Social Formations and Cultural Patterns of the Ancient World PDF - IGNOU BHIC-102

MPDD/IGNOU/P.O. 2.0K/November, 2020 (Reprint) BHIC-102 Social Formations and Cultural Indira Gandhi National Open University Patterns of the Ancient World School of Social Sciences BHIC-102 Social Formations and Cultural Patterns of the Ancient World ISBN: 978-93-89668-94-0 ^ ^ f' k{ k k e k u o d k scU /ku k sa lse qDr d j rhgSvk Sjv k t d s; qxesa r k s; gyksd ra= d h H kko uk d k vk/k k j Hk hgSA t UerFk k v U ; d k j.kk sa l smR i U utkf r, o ao x Zxr f o" k erkv k sa dk sn wjdjrsg q,euq" ;dk sb ul cls≈i j m Bk rh gSA * * &b f U n j kx ka/ kh “ Education is a liberating force, and in our age it is also a democratising force, cutting across the barriers of caste and class, smoothing out inequalities imposed by birth and other circumstances.” – Indira Gandhi BHIC-102 SOCIAL FORMATIONS AND CULTURAL PATTERNS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD School of Social Sciences Indira Gandhi National Open University EXPERT COMMITTEE Prof. Darvesh Gopal Dr. Sangeeta Pandey Prof. Abha Singh Director Faculty of History Faculty of History School of Social Sciences School of Social Sciences School of Social Sciences IGNOU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi Prof. P. K. Basant Dr. Nalini Taneja Prof. A.R. Khan (Convener) Department of History and Culture Campus of Open Learning Faculty of History Jamia Millia Islamia University of Delhi, Delhi School of Social Sciences New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi Prof. S. M. Azizuddin Prof. I. H. Siddiqui Department of History and Culture Professor of History (Retd.) Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi Aligarh Muslim University Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh Course Coordinator : Prof. Abha Singh General Editor : Prof. A.R. Khan COURSE TEAM Prof. Abha Singh Dr. Divya Sethi Dr. Priyanka Khanna COURSE PREPARATION TEAM Unit No. Course Writer 8. Dr. Sohinee Basak Centre for Historical Studies 1 Dr. Priyanka Khanna Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi School of Humanities & Social Sciences G.D. Goenka University, Haryana 9. Prof. Madhavi Thampi Honorary Fellow 2 Prof. Rashmi Sinha Institute of Chinese Studies, New Delhi Faculty of Anthropology School of Social Sciences 10. Dr. Shatarpura Bhattacharya IGNOU, New Delhi Lady Shri Ram College University of Delhi, Delhi 3 Dr. Shatarpura Bhattacharya Lady Shri Ram College 11. Dr. Bindu Sahni University of Delhi, Delhi Honorary Fellow Indian Institute of Advanced Studies, Shimla 4 Dr. Srimanjari Miranda House College 12. Dr. Jeena Jacob University of Delhi, Delhi Centre for Historical Studies Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 5 Dr. Srimanjari Miranda House College 13. Dr. Jeena Jacob University of Delhi, Delhi Centre for Historical Studies Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 6 Prof. P.K. Basant Department of History and Culture 14. Prof. Nalini Taneja Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi School of Open Learning University of Delhi, Delhi 7. Prof. Jaya Menon Shiv Nadar University 15. Prof. Nalini Taneja Gautam Budh Nagar, Uttar Pradesh School of Open Learning University of Delhi, Delhi CONTENT AND FORMAT EDITING Prof. Abha Singh Dr. Priyanka Khanna Dr. Divya Sethi Faculty of History Consultant Consultant School of Social Sciences Faculty of History Faculty of History IGNOU, New Delhi School of Social Sciences School of Social Sciences IGNOU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi November, 2020 (Reprint) Printed at : Gita Offset Printers Pvt. Ltd., C-90, Okhla Indl. Area, Phase-I, New Delhi-110020 Course Contents Pages Course Introduction 7 THEME I EVOLUTION OF HUMANKIND Unit 1 Pre-History and Sources 15 Unit 2 Biological Evolution of Humans 32 Unit 3 Palaeolithic and Mesolithic Cultures 50 THEME II FOOD PRODUCTION Unit 4 Domestication of Plants and Animals 73 Unit 5 EarlyAgriculture in Different Regions 91 Unit 6 Consequences of Agriculture 107 THEME III BRONZE AGE CIVILIZATIONS Unit 7 Bronze Age Civilizations: Main Features 123 Unit 8 Egyptian Civilization 140 Unit 9 Shang Civilization in China 158 THEME IV IRON AGE Unit 10 Use of Iron and Its Implications 179 Unit 11 Nomadic Groups in Central and West Asia 193 THEME V FORMATION OF EMPIRES Unit 12 Formation of Empires: Assyrian and Babylonian 223 Unit 13 Formation of Empires: Sassanid 236 THEME VI ANCIENT GREECE Unit 14 Democratic Polity in Greece 267 Unit 15 Greek Cultural Traditions 291 Guidelines for Study of the Course In this Course we have followed a uniform pattern for presenting the learning material. This starts with an introduction to the Course underlining the significant developments in chronological order and covers 6 major themes with coverage of 15 sub-themes or Units. For the convenience of study, all the Units have been presented with a uniform structure. Objectives as the first section of the Unit have been included to help you find what you are expected to learn from the study of the Unit. Please go through these objectives carefully and keep reflecting and checking them after studying a few sections of the Unit. Introduction of the Unit introduces you to the subject area covered and guides you to the way subject matter is presented. These are followed by the main subject area discussed through sections and sub-sections for ease of comprehension. In between the text, some check your progress exercises have been provided. We advise you to attempt these as and when you reach them. These will help you assess your study and test your comprehension of the subject studied. Compare your answers with the answer guidelines provided after the summary. The key words and unfamiliar terms have been provided at the end of each Unit, which have been marked in bold in the text. At the end of each Unit under Suggested Readings we have also provided a list of books and references. These include sources and books which are useful or have been consulted for developing the material for the concerned Unit. You should try to study them. We have also included instructional videos for an enhanced understanding by the students. Please try to watch these videos, they will help you in understanding and learning the subject matter in an all-inclusive manner. COURSE INTRODUCTION Origins of humans is as momentous a process as the very origin of life. However, we, the homo sapien sapiens, as biological specie, are very different from our ‘primate cousins’. In this course we propose to study the saga of this transformation as well as the leap of humans from hunter-gatherers to empire builders, their remarkable interaction with the nature and environment. The contribution of all humans spread over the regions took forward the story of this evolution and credit cannot be given to one or the other region or group of people. Thus, this Course should be seen as the history of humanity rather than that of individual societies and specific regions. The Course starts with a detailed discussion on how we get to know the story of human evolution. Here sources of our knowledge have been divided into two major parts. One, generally referred to as prehistory which is the period for which we do not have any written sources. Second, where we start getting the written records also along with other sources. Following this, we shall proceed to identify the phenomenon of human evolution. A broad understanding of human past begins with tracing the trajectory of human evolution. Changes in the climatic conditions led to better adaptability and emergence of bipedalism amongst species homo. The modern humans evolved, passing through many stages in more than a million years, some 40,000 years ago named homo sapiens. The human evolution was marked by not just biological changes but cultural changes as well. Diverse cultures were witnessed in different parts of the world during the Palaeolithic (2.5-0.01 MYA1) and Mesolithic (11,500-5000 BP2) periods in history. From making simple Oldowan tools (the oldest stone tool technology, named after Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania) the humans began to produce fine tools. From scavenging they evolved as expert hunter-gathers. These developments led to the transformation of hunting-gathering society to the complex food producing economies of the Neolithic period (c. 12,000-3500 BCE). Such a transition was not uniform at all the places and did not involve identical practices and patterns. For instance, there was diversity in the nature of agricultural practices in West Asia and in Mesoamerica, China and Europe. One of the basic stage for the beginning of agriculture was the domestication of plants and animals.Although production of food was not the reason behind this transition in all regions. The explanations for the origin of agriculture is debated amongst historians with no single reason gaining consensus. The impact of agriculture is considered by some experts as having such huge implications that they consider it as ‘Neolithic Revolution’. Varied patterns of material culture such as aesthetics in pottery designs, styles of weaving and metallurgic techniques emerged across different regions of the world. These trends promoted economic contacts amongst people, thereby encouraging interactions and cultural exchanges in addition to material exchanges. Thus, leading to the emergence of complex social formations and civilizations. For ease of understanding and comprehending the social formations and cultural patterns of the Ancient World, the Course is divided into six themes and the themes are further divided into 15 sub-themes. Each sub-theme is presented as a Unit or a Chapter. The Course begins with Evolution of Human Kind (Theme I) which gives an explanation of the central concern of historical research i.e. knowledge of the past. The attempt here is to provide a clear understanding of prehistory, protohistory, the earliest recorded history and various branches of modern knowledge of human past, especially the branches of archaeology and anthropology. Prehistory or the prehistoric period 1 Million Years Ago 2 Before Present 7 refers to the historical time-period when there was no writing or engagement with written records. The many procedures that are followed to gain insights on the process of human evolution and their cultures include analysis of artefacts and features found during an archaeological exploration. Besides these, the different dating methods, their merits and limitations are also elaborated. The field of archaeology has progressed in recent years. With the help of scientific technologies such as Seismic Methods investigation of submerged sites has also become possible. Thermoluminescence as a dating method is significant for understanding prehistoric cultures which practiced pottery-making (Unit 1). Biological evolution of humans is dealt in the Second Unit of the course. The Unit deals in detail with the pre-Darwin theories of evolution that included the evolutionary thought ranging from Greek theories of spontaneous generation, theories of medieval times, to the theories of organic evolution. During the mid-nineteenth century, Charles Darwin defined evolution in his work Origin of Species. This most influential theory of evolution was taken forward by Neo-Darwinists who supported the concept of natural selection. The breakthrough in the history of human evolution was achieved with the discovery of fossil records which ascertained the similarities and differentiation of humans from apes. A number of species of humans inhabited different parts of the world till the modern humans evolved and other species gradually became extinct. These are Homo sapiens or ‘wise human’ – the species to which the modern humans belong. Therefore, all these theories of evolution in addition to the evidence unearthed by paleoanthropologists have led to a comprehensive understanding of the trajectory of human evolution that spanned a time-period extending from 6,000,000 years ago to 40,000 years ago. The beginning of human evolution is associated with the cultural evolution which is discussed in the next Unit (3). It focuses on cultural patterns ranging from tool making cultures to art forms that had emerged in the world, especially in Europe and West Asia. The first of these stages of human development was the Palaeolithic Culture or Old Stone Age. It covers the time-period from around 2.5 million years ago to the time when humans were making stone tools of specific type. The Mesolithic Period or Middle Stone Age, which is generally understood as a prelude to Neolithic Period, on the other hand was marked by reduction in tool size and striking climatic changes. It was characterized by the microlithic tools and an intensification of food gathering strategies. The Mesolithic Period is the best manifestation of cultural adaptation of humans to a more sedentary existence based on early domestication of plants and animals. Thus, the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic period provided the foundation to the human society and paved the way for transformation of hunting-gathering-scavenging cultures to the food producing society of the Neolithic Period. The food procurement strategy of hunter-gatherers underwent a change towards the end of the Pleistocene epoch or Last Ice Age (Theme II). In the early Holocene epoch, there were drastic environmental changes that triggered changes in world geography and affected vegetation patterns. Thus, in order to cope up with these changes and deal with the food shortages, the humans broadened their diet and became dependent on a broad-spectrum economy consisting of specialized hunting, seasonal gathering, fishing and other activities. In many parts of the world people were exploring new ways of acquiring food. One of the prerequisites for the beginning of agriculture was the process of domestication of plants and animals, which has been dealt in Unit 4 of the Course. It is very difficult to arrive at the exact nature of the origin of agriculture as there is no single theory for the beginning of agriculture that has been accepted by historians. Although the how and why of the Neolithic transition remains among the intriguing 8 questions of prehistory, by about 6000 BCE substantial proportion of the world population was pursuing pastoral and farming activities on a regular basis. Due to its revolutionary significance, many scholars have termed the beginning of agriculture as Neolithic Revolution. One needs to remember that not every hunting gathering economy led to the domestication of plants and animals. Many sites reveal that there could be repeated settlements in the same region without full-blown agriculture being practiced (Unit 5). Though climate change did not induce agriculture, but it was one of the crucial factors that forced migratory trajectories at many places. Among other factors were the need to support large population and intensification of food procurement strategies. Many changes were witnessed such as new and sophisticated tool kit, changing housing patterns, other architectural constructs like flood control works, diversified human interference with nature, dependence on irrigation, elaborate village settlements, unique pottery styles, local adaptation of ideas, and regular exchange relations between regions. CatalHoyuk, Anatolia, is the largest and one of the most prominent of the late Neolithic sites. The transition to agriculture was a prerequisite for the emergence of complex societies and civilizations. It encouraged a more rigorous attitude towards nature and neighbouring human communities. To begin with, it had significant impact upon human physiology. The human diet became more diversified and cereals became an important component of their food regime. This stimulated long-distance trade and led to the introduction of ceramic pottery. Significant changes in the human skull, jawline and life-span were witnessed with many periodontal diseases being caused as a negative consequence. There was a consequent growth in qualities of observation and questioning faculties among the humans. With dependable supplies of grain at hand and augmented carrying capacity of land, settled agricultural populations tended to register an upsurge. Differentiation of roles was also enabled in the farming societies. New concerns of order and dispute, kinship ties, distribution of resources and workload surfaced. Such contestations explain the presence of fortifications in many Neolithic villages. Similar restructuring was visible in the field of belief systems and religion. New forms of worship of fertility cults and ancestor worship amongst early village communities were noticed. For example, ceremonial structures were found at the site of Gobelki Tepe in present-day Turkey. Noteworthy alterations in the material culture were also evident such as pottery, weaving and metallurgy. Pottery, among other features of material refinement, is a crucial archaeological artefact in the identification of a culture and related facets. Exchange of such commodities of production eventually promoted the diffusion of copper (usually in the Chalcolithic Period) and bronze metallurgy across the major sites of Neolithic period (Unit 6). In the trajectory of human usage of materials right from using stone, followed by copper- bronze and eventually with the shift to iron.‘Bronze Age’ signified a time-period in human history when bronze was used extensively for making tools. The term Bronze Age is not limited to just the material use by humans, it is also associated with a certain kind of social formation known as civilization. ‘Civilization’ is a stage of social development which is characterized by features such as writing system, art forms, craft and tool techniques, and belief systems. These features, manifested as regularities over a large geographical area, are known as ‘cultures’. Cultures were similar collections of artefacts in assemblages from a particular geographical area over a stretch of time. It needs to be remembered that not every region of the world went through Bronze Age but several civilizations did exist in time. We have discussed general features of Bronze Age Civilizations but specific study of only Egypt and China has been undertaken in this theme (Theme III). 9 The Bronze Age civilizations were marked by developed writing forms: the Cuneiform style in Mesopotamia, Hieroglyphs in Egypt and Oracle Bone Writings in China.The Bronze Age Civilizations were marked by levels of social stratification as apparent in the burials and writings recovered. Their settlements were largely along the river valleys and existed from roughly the fourth to the second millennium BCE. Urbanism constituted one of the major features of these civilizations to such an extent that Gordon V. Childe has termed this development as the Urban Revolution. The locale of the Bronze Age was the city. Craft specialization lent mobility to the people. Agricultural productivity was also dependent upon the technology of ploughing. In the absence of a monetary economy, high levels of specialization were achieved through the systematic labour appropriation. Much of this information is assessed through the myths and stories that were recorded then. There appears to be a strong correlation between wealth, power and prestige in these societies. Rulers emerged as autocratic personalities who had appropriated both secular as well as sacred authority. Competencies among the city- states led to the emergence of secular power centres (Unit 7). The magnificent pyramids constructed during the Bronze Age in Egypt are still considered to be one of the wonders of the world and at the same time as the symbol of great exploitation as these were built through slave labour. The presence of maritime trade and sea faring activities of the Egyptians are documented in their paintings of ships and boats (Unit 8). At the same time, another distinctive Bronze Age culture which got flourished was in the region of China (Unit 9). The unique and unvarying bronze casting technology and unearthing of the largest collection of bronze objects from here have been the marvel of technology. The legacy of the Shang as a formative period in Chinese civilization justifies the study of this Bronze Age civilization during the journey of this Course. The emergence of Iron Age (Theme IV) is contemporaneous with the decline of Bronze Age cultures and coming of nomadic groups. Unlike bronze which was an elite metal alloy, the use of iron had a greater impact on society due to its easy availability in most of the regions. The shift to iron as a metal of choice is considered by some scholars to be as significant in human history as the domestication of plants and animals.The knowledge of iron smelting and its strength is said to have democratized agriculture, industry and warfare. Early iron objects were accidental by-products with the know- how of smelting developing over a period of time (Unit 10). Later, the Greeks and Persians employed iron for the purposes of construction. Thus, iron emerged from being a precious metal to a metal of common use. Another crucial development during this period was the domestication of horse and the introduction of chariots with spoked wheels. Therefore, during the Iron Age in addition to the introduction and spread of iron technology, manifold increase in extension of cultivation with increased agricultural production was an important feature. This along with emergence of a horse riding warrior class, money, trade and new towns transformed the society. The Eleventh Unit discusses the major nomadic groups of Central and West Asia roughly from seventh century BCE. In the case of Central Asia, its environmental reasons, along with foraging eventually paved the way for the establishment of Nomadic Empires. Horse riding emerged as one of the factors that facilitated the domination of nomads in the region for several centuries. The horse and their peculiar tents based on principles of social hierarchy, known as yurts, lent them ease of mobility. In the sixth and seventh century, the Hephthalites were the most powerful nomadic group of Central Asia. However, by the tenth and eleventh century, several powerful states including that of Samanids, Seljuk Turks and Khwarezmid Empire had emerged powerful in this region. These nomadic groups shared a relationship of cooperation and conflicts with their neighbouring sedentary communities. With the use of weapons, the former gained 10 supremacy over the latter. The interior of the Arabian Peninsula, Southern Syria and Iraq was occupied by the Arab nomads, called the Bedouins. The origin of Bedoiuns is a subject of contestation amongst the scholars. Their relationship with the Sleybs of Arabia has been discussed in detail in the Unit 11. The nomadic groups of West Asia and Eurasia were acquainted with highly developed techniques of livestock-rearing, grazing of herds, nomadic movements and various forms of crafts and warfare. They also had a unique and highly developed social structure based on the dual system of individual ownership of herds and communal ownership of pastureland. They were usually settled near the oasis, i.e. in vicinity of the settled agriculturalists. The nomads lived under the leadership of their chiefs who possessed a great deal of power over their fellow tribesmen. Nomadic cultural life presented itself with rich colours. Though certain nomadic groups, like Mongols, consolidated their power and formed nomadic empire. The new political formation known as the Empire, thus, originated in the region of West Asia (Theme V). These empires were mostly monarchical in nature, functioned through the collection of tribute and comprised of people having kinship ties amongst themselves (either due to their ethnic background or tribal linkages). These expansive empires necessitated foundation of organized systems such as taxation systems, elaborate bureaucratic and legal systems, and a standing army. The Babylonians of Mesopotamia initiated the process of empire formation, followed by the Hittites and the Assyrians. These empires served as a model for various subsequent empires that arose in the region and elsewhere (Unit 12).The next Unit (13) deals with the Sassanid Empire, its growth and consolidation, administrative institutions, social organization, economy and urbanization, religion and culture of the empire. The period of Sasanian empire is considered to be the Golden Age of pre-Islamic Iranian empire. The trajectory of the empire is generally said to have begun around the fourth and third century BCE when its foundation was laid. This was followed by a period of decline wherein the Hephthalites invaded the region. Under the rule of Khusrau (who introduced many reforms in various systems of governance in the empire), the empire attained great heights and witnessed multiple rulers in succession. Finally, the Arabs moved into the region marking the decline of the empire. The last Theme (VI) of the Course covers the Greek Civilization: its geographical extent; diverse sources; social, political and economic aspects of Greek society. Other important aspects covered in the Unit are urbanism; material culture; Greek world view; nature of democracy; the existence of slavery; and its legacy. The Greek Civilization of ancient world was a shifting geographical entity with the Mediterranean Sea at its core (Unit 14). In the age of empire formation, the Greek society remained a collectivity of independent city-states (such as Athens and Sparta) that constituted a civilizational unity. With the collapse of Mycenaean Civilization, the so-called ‘Dark Age’commenced with disappearance of long-distance trade, decline in economy, destruction of cities, and disruption of social life. The Greek society,with all its rational and civil buoyance, was essentially a slave society along with other forms of labour in co-existence. There existed a unique relationship between town and countryside. The economy was based on strong trading network, especially coastal trade with no city-state extending beyond twenty-five miles inland. There were frictions between the landed class and peasantry. Women were subordinated. They were not considered citizens and could not participate in the political realm. The Greek city-states or polis were a mix of monarchy, oligarchy and democracy as institutions of governance. 11 The last Unit (15) of this course provides an in-depth analysis of the Greek cultural developments, distinct from the preceding Unit wherein the social basis of Greek democratic polity was discussed. The Greek philosophers provided richness to the Greek cultural traditions. They were aware of the contributions of the East rather than the indigenous developments alone in its prosperity. Many thinkers emerged during the long era, the most famous of them known today being Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. Aristotle, considered as the Father of Western Philosophy, contributed works in zoology, physics, metaphysics and politics, among other fields. Greek medicine and science, thus, opened up new avenues of knowledge storehouses. It is the Greeks who are credited with founding the basic elements of what we refer today as historiography. Herodotus is considered as the world’s first historian. Thucydides, on the other hand, is credited with writing the first scientific history. Greek philosophy explored explanations to fundamental natural phenomenon. They speculated the rationality and workings behind these phenomenon. With this rationality, it became possible to challenge the religious and mythical beliefs. Through the Dark Ages, Archaic and Classical Greece, public rituals became more elaborate with huge temple complexes serving as community spaces. For example, the temples at Delphi and Olympia. The city-states are said to have been held together by the myths and stories adored across the region. The Greek literature carried didactic expressions of universal values. Epics like Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey described in detail not only the society of that time, but also the perceptions of human life held by the author. The realm of art, architecture and sculpture travelled from the collective to the individual. With the celebration of human prowess, physical strength and sports eventually became an essential part of their lives. The modern-day Olympic dates back to the Ancient Greece. 12 Theme I Evolution of Humankind Time line Miocene Epoch: 23 to 5.3 MYA (Million Years Ago) Pliocene Period: 5.3 to 2.6 MYA (Million Years Ago) Pleistocene Period: 2.58 to 11,700 MYA (Million Years Ago) LowerPalaeolithic Period/Old Stone Age: 2.5 to 2 MYA (Million Years Ago) Middle Palaeolithic Period: 128,000 to 78,000 MYA (Million Years Ago) UpperPalaeolithic Period: 0.04 to 0.01 MYA (Million Years Ago) Mesolithic Period/Middle Stone Age: 11,500 to 5,000 BP (Before Present) Photograph: Paleolithic cave painting in Dordogne, France. Credit: Locutus Borg, 2007 Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Gabillou_Sorcier.png UNIT 1 PRE-HISTORY AND SOURCES* Structure 1.1 Objectives 1.2 Introduction 1.3 What is Prehistory? 1.4 Branches of Knowledge on Prehistory 1.5 An Introduction to Archaeology 1.6 Sources and Methods of Archaeological Research 1.7 Dating Methods in Archaeology 1.8 What is Anthropology? 1.9 Branches of Anthropology 1.10 Summary 1.11 Key Words 1.12 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises 1.13 Suggested Readings 1.14 Instructional Video Recommendations 1.1 OBJECTIVES In this Unit, we will discuss about Prehistory and its sources. The period of history for which there are no written records is generally referred as Prehistory. After going through this Unit, you would be able to: z Define the meaning of prehistory; z Outline the difference between prehistory, protohistory and history; z Identify the sources on prehistory; z Identify the main branches of research on prehistory; z Explain the meaning and methods of archaeological research; z Discover the meaning and methods of anthropological research; z Distinguish between archaeology and anthropology; and z Discover the new developments in research on prehistoric period. A study of prehistory and its sources is important to comprehend the nature of the past where there was no written documentation. This will also help you to identify and compare the transition from prehistory to the historical period. * Dr. Priyanka Khanna, School of Humanities and Social Sciences, G.D. Goenka University, Gurgaon, Haryana. 15 Evolution of Humankind 1.2 INTRODUCTION The recovery of knowledge of the past is the central concern of historical research. In this Unit we will journey back to prehistory the period of human evolution and activities before the availability of written records. Prehistory is now recognised as a vast field of human experience. It gained serious academic recognition particularly from the publication of Charles Darwin’s seminal works – On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection in 1859 and Descent of Man in 1871 wherein the fossil record of human origins and the worldwide evidence of the origins of civilization was documented remarkably. Since then, significant research and methods have been developed to recover knowledge on prehistory. This Unit will discuss the major characteristics, sources and significant branches of research on prehistory. 1.3 WHAT IS PREHISTORY? Prehistory, also called the prehistoric period, refers to the period extending back when there was no writing and no engagement with written documentation. The beginning of prehistory is indicated with the origin of the earliest representatives of genus Homo (comprising the modern humans and the group of their close extinct ancestors – detailed in Unit 2 of this course). This evidence is currently dated between 5-2 million years before present (BP) in Africa, approximately one million years ago in Europe and Asia, an estimated 40,000 years BP in Australia, and even less in America. BEFORE PRESENT (BP) z This dating scale originated after the invention of Radio Carbon dating method in the late 1940’s (See Section 1.7). z c.1950 is used as the reference point to indicate ‘the present’ in this method of dating scale. The term ‘prehistory’ originated from the phrase période anti-historique which was coined by French archaeologist Paul Tournal in 1833 to refer to the period of human history before the emergence of written documents (Grayson, 1983). The French phrase shrank to ‘prehistory’ and was first used in 1851 by Daniel Wilson in his seminal book The Archaeology and Prehistoric Annals of Scotland.1 The term ‘prehistory’ was initially coined to indicate the period during which humans were the contemporaries of animals now extinct, the remains of which were found by geologists (scientists who study the solid and liquid matter that constitutes the Earth) and palaeontologists (scientists who study fossils) in old geological deposits. Prehistory now encompasses the entire span of human cultural evolution before written documentation that extends back at least 2.6 million years. In the absence of written records from this period, artefacts or material remains form the primary source of understanding prehistory. The material remains are available mostly in the form of stone tools, the remains of animals, human fossils, biofacts and cultural landscapes, more on which is detailed in the later Sections of this Unit. It is important to learn here that between prehistory and the earliest recorded history, researchers have identified a transitory period which is termed as protohistory. The term protohistory was coined to denote the period in a culture that occurred immediately before its recorded history begins. Protohistory is also used to indicate the history of a people or of a region in a period during which the people or the region’s inhabitants were still illiterate but were written about in the texts of neighbouring peoples who were 1 The term ‘prehistory’ was however given wider coverage by Sir John Lubbock in his Prehistoric Times: As Illustrated by Ancient Remains, and the Manners and Customs of Modern Savages, 16 published in 1865 (London and Edinburgh: Williams and Norgate). more advanced and already literate. For example, in the 4th century BCE, the Celtic Pre-History tribes were written about by Greek and Latin historians while the tribe was still illiterate and Sources (History of Humanity, I: 95). The term ‘protohistoric’ is often also used for populations whose writing has not been understood so far (e.g. the language of the Etruscans, the ancient Italic people and the Harappans). 1.4 BRANCHES OF KNOWLEDGE ON PREHISTORY The study of the evolution and development of the modern human has remained a central concern of many branches of modern knowledge. Different branches of the physical and biological sciences, medical sciences, linguistic studies, fine arts and the social sciences, to name a few. All these areas of study work upon with diverse methodologies to arrive at the knowledge of the human past. As the narration of all these fields and the nature of the sources they work upon is too vast to be covered in this Course, we will primarily confine the discussion here to two fields of social sciences – Archaeology and Anthropology. The Unit will elaborate the sources and research methods of these two fields to provide you with insights on the process of human evolution and their cultures. 1.5 AN INTRODUCTION TO ARCHAEOLOGY Archaeology is a field of inquiry that provides the knowledge of the past through a study of the material remains. The oldest roots of the study of prehistory is to be sought in the activities of antiquaries (people, mainly elites, who collected antiques). The antiquaries paved way for the emergence of classical archaeology around the 14th – 15th centuries in Europe during the period of Renaissance (14-17th centuries CE) and Humanism (emerged in late 14th century CE). Archaeology delves back into the time before written languages existed through an analysis of things made and left behind by the humans in the past. Through an analysis of such materials, archaeology provides us with a glimpse of the lives of people in the past. Archaeology is however not confined to providing knowledge of prehistory. It is in fact the only field of study that covers all time periods and all geographic regions inhabited by humans. With the developments in archaeological methods of research, archaeology informs us about the lives of individuals, families and communities that for lack of documentary evidence could have remained invisible. 1.6 SOURCES AND METHODS OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH Artefacts or material remains from the past form the primary source of archaeological research on prehistory. An artefact is ‘any portable object used, modified, or made by humans’ (Renfrew and Bahn, 2008: 578). Artefacts come in many forms, such as those listed below: a) crude or finely made tools of stone, bone and other remains which may be thousands or even millions of years’ old b) durable pot fragments of clay and stone vessels used by early farmers c) bones and their fragments d) wooden artefacts e) textiles 17 Evolution of Humankind Figure 1.1 : Prehistoric stone tools found in Les Combarelles cave, in Les Eyzies de Tayac, Dordogne France. Dated near 12,000 - 10,000 BP. Credit: Semhur, 2009 Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/Prehistoric_Tools_- _Les_Combarelles_-_Les_Eyzies_de_Tayac_-_MNP.jpg Figure 1.2 : Prehistoric cave paintings from Lascaux, Dordogne, France Dated over 17000 BP Credit: Prof. Saxx, 2006 Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/Lascaux_painting.jpg Non-portable artefacts called ‘features’ are also important sources of information on archaeological sites. Features include things like soil stains that indicate where a storage pit, garbage dump, structures, or fences may have once existed. Similarly, biofacts (also called ecofacts) or natural remains found on archaeological sites also help archaeologists to understand the past. Biofact primarily include organic remains of animals 18 and plants such as animal bones, pollen seeds and wood which particularly help in determining the diet, food habits and subsistence patterns of the people. The availability Pre-History of one or more kind of material remains on a site depends on the natural preservation and Sources conditions, viz. the climate and environment, of a region. Everything found on the site is however of relevance for the archaeologists as each provides an indication to human behaviour in the past. Reconstructing this behaviour from fragmentary records requires great scientific skill, insight, and creativity. For this purpose, archaeologists follow a series of research steps that are highlighted in the box that follows. Steps of Archaeological Exploration 1) Research: to identify a site and by reading previous research, if any, understand the worth of a site for exploration. At this level, the archaeologist is primarily interested in the spatial aspect. 2) Land Reconnaissance: personal investigation of the field to find groupings/clusters of artefacts. This method is also followed to locate a site. Once at site, identify landmarks that indicate human presence and activity. 3) Test Pitting: in this step the excavators do a thorough survey of the site to locate the spot of maximum artefacts which is taken to indicate the heart of the site wherein full excavations (unearthing or digging a site) are begun. 4) Full Excavation: the entire site is excavated and alongside the archaeologists draw maps, take measurements and collect artefacts. The process also involves cleaning, sorting, counting and drawing samples of artefacts found. It is important to note here that the artefacts discovered in an archaeological deposit are always found within the context of a series of layers or strata. This constitutes what is called stratification of the site i.e. the superimposition of one layer or strata on top of the other. The study of stratification by archaeologists is called stratigraphy. The basic idea of superimposition is that in any series of undisturbed strata the bottom layers are older while the top most layers are youngest. When an archaeologist identifies the different layers of an excavated site it is called ‘reading the section’. This is an important step in understanding a site and a prerequisite for its proper excavation. An archaeologist must also ascertain which layers are meaningful and chronologically viable. The identification of individual strata is based on a series of criteria such as colour of the layer, soil composition (pebbles, gravel, sand or silt), texture, cultural materials occurring within the layer, etc. 5) Reconstruction and Cataloguing: the archaeologists move to the lab with the artefacts where each of them is catalogued. 6) Analysis: this involves the scientific study of the collected artefacts. Such study then reveals one or more of the following information: age of the artefact, material of the artefact, its usage, how often was it used and so on. 7) Reporting: the main point of digging is to derive and spread knowledge of the past so at this stage the gathered wisdom from the artefact(s) is made available for public by way of publication or/and displaying the artefact(s) at a museum. Partially adapted from: https://prezi.com/1plupeynwwpv/the-seven-stages-of-archaeology For more details on excavation, see the following documentaries: ‘The Excavation Process: How We Excavate’ from https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=PcT1vGyJzyg ‘Unearthing the Past’ from http://www.egyankosh.ac.in/youtubevideo.jsp?src= P4LVNTL8egk&title=Unearthing%20the%20Past As elaborated above, the selection of a site is the first and the most important step in archaeological research. Earlier the sites were selected based on information from oral tradition, mythological references, finds of certain items on the surface due to soil erosion or shapes of the mounds. Many important sites have also come to notice accidentally 19 Evolution of or by chance, while digging through building construction, laying of roads, railway lines Humankind or in the process of cultivating a land. The Harappan Civilization, for instance, first came to light when some contractors who were laying a railway line nearby decided to procure bricks from the mound and exposed it. Subsequent excavations of the mound, as is well known, went on to reveal the earliest civilization of the Indian subcontinent. In recent times, archaeologists employ many scientific methods to gather a proof or indication of human habitation on a site in past. Some of these recent archaeological methods of inquiry are: 1) Aerial Photography: This method involves taking of aerial photographs of a field either from an aircraft, a helicopter, a hot air balloon or with the help of a drone. Deployed with the help of highly accurate cameras, the aerial photographs are taken to record changes in the level of the ground surface. The photographs also help to record differences in the colouring of the soil (soil marks) or the development of vegetation (crop marks), which are often a result of buried archaeological Figure 1.3 : Aerial archaeological photograph of remains. Owing to its nature, the “Nazca monkey” in Peru this method is more effective Credit: Maria Reiche,1953 in open landscape and is not Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/3/3b/Nazca_monkey.jpg suitable for surveying a forested area. The method has been in use for archaeological research since 1919 (For examples of aerial photographs, see the photographs in Georg Gerster. 2005. The Past from Above: Aerial Photographs of Archaeological Sites. ed. Charlotte Trumpler. Los Angeles: Getty Publications).2 2) Underwater Prospection or Marine Archaeology: This method is employed to detect archaeological objects and submerged sites in marine and fresh water. The method has been particularly useful in recovering wrecks of ships. Formal systematic investigation in this field gained prominence with the availability of modern equipment and in particular by the invention of the aqualung (underwater breathing apparatus that has promoted scuba diving) by Cousteau and Gagnan around 1943. Tools such as underwater television camera and bathyscaphe (a deep sea submersible free-diving vessel) are other important instruments used for underwater surveys.3 2 For more information on methods and tools of aerial photography, see, https://www.jstor.org/ stable/pdf/277280.pdf?refreqid=search%3A18d0eebe497372b8716ba5ea76ed57f9 3 For a detailed discussion on underwater and fresh water archaeology, see, https://www.jstor.org/ stable/pdf/0562008.pdf?refreqid=search%3A7faa211567c6f4597417b3dfdaa2ce9b ; https:// www.jstor.org/stable/pdf 20617994.pdf?refreqid=search%3A9edb4c1038d9fea98e 20 2889501eb44e48 Pre-History and Sources Figure 1.4 : Wreck of British steel cargo ship E. Russ in Estonia, North Europe. Credit: Juha Flinkman, SubZone OY, 2013 Source:https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/Kaubalaeva_%22E._ Russ%22_vrakk.jpg 3) Magnetic Survey: This method, also known as magnetometry, involves a geophysical survey technique which helps in detecting and defining areas of past human activity. This is done by way of mapping spatial variations and contrast in the magnetic properties of soil, subsoil and bedrock. The technique is carried out over grasslands, crop fields and areas of open soil. The method is particularly helpful to detect and define metal objects, ovens, hearths, filled-in pits and wells, foundations, tombs and other structures. Caesium magnetometers and fluxgate gradiometers are currently the primary instruments used for magnetic prospection in archaeological research. These instruments help in ascertaining the magnetic waves and thereof help in indicating the date and associated knowledge about an artefact.4 Figure 1.5 : Fluxgate Magnetometer Credit: Zureks, 2008 Source:https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Magnetometr_transduktorowy_ by_Zureks.jpg 4 For details of this method, see A. Schmidt. 2007. ‘Archaeology, Magnetic Methods’. In D. Gubbins and E. Herrero-Bervera (eds) Encyclopedia of Geomagnetism and Paleomagnetism: 23-31. Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. Heidelberg, Springer : 23-31.. PDF Download Available from the following web link: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/ 228666190_Archaeology_magnetic_methods. 21 Evolution of 4) Chemical Analysis of Soil: This procedure is conducted to measure the content Humankind of phosphate and potassium in a soil which help to indicate the presence of human activity in early periods.5 5) Detection of Anomalies in Subsoil: In this method archaeologists use an electric device called potentiometer to measure the resistivity or resisting power of a subsoil. Variations in resistivity and the detection and extent of any anomalies/irregularities are used to deduce the possible presence of archaeological structures such as cultural layers, stone walls, ditches, graves, etc. For instance, the presence of foundations is deduced if the conductivity or the power of resisting electric current is seen to be reducing in the subsoil. Increased conductivity, on the other hand, indicates the presence of filled-in pits.6 6) Prospection by Acoustic or Seismic Methods: In this method, a ground is struck to record the resulting sound and vibrations. The method is executed by using instruments that register vibratory phenomena obtained by reflection, refraction or resonance following the sounding of the site or variable-frequency Hertzian wave transmission. The method is particularly helpful in identifying and investigating submerged sites and proves useful if combined with underwater prospection. While all these modern techniques are significant contributors to archaeological research yet the result from such inspections are only indicative. Therefore, it is always imperative for archaeologists to make a physical inspection of the site before finalising its excavation. When it comes to analysing the remains and artefacts found during excavation, one of the important aspect is to determine and preserve the location of the find, including to record, the layer at which it was spotted. Any artefact in isolation removed from its site and location serves very little purpose for the archaeologist.7 To overcome this problem, archaeologist draw detailed maps and site plans of different portions of the site. Detailed records are kept in the form of diaries and markings on site plans of the location of finds. No excavation is of relevance unless records of these maps, plans and location of structures and artefacts have been maintained. The record of the shape, measurement of material and physical examination of each find is an essential element of excavation. Check Your Progress Exercise-1 1) Explain Prehistory in about 50 words.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2) What is the difference between Prehistory and Protohistory?..................................................................................................................... 5 For details of this process, see, https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/ 276788.pdf?refreqid=search%3A3ee2e08b47a983f42563c9254349a44a 6 For more information on this method, see Anthony Clark. 2003. Seeing Beneath the Soil: Prospecting Methods in Archaeology, new edition. New York: Routledge. 7 Thousands of valuable objects have been lost to archaeologists and historians as they have 22 been removed from their original settings and sold as artefacts by thieves and diggers...................................................................................................................... Pre-History and Sources............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3) What is an artefact?......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4) List the steps of archaeological research.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5) How has the field of archaeology progressed in recent times?......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1.7 DATING METHODS IN ARCHAEOLOGY A crucial aspect of archaeological research is fixing the date of an excavated object and site. This part of the research process is termed as dating. Working without the aid of written records or calendars, in the days before accurate dating techniques were available, the early archaeologists often found that chronological ordering constituted an enormous but necessary undertaking. Therefore, a major focus of early archaeologists became the ordering of archaeological materials into space-time frameworks. Over the years, archaeologists have come to employ several methods to determine the actual or approximate period of an artefact and culture. Some of the most commonly used methods are as follows: Dendrochronology: This method is based on the analysis of the number of annual growth rings on trees and the variations in thickness of those rings which incurs due to the influence of the climate. However, not all species of trees are equally affected by climatic variations and this poses a limitation for this dating process. Further, the data concerning a given region cannot automatically be transferred to another one with a different microclimate. Nevertheless, dendrochronology is increasingly used now because it enables the datingof actual wood samples going back as far as eight millennia. The 23 Evolution of method has also gained importance since it can be used to check the accuracy of other Humankind dating methods, particularly, that of radiocarbon dating. Radiocarbon Dating: Also called Carbon-14 or 14-C, radiocarbon dating is the most common scientific dating method. The method is based on the cosmic ray production of new atoms in matter, also known as the principle of radioactive decay. Carbon-14 lasts 8300 years on an average before reverting in radioactive decay to nitrogen-14 and during this time, it enters all living things as well as sea water and air. Chemically carbon dioxide which is a product of the combustion of carbon with air (which is 20 % oxygen) is the food of life and presumably the freshly produced radiocarbon is passed on uniformly to all living beings through carbon dioxide. Only when a plant or animal dies does the uptake of 14C begin to decline through radioactive decay. The American chemist Williard Libby first used this method to calculate radiocarbon dates and estimated that it took 5568 years for half the 14C in a sample to decay its half-life. Modern research suggests that the more accurate figure is 5730 years. However, knowing the decay rate or half-life of 14C, Libby recognised that the age of dead plant or animal tissue could be calculated by measuring the amount of radiocarbon left in a sample. Libby’s great practical achievement was to devise an accurate means of measurement. The traces of 14C are minute to start with and are reduced by half after 5730 years. After 23000 years, only one sixteenth of the original tiny concentration of 14C is available to be measured in the sample. Libby discovered that each atom of 14C decays releasing beta particles and he succeeded in counting these emissions using a Geiger counter. This is the basis of the conventional method which is still employed by many radiocarbon laboratories. Samples usually consist of organic materials found on archaeological sites, such as charcoal, wood, seeds, and other plant remains, and human or animal bones. While C-14 method is most effective in determining the dates of objects which contain carbon content like wood and charcoal, the method is also helpful in determining the dates of other objects (which do not have carbon content) found on the same site or layer. The accurate measurement of the 14C activity of a sample can be affected by counting errors, background cosmic radiation, poor sampling techniques, and other unaccounted factors. Despite these limitations, C-14 is one of the primary dating tool for organic materials that go back to about 50,000 to 80,000 years ago. The dates so ascertained are generally expressed in Before Present (BP) (See Section 1.3). Potassium-Argon Dating: This method, also known as K-Ar dating, is based on the fact that a radioactive isotope of potassium (K40) which is present in minute quantities in rocks and volcanic ash, decays into the gas argon (Ar40) at a known rate (half of a given amount of K40 will change into Ar40 in about 1.3 billion years). Since Ar40 is a gas, it escapes when rock is molten (as in lava), but when the rock cools, the Ar40 gets trapped inside. By using sensitive instruments to measure the ratio of K40 to Ar40, it is then possible to estimate the time taken by a rock or ash to cool and solidify. Because of the long half-life of K40 (1.30 billion years), potassium-argon dating can be used to estimate dates of materials dating back to several million years. Palaeomagnetism: This dating method was introduced to archaeology in the early to mid- 1960s by Dr. Robert Dubois. Magnetism occurs whenever electrically charged particles are in motion. This method relies on remnant magnetism on earth and is the study of the record of the Earth’s magnetic field preserved in various magnetic minerals through time. To elaborate, when clay is heated, the microscopic iron particles within it acquire a 24 remnant magnetism parallel to the earth’s magnetic field. These particles point toward the location around the geographic north pole where the magnetic north pole was at Pre-History that moment in its wandering. Once the clay cools, the iron particles maintain that and Sources magnetism until the clay is reheated. By using other dating methods (such as dendrochronology or radiocarbon dating) to obtain the absolute date of an archaeological feature (such as a hearth) and measuring the direction of magnetism and wander in the clay, it is possible to determine the location of the magnetic north pole at the time this clay was last fired. This process is called the virtual geomagnetic pole or VGP. Archaeologists assemble many of ancient VGPs and construct a composite curve of polar wandering (known as the VGP curve). The VGP curve is then used as a master record against which the VGPs of samples of an unknown age are compared to and assigned a date. Figure 1.6 : Representation of a virtual geomagnetic pole Credit: Geek3, 2010 Adapted from https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/VFPt_Dipole_field.svg Thermoluminescence (TL): This method is used mainly for dating objects made of bakedclay. The soil, including the clay from which pottery is made, contains many natural isotopes mainly of uranium, thorium, potassium and rubidium, which irradiate certain minerals such as quartz causing displacement of electrons which then accumulate in ‘traps’ (or defects in the crystal lattice) at a regular rate. When such minerals are heated, the accumulated energy is liberated at 320 degrees Celsius or more in the form of light. Once they have cooled such minerals again accumulate energy owing to radioactivity. For instance, a piece of pottery when fired, releases the energy accumulated in the quartz it contains, but as soon as it cools down, the quartz again starts to accumulate energy. On the other hand, when potsherds are heated, extra energy is liberated with the emission of light. The intensity of this light depends on the quantity of accumulated energy. The light is measured by means of laboratory processes, and on that basis, the rate of energy accumulation is ascertained whereby archaeologists can calculate the time elapsed since the baking of a pot. This method can also be applied to flints that have been subjected to fire and therefore the method holds significance for dating prehistoric cultures which were familiar with the making of pottery. There exist many other dating methods like the electron spin resonance, uranium series, fission-track dating etc, but we will not go into their details here primarily because in archaeology, the other methods either have a restricted field of application or are still in the experimental stage. 25 Evolution of Check Your Progress Exercise-2 Humankind 1) Name and describe the most common scientific dating method for organic materials in Archaeology.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2) Which of the following methods for dating a feature relies on the position of geomagnetic field on Earth’s surface to date a deposit: a) Thermoluminescence b) Palaeomagnetism c) C-14 d) Potassium-Argon Dating 3) What is K-Ar dating?......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1.8 WHAT IS ANTHROPOLOGY? Anthropology is a branch of knowledge that explores the biological evolution of humans and their culture. Anthropologists help in analysing the changes in the biological, and physical features and forms of various types of hominids i.e. any member of the group consisting of all modern and extinct humans and great apes including gorillas, chimpanzees, and orangutans and all their immediate ancestors, through millions of years. The cultural patterns, food habits, behavioural patterns and communication methods of early men are the other areas where anthropology helps us in understanding prehistory.8 Archaeology as the study of the ancient and recent human past through material remains is in fact a subfield of anthropology which is the study of all human culture. Therefore, when an archaeologist excavates a cemetery for instance, he or she is advised to collaborate with an anthropologist who can provide information of a demographic nature – the age, sex and stature of the dead. Like archaeology, anthropology involves several research steps: 1) The first step of anthropological research is to determine whether a discovered artefact is a bone or not. 2) Next comes the dating. Anthropologists can often determine the approximate date of a skeleton by the context of deposition. 8 One must however remember here that in addition to prehistory, physical anthropology also 26 deals with more recent times. 3) An analysis of the location, position, and condition of the body which gives clues Pre-History to probable events that would have led to the burial. and Sources 4) In the next step, anthropologists attempt at developing a biological profile: age, sex, stature and ancestry through the recovered bone. By examining the size, shape, and structure of a bone, an anthropologist determines if the bone is of a human or an animal.9 At times, this also helps to indicate the cause of the death. 5) Further interpretation, such as what a bone seems to indicate, its importance and associated features are detailed in report writing. It might be added that the study of cremated bones can yield information similar to that obtained from studies of uncremated ones. 1.9 BRANCHES OF ANTHROPOLOGY Anthropology comprises four major sub-disciplines biological anthropology, prehistoric anthropology, linguistic anthropology and ethnology which is also called cultural anthropology. i) Biological (or physical) anthropology is a study of the non-cultural aspects of humans and near-humans. Non-cultural refers to all those biological characteristics that are genetically inherited, in contrast to learned aptitudes. The term near-human is used to indicate apes, monkeys, and the other primates and fossil ancestors of present humans. Biological anthropologists examine the process and mechanism of human evolution, genetic inheritance and human variation and adaptations to different environmental conditions. Subfields of Biological Anthropology Human Biology Primatology Paleoanthropology Concerned with human Principally interested in Study of fossil record of diversity, genetic inheritance learning about the early humans and their patterns, non-cultural capabilities and behaviour primate ancestors to retrace adaptations to environmental patterns of primates – our the stages of stresses, and other biological closest living relatives-to anthropogenesis the characteristics of Homo understand the lives of our process of emerging as the sapiens, the human species. earliest human ancestors. present-day human, also known as hominization. ii) Cultural (or socio-cultural) anthropology examines the cultural aspects of human societies all over the world. These aspects include social and political organizations, marriage patterns and kinship systems, subsistence and economic patterns, and 9 All mammals share a generalized skeletal template, in the sense that they all have the same bones in roughly the same locations: a skull, spine (which ends in a tail), ribs (which support the internal organs), and four sets of limb bones. However, the shape of the bones and the way they relate to each other, differ between animals. Thus, by examining the size, shape, and 27 structure of a bone, an anthropologist can determine if it is of a human or not. Evolution of belief system of different societies. While most cultural anthropologists study Humankind contemporary societies rather than the ancient ones but even in doing that, these anthropologists attempt to retrace the lost diversity and cultural practices of the past and that way contribute to an understanding of prehistorical period. iii) Linguistic anthropology focusses on the human communication process. Linguistic anthropologists primarily study the physiology of speech and the social and cultural influences on speech and writing. They also examine nonverbal communication and the evolution of languages. In this context, some anthropologists attribute prehistory with a pre-language i.e. archaic body of words and proto- language i.e. archaic form of languages, now lost, but hypothesised as predecessors of several present languages. It is in the latter field that linguistic anthropology contributes to an understanding of prehistory – a period for which we have no written documents. Check Your Progress Exercise-3 1) What is the difference between Archaeology and Anthropology?......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2) How do the different branches of anthropology contribute to an understanding of prehistory?......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1.10 SUMMARY Through this Unit you would have understood that the knowledge of the past is not limited to information from written records alone. In fact, different forms of material remains form a significant source base for understanding prehistory. With diverse methods of research, archaeologists and anthropologists, are continually working to expand our knowledge about the past and more specifically about the prehistorical period. Moreover, one must also note here that, apart from archaeology and anthropology, which we studied in detail in this Unit, fields such as palaeobotany (study of plant remains), palaeozoology (study of animal remains), medical science, molecular chemistry and genetics also contribute to understanding prehistory and the biological evolution of hominids through various phases. Amongst these various fields, the study of DNA (the deoxyribonucleic acid) present in cells and which is considered responsible for carrying the genetic characteristics from one generation to the other, is a major breakthrough in research of the past. Since the emergence of this research, scientists have been studying the DNA found in cells or bone marrow preserved in various human species found in 28 different parts of the world. They have also worked out a certain pattern through which DNA changes over long periods of time. In this method, the DNA of the present-day Pre-History humans, living in different regions of the World, including some groups living in present and Sources day in isolation or in rare small pockets as hunter gatherers is compared with preserved DNA obtained from different cultures. Along with this, the study of blood groups, form and shape of skull, cranial capacity, bone structure, musculature and limb forms, has provided valuable insights into the process of biological evolution of modern humans (homo sapiens sapiens). The details of biological evolution are discussed in Unit 2 of this course. 1.11 KEY WORDS Artefact : material objects that have been used, modified or made by humans in the past. Excavation : the process of unearthing or digging up an archaeological site. Geologists : scientists who study the solid and liquid matter that constitutes the Earth as well as the processes that shape it. Hominin : any member of the group consisting of all modern and extinct humans and all their immediate ancestors, specifically species more closely related to modern humans than to chimpanzees. Palaeomagnetism : a study of the magnetism of rocks that were formed in earlier time periods. More broadly, the study of changes in the earth’s magnetic fields during geological times. Palaeontologists : scientists who study fossils to arrive at the history of the beginning and developments of life. Prehistory : the period for which we do not have any written records and the source of knowledge are the archaeological remains. Protohistory : the period between prehistory and history, during which a culture or civilization has not yet developed writing, but other cultures may have noted its existence in their writings. 1.12 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES Check Your Progress Exercise-1 1) See Section 1.3 2) Period without any written records vs. period of transition. See Section 1.3 3) Material remains of past. See Section 1.6 4) See the information in the box in Section 1.6 5) Aerial photography, underwater prospection etc. See Section 1.6 29 Evolution of Check Your Progress Exercise-2 Humankind 1) C-14, see Section 1.7 2) Option b. See Section 1.7 3) Potassium-Argon Dating. See Section 1.7 Check Your Progress Exercise-3 1) Study of human past through material remains vs. study of human culture through bone remnants. See Section 1.8 2) Human evolution, cultural practices, understanding of pre/proto languages etc. See Section 1.9 1.13 SUGGESTED READINGS Agrawal, D. P. and A. Ghosh (eds.). 1973. Radiocarbon and Indian Archaeology. Bombay: Tata Institute of Fundamental Research. Barnard, Alan. 2016. The Evolution of Language: An Anthropological Approach Language in Prehistory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Clark, Anthony. 2003. Seeing Beneath the Soil: Prospecting Methods in Archaeology, New edition. New York: Routledge. Clark, J. G. D. 1965. ‘Radiocarbon Dating and the Spread of Farming Economy’. Antiquity, 39: 45–48. Kulkarni, A.C. 2015. ‘Offshore Technology and Marine Archaeology.’ In A.S Gaur and Sundaresh (ed.). Recent Researches on Indus Civilization and Maritime Archaeology in India. Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan. Laet, S.J. de (ed.),A. H. Dani, J. L. Lorenzo Gieysztor and R. B. Nunoo (co-eds.). 1996. History of Humanity, Volume 1: Prehistory and the Beginnings of Civilization. UNESCO. London: Routledge. Lubbock, John. 1865. Prehistoric Times: As Illustrated by Ancient Remains, and the Manners and Customs of Modern Savages. London and Edinburgh: Williams and Norgate. Renfrew, C. and P. Bahn. 2008. Archaeology: Theories, Methods and Practice. 5th edition. London: Thames and Hudson. Schmidt, A. 2007. ‘Archaeology, magnetic methods’. In D. Gubbins and E. Herrero- Bervera (eds.) Encyclopedia of Geomagnetism and Paleomagnetism: Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. Heidelberg, New York: Springer: 23-31. PDF: h ttps : //www.j st or. o rg/s tab le/ pd f/ 2 00 79 007.pd f? ref req id =s earch% 3Af78cba054579b0acebd3139146894353 https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/25801250.pdf? refreqid=search%3 Af78cba054579b0acebd3139146894353 h t t p s : / / w w w. j s t o r. o rg/ s t a bl e/ p d f/ 3 55 7 11 0. p d f? r ef r eq i d= s ea r ch % 3Ab59fb18f38ce92f6c891da4a5d3d0a25 30 htt ps: //www.j st or. o rg/stab le/ pdf/ 4 03 66 435.pd f? ref req id =s earch% Pre-History 3A3358b0b6bd28ac026724dc6965d34953 and Sources htt ps: //www.j st or. o rg/stab le/ pdf/ 2 49 50 591.pd f? ref req id =s earch% 3A1d0fc6dd47257518fe616ac6f2f904f7 https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/3024893.pdf? refreqid=excelsior% 3A44638ad7fb36c31784cc9f708821de2b https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/73915.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3Af23c38336 95fc94278db8240d22ba613 1.14 INSTRUCTIONAL VIDEO RECOMMENDATIONS Dating-The Radiocarbon Way https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-xKvq6VLe4s The Excavation Process: How We Excavate https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PcT1vGyJzyg Underwater Archaeology https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qgCvnogeN2s Space Archaeology: A new frontier of Exploration https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gxD32LRC1QE 31 UNIT 2 BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION OF HUMANS* Structure 2.1 Objectives 2.2 Introduction 2.3 Theories of Evolution 2.3.1 Pre-Darwin Theories of Evolution 2.3.2 Darwinism 2.3.3 Synthetic Theory of Evolution 2.4 Hominization 2.4.1 Bipedalism 2.4.2 Encephalization 2.4.3 Sexual Dimorphism 2.4.4 Other Factors 2.5 Human Evolution 2.5.1 Before Homo 2.5.2 Evolution of Genus Homo 2.6 Summary 2.7 Key Words 2.8 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises 2.9 Suggested Readings 2.10 Instructional Video Recommendations 2.1 OBJECTIVES This Unit deals with the biological evolution of humans. After going through the Unit, you will be able to: z Describe the phenomenon of evolution; z Compare and evaluate the various theories of evolution; z Explain the contribution of Darwin to evolution; z Appreciate how fossils are the greatest evidence of evolution of humans; z Identify differences between apes and humans; and z Explain how apes transformed to Homo sapiens. 2.2 INTRODUCTION Hall and Hallgrímsson (2008) defined evolution as ‘change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations’. Herbert Spencer, an English philosopher and sociologist, first articulated the term ‘evolution’ in 1862 to denote the * Prof. Rashmi Sinha, Faculty of Anthropology, School of Social Sciences, Indira Gandhi National 32 Open University, New Delhi. historical development of life. Evolution is the progressive change within the organism. Biological This change is termed as ‘micro-evolution’when it occurs over a period of time and Evolution of Humans referred as ‘macro-evolution’ when it involves the transformational changes from one being to the other. Charles Darwin, a significant evolutionist defined evolution as ‘descent with modification’which implies that closely related species resembleeach other because of the inheritance; and differ from each other owing to the hereditary differences acquired during the separation of their ancestors. Before embarking on the evolution of human beings, let us first understand the process of evolution, with its various theories. 2.3 THEORIES OF EVOLUTION The evolutionary thought ranges from classical theories of Aristotle to the modern synthetic theory of evolution. These various theories serve as basis of understanding the evolution of life and its diversity. These also determine the successive stages unto which the modern theory of evolution came into being. 2.3.1 Pre-Darwin Theories of Evolution Charles Darwin is known to be the scientist who changed the course of evolutionary theory and established a firm ground on which evolution could be studied. However, before Darwin, many theories were put forward which actually laid down the path for the growth of evolutionary thought. Beginning from Greek thinkers to the theories of Lyell, the Pre-Darwin theories talk about ways in which scholars before Darwin understood evolution. Greek Philosophies Greek philosophers such as Aristotle (384-322 BCE), Herodotus (484-425 BCE) and Empedocles (504-433 BCE) were the pioneer scholarswho proposed the idea of evolution. They believed in the idea of the continuity of life forms giving rise to new forms. Aristotle proposed that living organisms have certain inner abilities to strive better through the process of adaptation. He observed this potential among plants, animals and humans. Being the first to highlight the insights of humans, Aristotle is also credited for coining the term Anthropology or the study of human beings (for further details see Section 1.8, Unit 1 of this course) and is therefore known as the ‘Father of Anthropology’. Herodotus and Empedocles also developed certain ideas related to living beings and their biological evolution. The ideas of these philosophers indicated the concept of adaptation; plants evolving before animals indicating the gradual evolution of higher organisms, and finally the humans. The obsolete Theory of Spontaneous Generation or Abiogenesis holds that life originated from inanimate and inorganic matter such as manure, dew, rotten slime, dry wood, sweat and meat etc. Until the 17th century, scientists like Aristotle, Thales, Plato and Von Helmont supported the idea of abiogenesis. By the middle of the 19th century abiogenesis was refuted by Francesco Redi, Spallanzani and Louis Pasteur. Theories of Medieval Times The medieval times also famous as ‘the Christian era’ in the European world refuted the views of evolution given by Greeks. This time period was dominated by the Christian Theory of Special Creation. According to this theory all living organisms present on the earth were created by supernatural power in six days. Since all these living forms 33 Evolution of are created by divine power, they are non-changeable and permanent from the day of Humankind their creation. Spanish Priest, Father Suarez (1548-1671) was a strong supporter of this theory which was followed until middle of the 19th century. The Theory of Eternity of Present Condition proposes the unchanging nature of the universe. This theory states that organisms remain unchanged throughout their individual existence and will remain in the same form throughout eternity. Theories of Organic Evolution By mid-18th century the idea of the biological evolution of living organisms had revolutionized the scientific world. During this time Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778) a Swedish Botanist, published his immortal work ‘Systema Naturae’(1735). Linnaeus also introduced the binary nomenclature of living organisms and designated each organism with two Latin names, one for Genus and the other for Species. Since the time of Linnaeus, Humans have been scientifically termed as Homo-Sapien. In the late 18th century, the French scientist, Comte de Buffon (1707-1788) who was contemporary of Carl Linnaeus, stated that life forms are not fixed and permanent. He argued that the evolution of living organisms is strongly influenced by the environment. Thereafter, another 18th century evolutionist, Erasmus Darwin (1731-1802), the grandfather of Charles Darwin, highlighted the evolutionary aspects of animals through his work and strongly recommended that the life on the earth must have been evolving for millions of years whereas the evolution of humankind is the most recent. Lamarck (1744-1829), a French naturalist, was the first evolutionary scientist who confidently proffered the idea of biological change in the living organisms. His theory of evolution explaining the origin of new species is called ‘Inheritance of Acquired Characters’. Lamarck, who possessed specialization in animal classification, perceived that the various species could be arranged into an orderly relationship that will form a continuous succession extending from the simplest little polyp to complex human. He was the first naturalist who believed that animals modify themselves in order to adapt to the altered conditions of environment. In his theory he stated that species were not constant but were derived from pre-existing species. He further suggested that the structure of an organism is majorly dependent on its function. He presented the example of Giraffe for the justification of his theory, explaining that the long-neck of Giraffe could have been evolved because of its continuous stretching and use in order to reach higher foliage on trees. Based on this observation, he propounded a theory based on four principles, namely: 1) Use and disuse of organs 2) The acquired characteristics are inherited 3) Internal urge 4) Direct environment and new desires For him, Giraffe’s long neck was an acquired character which was inherited by the next generations. Similarly, snake’s smooth body was the result of disuse of its limbs as it chose to live in burrows. Unfortunately, Lamarck’s theory of inheritance of acquired characteristics did not prove tenable among the scientific community because it was not supported by enough evidence to resolve all the queries. However, it was proved to be an important milestone in evolutionary biology. 34 George Cuvier (1769-1832) another French scientist disapproved Lamarck’s theory Biological of evolution; however, he supported views on fossil evidence and biological relationship. Evolution of Humans He believed that din

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