, Addison Disease Diabetes Mellitus (A1C test) III. Blood A. Functions of Blood Transportation of nutrients, gases, and waste.  Regulation of pH, temperature, and fluid balance. Protection against infections and blood loss. B. Components of Blood Plasma- making up 55% of total blood ○ Carries nutrients, hormones, proteins, waste production,and helps blood volume. Buffy Coat (WBCs and platelets)- makes up 1% of blood. ○ Part of the immune system, they protect the body against infections. Platelets: Help in blood clotting to prevent bleeding. Erythrocytes- making up about 45% of total blood volume. ○ Transport oxygen from the lungs to the body tissues and carry carbon dioxide back to the lungs for exhalation. Key: Hemoglobin, a protein that binds oxygen. Normal Blood Values: ○ Hematocrit- The percentage of blood volume made up of red blood cells. Males: 42-52% , Females: 37-47% ○ Glucose- Blood sugar level, important for diagnosing diabetes. Fasting: 70-100 mg/dL 2 hours after a meal: