Philippine Literature: Literary Forms PDF

**The Literary Forms in Philippine Literature** by: Christine F. Godinez-Ortega        The diversity and richness of Philippine literature evolved side by side with the country\'s history. This can best be appreciated in the context of the country\'s pre-colonial cultural traditions and the socio-...

**The Literary Forms in Philippine Literature** by: Christine F. Godinez-Ortega        The diversity and richness of Philippine literature evolved side by side with the country\'s history. This can best be appreciated in the context of the country\'s pre-colonial cultural traditions and the socio-political histories of its colonial and contemporary traditions.                 The average Filipino\'s unfamiliarity with his indigenous literature was largely due to what has been impressed upon him: that his country was \"discovered\" and, hence, Philippine \"history\" started only in 1521.        So successful were the efforts of colonialists to blot out the memory of the country\'s largely oral past that present-day Filipino writers, artists and journalists are trying to correct this inequity by recognizing the country\'s wealth of ethnic traditions and disseminating them in schools and in the mass media.        The rousings of nationalistic pride in the 1960s and 1970s also helped bring about this change of attitude among a new breed of Filipinos concerned about the \"Filipino identity.\"  **Pre-Colonial Times**        Owing to the works of our own archaeologists, ethnologists and anthropologists, we are able to know more and better judge information about our pre-colonial times set against a bulk of material about early Filipinos as recorded by Spanish, Chinese, Arabic and other chroniclers of the past.        Pre-colonial inhabitants of our islands showcase a rich past through their **folk speeches, folk songs, folk narratives and indigenous rituals and mimetic dances** that affirm our ties with our Southeast Asian neighbors.        The most seminal of these folk speeches is the **riddle** which is tigmo in Cebuano, bugtong in Tagalog, paktakon in Ilongo and patototdon in Bicol. Central to the riddle is the **talinghaga or metaphor** because it \"reveals subtle resemblances between two unlike objects\" and one\'s power of observation and wit are put to the test. While some riddles are ingenious, others verge on the obscene or are sex-related: Gaddang:         Gongonan nu usin y amam If you pull your daddy\'s penis         Maggirawa pay sila y inam. Your mommy\'s vagina, too, (Campana) screams. (Bell)        The **proverbs or aphorisms** express **norms or codes of behavior**, **community beliefs** or they instill **values** by offering nuggets of wisdom in short, rhyming verse.        The extended form, **tanaga**, a mono-riming heptasyllabic quatrain expressing insights and lessons on life is \"more emotionally charged than the terse proverb and thus has affinities with the folk lyric.\" Some examples are the **basahanon** or **extended didactic sayings from Bukidnon** and the **daraida and daragilon from Panay**.        The **folk song**, a form of folk lyric which **expresses the hopes and aspirations, the people\'s lifestyles as well as their loves.** These are often repetitive and sonorous, didactic and naive as in the **children\'s songs** or Ida-ida (Maguindanao), **tulang pambata** (Tagalog) or **cansiones para abbing** (Ibanag).  A few examples are the lullabyes or **Ili-ili (Ilongo**); love songs like the **panawagon and balitao** (Ilongo); **harana or serenade (Cebuano**); the **bayok (Maranao)**; **the seven-syllable per line poem, ambahan of the Mangyans** that are about human relationships, social entertainment and also serve as a tool for teaching the young; work songs that depict the livelihood of the people often sung to go with the movement of workers such as the **kalusan (Ivatan), soliranin (Tagalog rowing song) or the mambayu, a Kalinga rice-pounding song; the verbal jousts/games like the duplo popular during wakes.**        Other folk songs are the drinking songs sung during carousals like the **tagay (Cebuano and Waray);** dirges and lamentations extolling the deeds of the dead like the **kanogon (Cebuano) or the Annako (Bontoc**).        A type of narrative song or kissa among the Tausug of Mindanao, the **parang sabil**, uses for its subject matter the exploits of historical and legendary heroes. It tells of a Muslim hero who seeks death at the hands of non-Muslims.        The **folk narratives**, i.e. epics and folk tales are varied, exotic and magical. They explain how the world was created, how certain animals possess certain characteristics, why some places have waterfalls, volcanoes, mountains, flora or fauna and, in the case of legends, an explanation of the origins of things. **Fables** are about animals and these teach moral lessons.        Our country\'s epics are considered **ethno-epics** because unlike, say, Germany\'s Niebelunginlied, our epics are not national for they are \"histories\" of varied groups that consider themselves \"nations.\"        The epics come in various names: **Guman (Subanon); Darangen (Maranao); Hudhud (Ifugao); and Ulahingan (Manobo).** These **epics revolve around supernatural events or heroic deeds** and they embody or validate the beliefs and customs and ideals of a community. These are sung or chanted to the accompaniment of indigenous musical instruments and dancing performed during harvests, weddings or funerals by chanters. The chanters who were taught by their ancestors are considered \"treasures\" and/or repositories of wisdom in their communities.  **Examples of these epics are the Lam-ang (Ilocano); Hinilawod (Sulod); Kudaman (Palawan); Darangen (Maranao); Ulahingan (Livunganen-Arumanen Manobo); Mangovayt Buhong na Langit (The Maiden of the Buhong Sky from Tuwaang\--Manobo); Ag Tobig neg Keboklagan (Subanon); and Tudbulol (T\'boli).**   **The Spanish Colonial Tradition**        While it is true that Spain subjugated the Philippines for more mundane reasons, this former European power contributed much in the shaping and recording of our literature.   Religion and institutions that represented European civilization enriched the languages in the lowlands, introduced **theater** which we would come to know as **komedya, the sinakulo, the sarswela, the playlets and the drama**. Spain also brought to the country, though at a much later time, liberal ideas and an internationalism that influenced our own Filipino intellectuals and writers for them to understand the meanings of **\"liberty and freedom.\"**        Literature in this period may be classified as **religious prose and poetry and secular prose and poetry.**        Religious lyrics written by **ladino poets or those versed in both Spanish and Tagalog** were included in early catechism and were used to teach Filipinos the Spanish language. Fernando Bagonbanta\'s \"Salamat nang walang hanga/gracias de sin sempiternas\" (Unending thanks) is a fine example that is found in the Memorial de la vida cristiana en lengua tagala (Guidelines for the Christian life in the Tagalog language) published in 1605.        Another form of religious lyrics are the **meditative verses like the dalit** appended to novenas and catechisms. It has no fixed meter nor rime scheme although a number are written in octosyllabic quatrains and have a solemn tone and spiritual subject matter.        But among the religious poetry of the day, it is the **pasyon** in octosyllabic quintillas that became entrenched in the Filipino\'s commemoration of Christ\'s agony and resurrection at Calvary. Gaspar Aquino de Belen\'s \"**Ang Mahal na Passion ni Jesu Christong Panginoon natin na tola\" (Holy Passion of Our Lord Jesus Christ in Verse) put out in 1704 is the country\'s earliest known pasyon**.        Other known pasyons chanted during the Lenten season are in Ilocano, Pangasinan, Ibanag, Cebuano, Bicol, Ilongo and Waray.        Aside from religious poetry, there were various kinds of prose narratives written to prescribe proper decorum. Like the pasyon, these **prose narratives were also used for proselitization**. Some forms are: **dialogo (dialogue), Manual de Urbanidad (conduct book); ejemplo (exemplum) and tratado (tratado).** The most well-known are Modesto de **Castro\'s \"Pagsusulatan ng Dalawang Binibini na si Urbana at si Feliza\" (Correspondence between the Two Maidens Urbana and Feliza) in 1864 and Joaquin Tuason\'s \"Ang Bagong Robinson\" (The New Robinson) in 1879, an adaptation of Daniel Defoe\'s novel.**        Secular works appeared alongside historical and economic changes, the emergence of an opulent class and the middle class who could avail of a European education. This Filipino elite could now read printed works that used to be the exclusive domain of the missionaries.        The most notable of the secular lyrics followed the conventions of a romantic tradition: the languishing but loyal lover, the elusive, often heartless beloved, the rival. The leading poets were Jose Corazon de Jesus (Huseng Sisiw) and Francisco Balagtas. Some secular poets who wrote in this same tradition were Leona Florentino, Jacinto Kawili, Isabelo de los Reyes and Rafael Gandioco.        Another popular secular poetry is the metrical romance, the awit and korido in Tagalog. The awit is set in dodecasyllabic quatrains while the korido is in octosyllabic quatrains. These are colorful tales of chivalry from European sources made for singing and chanting such as Gonzalo de Cordoba (Gonzalo of Cordoba) and Ibong Adarna (Adarna Bird). There are numerous metrical romances in Tagalog, Bicol, Ilongo, Pampango, Ilocano and in Pangasinan. The awit as a popular poetic genre reached new heights in Balagtas\' \"Florante at Laura\" (ca. 1838-1861), the most famous of the country\'s metrical romances.        Again, the winds of change began to blow in 19th century Philippines. Filipino intellectuals educated in Europe called ilustrados began to write about the downside of colonization. This, coupled with the simmering calls for reforms by the masses gathered a formidable force of writers like Jose Rizal, Marcelo H. del Pilar, Mariano Ponce, Emilio Jacinto and Andres Bonifacio.      This led to the formation of the Propaganda Movement where prose works such as the political essays and Rizal\'s two political novels, Noli Me Tangere and the El filibusterismo helped usher in the Philippine revolution resulting in the downfall of the Spanish regime, and, at the same time planted the seeds of a national consciousness among Filipinos.        But if Rizal\'s novels are political, the novel Ninay (1885) by Pedro Paterno is largely cultural and is considered the first Filipino novel. Although Paterno\'s Ninay gave impetus to other novelists like Jesus Balmori and Antonio M. Abad to continue writing in Spanish, this did not flourish.        Other Filipino writers published the essay and short fiction in Spanish in La Vanguardia, El Debate, Renacimiento Filipino, and Nueva Era. The more notable essayists and fictionists were Claro M. Recto, Teodoro M. Kalaw, Epifanio de los Reyes, Vicente Sotto, Trinidad Pardo de Tavera, Rafael Palma, Enrique Laygo (Caretas or Masks, 1925) and Balmori who mastered the prosa romantica or romantic prose.      But the introduction of English as medium of instruction in the Philippines hastened the demise of Spanish so that by the 1930s, English writing had overtaken Spanish writing. During the language\'s death throes, however, writing in the romantic tradition, from the awit and korido, would continue in the novels of Magdalena Jalandoni. But patriotic writing continued under the new colonialists. These appeared in the vernacular poems and modern adaptations of works during the Spanish period and which further maintained the Spanish tradition.   **The American Colonial Period**        A new set of colonizers brought about new changes in Philippine literature. New literary forms such as **free verse \[in poetry\], the modern short story and the critical essay** were introduced. American influence was deeply entrenched with the firm establishment of **English as the medium of instruction** in all schools and with literary modernism that highlighted the writer\'s individuality and cultivated consciousness of craft, sometimes at the expense of social consciousness.        The poet, and later, National Artist for Literature, Jose Garcia Villa used free verse and espoused the dictum, \"**Art for art\'s sake\"** to the chagrin of other writers more concerned with the utilitarian aspect of literature. **Another maverick in poetry who used free verse and talked about illicit love in her poetry was Angela Manalang Gloria,** a woman poet described as ahead of her time. Despite the threat of censorship by the new dispensation, more writers turned up \"seditious works\" and popular writing in the **native languages** bloomed through the weekly outlets like Liwayway and Bisaya.        The Balagtas tradition persisted until the poet Alejandro G. Abadilla advocated modernism in poetry. Abadilla later influenced young poets who wrote **modern verses** in the 1960s such as Virgilio S. Almario, Pedro I. Ricarte and Rolando S. Tinio.        While the early Filipino poets grappled with the verities of the new language, Filipinos seemed to have taken easily to the modern short story as published in the Philippines Free Press, the College Folio and Philippines Herald. **Paz Marquez Benitez\'s \"Dead Stars\" published in 1925 was the first successful short story in English written by a Filipino.** Later on, Arturo B. Rotor and Manuel E. Arguilla showed exceptional skills with the short story.        Alongside this development, writers in the **vernaculars continued to write in the provinces.** Others like Lope K. Santos, Valeriano Hernandez Peña and Patricio Mariano were writing minimal narratives similar to the early Tagalog short fiction called dali or pasingaw (sketch).        The **romantic tradition was fused with American pop culture or European influences** in the adaptations of Edgar Rice Burroughs\' Tarzan by F. P. Boquecosa who also penned Ang Palad ni Pepe after Charles Dicken\'s David Copperfield even as the realist tradition was kept alive in the novels by Lope K. Santos and Faustino Aguilar, among others.        It should be noted that if there was a dearth of the Filipino novel in English, **the novel in the vernaculars continued to be written and serialized in weekly magazines like Liwayway, Bisaya, Hiligaynon and Bannawag**.        The **essay in English** became a potent medium from the 1920\'s to the present. Some leading essayists were journalists like Carlos P. Romulo, Jorge Bocobo, Pura Santillan Castrence, etc. who wrote formal to humorous to informal essays for the delectation by Filipinos.        Among those who wrote criticism developed during the American period were Ignacio Manlapaz, Leopoldo Yabes and I.V. Mallari. But it was Salvador P. Lopez\'s criticism that grabbed attention when he won the Commonwealth Literay Award for the essay in 1940 with his \"Literature and Society.\" This essay posited that art must have substance and that Villa\'s adherence to \"Art for Art\'s Sake\" is decadent.        The last throes of American colonialism saw the flourishing of Philippine literature in English at the same time, with the introduction of the New Critical aesthetics, made writers pay close attention to craft and \"indirectly engendered a disparaging attitude\" towards vernacular writings \-- a tension that would recur in the contemporary period.   **The Contemporary Period** ***Historical Background*** *The Americans returned in 1945. Filipinos rejoiced and guerillas who fled to the mountain joined the liberating American Army. On July 4, 1946, the Philippines regained its freedom and the Filipino flag waved joyously alone. The chains were broken.* The early post-liberation period was marked by a kind of "struggle of mind and spirit" posed by the sudden emancipation from the enemy, and the wild desire to see print. The themes of most poems dealt with the usual love of nature, and of social and political problems. Toribia Maño's poems showed deep emotional intensity. Longer and longer pieces were being written by writers of the period. Stevan Javellana's "Without Seeing the Dawn" tells of the grim experiences of war during the Japanese Occupation. Philippines literature in Tagalog was revived during this period. Most themes in the writings dealt with Japanese brutalities, of poverty of life under the Japanese government, and the brave guerrilla exploits. Newspapers and magazine publications were re-opened like the Bulaklak, Liwayway, Ilang Ilangand Sinag Tala. Tagalog poetry acquired not only rhyme but substance and meaning. Short stories had better characters and events based on facts and realities and themes were more meaningful. Novels became common but were still read by the people for recreation. The people's love for listening to poetic jousts increased more than before and people started to flock to places to hear poetic debates. ***Period of Activism (1970-1972)*** According to Pociano Pineda, youth activism in 1970-72 was due to domestic and worldwide causes. The youth became completely rebellious during this period. This was proven not only in the bloody demonstrations and in the sidewalk expressions but also in literature. Campus newspapers showed rebellious emotions. The once-aristocratic writers developed an awareness of society. They held pens and wrote on placards in red paint the equivalent of the word MAKIBAKA (To dare!). They attacked the ills of society and politics. Any establishment became the symbol of the ills that had to be changed. The frustrations of youth could be felt in churches and schools. Some of those who rallied to this revolutionary form of literature were Rolando Tinio, Rogelio Mangahas, Efren Abueg, Rio Alma, and Clemente Bautista. **Period of the New Society (1972-1980)** The period of the New Society started on September 21, 1972. The Carlos Palanca Awards continued to give annual awards. Almost all themes in most writings dealt with the development or progress of the country --like the Green Revolution, family planning, proper nutrition, environment, drug addiction, and pollution. Themes of most poems dealt with patience, regard for native culture, customs, and the beauties of nature and surroundings. The New Society tried to stop pornography or those writings giving bad influences on the morals of the people. All school newspapers were temporarily stopped and so with school organizations. The military government established a new office called the Ministry of Public Affairs that supervised the newspapers, books, and other publications. The government took part in reviving old plays like the Cenaculo, the Zarzuela, and the Embayoka of the Muslims. The Cultural Center of the Philippines, the Folk Arts Theater and even the old Metropolitan Theater were rebuilt in order to have a place for these plays. Singing both Filipino and English songs received fresh incentives. Those sent abroad promoted many Filipino songs. The weekly publications like KISLAP, and LIWAYWAY helped a lot in the development of literature. These became outlets for our writers to publish many of their works. **LITERATURE IN MASS MEDIA** Radio continued to be patronized during this period. The play series like SI MATAR, DAHLIA, ITO AND PALAD KO, and MR. LONELY were the forms of recreation of those without television. Even the new songs were first heard over the airwaves. Popular television plays were GULONG NG PALAD, FLOR DE LUNA, and ANNA LIZA. SUPERMAN AND TARZAN were also popular with the youth. Moreover, a yearly Pista ng mga Pelikulng Pilipino (Yearly Filipino Film Festival) was held during this time. During the festival which lasted usually for a month, only Filipino films were shown in all theaters in Metro Manila. Prizes and trophies were awarded at the end of the festival in recognition of excellence in filmmaking and in role performances. New kinds of films without sex or romance started to be made but which were nevertheless well-received by the public. However, sex films could not be shelved. Foreign, as well as local films dealing the bold themes were the vehicles of producers to earn more money. During this period of the New Society, newspapers donned new forms. News on economic progress, discipline, culture, tourism, and the like was favored more than the sensationalized reporting of killings, rape, and robberies. ***Period of the Third Republic (1981-1985)*** Poems during this period of the Third Republic were romantic and revolutionary. Writers wrote openly of their criticism against the government. The supplications of the people were coached in fiery, colorful, violent, profane, and insulting language. Many Filipino songs dealt with themes that were really true-to-life like those of grief, poverty, aspirations for freedom, love of God, of country, and of fellowmen. Poets produced commonly-themed works referred to as "Protest Poetry of the '80s". The themes of most during this time dealt with courage, shock, and grief over the "treachery inflicted upon Aquino." The people's cry of protest found outlets not only in poetry but also in veiled prose fables that transparently satirized the occupants of Malacañang. Among those that saw prints were: The Crown Jewels of Heezenhurst by Sylvia Mendez Ventura; The Emperor's New Underwear by Meynardo A. Macaraig; and The King's Cold by Babeth Lolarga. In all the fables, the king, differently referred to as TotusMarkus or the king or Haring Matinikwas meant to poke fun at the ruler at Malacañang; similarly, Reyna Maganda or the Queen, was a veiled thrust at his queen. They were both drunk with power and were punished in the end for their misdeeds On the other hand, among the well-loved forms of writing that abounded during this period were those of children's stories. The Children's Communication Center (CCC) directed by poet and writer Virgilio S. Almario already has built up an impressive collection of these kinds of books. The following are some of the books of the period: 1982: Plays For Children by Jame B. Reuter S.J. (New Day Pub.; 1983: Story Telling For Young Children; 1984: Rizaliana For Children: Illustrations and Folktales by: Jose P. Rizal, Introduced and annotated by Alfredo Navarro Salanga; and 1984: Gatan and Talaw by Jaime Alipit Montero ***Post-Martial Law Period (1986- present)*** After the EDSA People Power revolution, the writers' freedom which was taken away from them came back into their hands. Furthermore, feminists and the LGBT community were also able to speak for their rights.\ Literary styles were able to circulate around the country such as SitCom, a situational comedy. Literary groups, associations, and publications increased and the usage of the Filipino language in literary pieces was widely used. With the new requirement by the Commission on Higher Education to teach Philippine Literature in all tertiary schools in the country emphasizing the teaching of the vernacular literature or literature of the regions, the audience for Filipino writers is virtually assured. And, perhaps, national literature finding its niche among the literature of the world will not be far behind. **References:** Godinez-Ortega (n.d.). The literary forms in Philippine literature. Retrieved from Tagalog/Literature/literary\_forms\_in\_philippine\_lit.htm Lacia, F.C., Fabella,M.G, and Libunao, L.L. (2008). *The literatures of the Philippines* (Revised Ed.). Quezon City: Philippines. Rex Book Store, Inc.