Anatomy & Physiology Notes PDF

Anatomy & Physiology Lemmwell Bryan T. Adante, RN Classroom Management ▪ Class/student behavior and decorum ▪ Absences & tardiness ▪ Participation & interaction ▪ Seat works, projects and researches ▪ Exam rules  Grading System LECTURE ▪Quizzes - 40% ▪Class Standing - 25% ▪Per...

Anatomy & Physiology Lemmwell Bryan T. Adante, RN Classroom Management ▪ Class/student behavior and decorum ▪ Absences & tardiness ▪ Participation & interaction ▪ Seat works, projects and researches ▪ Exam rules  Grading System LECTURE ▪Quizzes - 40% ▪Class Standing - 25% ▪Periodical Exam - 35% 100%  Grading System LABORATORY ▪Lab Performance - 30% ▪Class Standing - 20% ▪Lab Manual - 20% ▪Periodical Exam - 30% 100% Grading System LECTURE : 60% LAB : 40%  Course Outline 1. THE HUMAN ORGANISM 2. THE CHEMICAL BASIS OF LIFE 3. CELLS STRUCTURES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS 4. TISSUES 5. INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM 6. SKELETAL SYSTEM 7. MUSCULAR SYSTEM  Course Outline 8. NERVOUS SYSTEM 9. THE SENSES 10. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 11. CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM A. BLOOD B. HEART C. BLOOD VESSELS 12. LYMPHATIC SYSTEM & IMMUNITY  Course Outline 13. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 14. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 15. URINARY SYSTEM A. FLUID-ELECTROLYTES B. ACID BASE BALANCE 16. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 17. DEVELOPMENT, HEREDITARY AND AGING ▪ Cinnamon VanPutte ▪ Jennifer Regan ▪ Andrew Russo  Chapter 1 The Human Organism Anatomy ▪Purpose ▪ The human body’s structure and functions. ▪ Coordinated functions maintained by complex system. ▪ Allowing humans to interact with surroundings. ▪ Provides the basis for understanding disease. ▪ Vital for allied health sciences students ▪ Useful providing care and medical treatment Anatomy ▪Anatomy ▪ To dissect, cut apart and separate. ▪ Scientific discipline that investigates body structure. ▪ Covers a wide range of studies. ▪ Relationship between body structure and function. ▪ Two approaches: Systemic and regional anatomy. ▪ Two general ways: Surface & Anatomical imaging.  Anatomy ▪Systemic Anatomy ▪ Study of the body by systems ▪ E.g., Cardiovascular, integumentary, nervous, muscular, etc. ▪Regional Anatomy ▪ Organization of the body by areas ▪ E.g., Head, neck, trunk, abdomen, etc. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. Anatomy ▪ Let’s look at an example of systemic anatomy using the digestive system organs  Oral cavity Esophagus Stomach Small intestine Large intestine Rectum (i) Digestive System Breaks food down into absorbable nutrients that enter the blood for distribution to body cells; indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces. Anatomy ▪ Let’s look at an example of microscopic anatomy using a digestive system organ, the stomach.  Gastric pits Surface Gastric pit epithelium Pyloric sphincter Mucous neck cells Gastric gland Parietal cells Gastric glands Chief cells © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Pepsinogen Pepsin HCl Parietal cells Chief cells Enteroendocrine cell © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. Physiology ▪Physiology ▪ Deals with the process and functions. ▪ It’s important in recognizing dynamic structure. ▪ Understand and predict the body’s stimuli responses. ▪ Understand how the body maintains internal conditions. ▪ Is the study of human physiology. ▪ Organizational levels: cellular and systemic physiology. Structural and Functional Organization ▪Six levels of structural organization 1. Chemical 2. Cells 3. Tissues 4. Organs 5. Organ systems 6. Organisms Structural and Functional Organization ▪Chemical Level ▪ Involves how atoms interacts and combines into molecules. ▪ Inorganic Chemical ▪ simple molecules made of one or two elements other than carbon. e.g. H2O, CO2, CO, Na, K, Ca, Mg Structural and Functional Organization ▪ Organic Chemical ▪ Very complex, always contain C and H e.g.: carbohydrates, proteins, fats and nucleic acids Structural and Functional Organization Cell Level ▪ The basic structural and functional unit. ▪ Molecules can combine to form organelles. Structural and Functional Organization Cell Level ▪ Organelle ▪ Small structures that make some cells. Structural and Functional Organization ▪Tissue Level ▪ Is a group of similar cells and materials ▪ Characteristics determine the functions of the tissue ▪ Classified into four primary types: ▪ Epithelial ▪ Connective ▪ Muscles ▪ Nerves Structural and Functional Organization ▪Organ Level ▪ Composed of two or more tissue types ▪ Performs one or more common functions e.g. brain, heart, stomach, kidneys, liver, bladder Structural and Functional Organization ▪Organ System Level ▪ Group of organs classified as a unit ▪ Has common functions or set of functions ▪ Are coordinated and necessary for normal functions. e.g. Digestive System Structural and Functional Organization ▪Organism Level ▪ Considered as a whole ▪ Whether composed of one cell or trillions of cells e.g. Human organism  Atoms 1 Chemical level Molecules Atoms combine to form molecules.  Smooth muscle cell Atoms 1 Chemical level Molecules Atoms combine to 2 Cellular level 2 form molecules. Cells are made up of molecules.  Smooth muscle cell Atoms 1 Chemical level Molecules Atoms combine to 2 Cellular level form molecules. Cells are made up of molecules. Smooth muscle tissue 3 Tissue level Tissues consist of similar types of cells.  Smooth muscle cell Atoms 1 Chemical level Molecules Atoms combine to 2 Cellular level form molecules. Cells are made up of molecules. Smooth muscle tissue 3 Tissue level Tissues consist of similar types of cells. Epithelial tissue Smooth muscle tissue Blood vessel (organ) Connective tissue 4 Organ level Organs are made up of different types of tissues.  Smooth muscle cell Atoms 1 Chemical level Molecules Atoms combine to 2 Cellular level form molecules. Cells are made up of molecules. Smooth muscle tissue 3 Tissue level Blood Tissues consist of vessels similar types of cells. Heart Epithelial tissue Smooth muscle tissue Blood vessel (organ) Cardio– Connective vascular tissue system 4 Organ level Organs are made up of 5 Organ system level different types of tissues. Organ systems consist of different organs that work together closely.  Smooth muscle cell Atoms 1 Chemical level Molecules Atoms combine to 2 Cellular level form molecules. Cells are made up of molecules. Smooth muscle tissue 3 Tissue level Blood Tissues consist of vessels similar types of cells. Heart Epithelial tissue Smooth muscle tissue Blood vessel (organ) Cardio– Connective vascular tissue system 4 Organ level Organs are made up of 5 Organ system level 6 Organismal level different types of tissues. Organ systems consist of Human organisms are different organs that work made up of many organ together closely. systems. Characteristics of Life ▪Organization ▪Metabolism ▪Responsiveness ▪Growth ▪Development ▪Reproduction Characteristics of Life ▪Organization ▪ Specific relationship of individual parts of the organism. ▪ Living things are highly organized. ▪ Composed of one or more cells. ▪ Some cells are composed of highly specialized organelles. ▪ Disruption can result in loss of function or death. Characteristics of Life ▪Metabolism ▪ Ability to use energy to perform vital functions. e.g.: growth, movement, reproduction Characteristics of Life ▪Responsiveness ▪ Ability of an organism to sense changes in the environment. ▪ Makes adjustments depending on the changes to maintain life. e.g.: Hunter-gatherer society. Characteristics of Life ▪Growth ▪ Increase in size ▪ Increase in cell numbers, size or amount of substance surrounding the cell. e.g.: bone growth Characteristics of Life ▪Development ▪ Changes an organism undergoes through time. ▪ Involves growth and differentiation. ▪ Differentiation: change in cellular structure and function e.g.: Conception until death Characteristics of Life ▪Reproduction ▪ Formation of new cells or organisms. ▪ Without this, species could go extinct. Homeostasis ▪Homeostasis ▪ Existence and maintenance of a constant environment. ▪ Ability of the body to return to normal or stable state despite fluctuations. ▪ Cells functions according to the maintenance of its fluid environment. Homeostasis ▪Homeostatic Mechanisms ▪ Normally maintain body’s function relatively constant to the environment. ▪ Govern mostly by nervous or endocrine system. ▪ Organ systems help control constant internal environment. Homeostasis Homeostasis ▪Negative Feedback Mechanisms ▪ Negative means “bad” or “undesirable” ▪ To decrease ▪ Compensates to make smaller or resist any deviation from set point in response to stimulus. Homeostasis Homeostasis ▪Positive Feedback Mechanisms ▪ Occurs when initial stimulus further stimulates the response. ▪ Required to re-achieve homeostasis. ▪ It keeps the reaction going instead of stopping the effector. ▪ Occasionally detrimental instead of helpful. 1.5 Homeostasis Homeostasis ▪Comparison Between Negative- Feedback and Positive-Feedback Negative-Feedback Positive-Feedback Stops the effector Keeps the reaction going Always maintain the Breakdown the homeostasis conditions of homeostasis of the system Occur more frequently Less common but occur in specific situations The response is opposite to Response is same to the the original stimulus original stimulus or is promoted.  Organ System Integumentary Lymphatic system system Respiratory system Skeletal system Digestive system Muscular system Urinary system Nervous system Reproductive Endocrine system system Cardiovascular system  Hair Skin Fingernails Forms the external body covering; protects deeper tissue from injury; synthesizes vitamin D; location of sensory receptors (pain, pressure, etc.) and sweat and oil glands. Integumentary System Organ System Overview ▪ Integumentary system ▪ Forms the external body covering (skin) and includes hair and fingernails ▪ Waterproofs the body ▪ Cushions and protects deeper tissue from injury ▪ Produces vitamin D with the help of sunlight ▪ Excretes salts in perspiration ▪ Helps regulate body temperature ▪ Location of cutaneous nerve receptors Organ System Overview ▪Skeletal system ▪ Consists of bones, cartilages, ligaments, and joints ▪ Provides muscle attachment for movement ▪ Protects vital organs ▪ Site of blood cell formation ▪ Stores minerals  Cartilages Joint Bones (b) Skeletal System Protects and supports body organs; provides a framework the muscles use to cause movement; blood cells are formed within bones; stores minerals. Organ System Overview ▪Muscular system ▪ Skeletal muscles contract (or shorten) ▪ Produces movement of bones  Skeletal muscles (c) Muscular System Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression; maintains posture; produces heat. Organ System Overview ▪ Nervous system ▪ Fast-acting control system ▪ Consists of brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sensory receptors ▪ Responds to internal and external stimuli ▪ Sensory receptors detect changes ▪ Messages are sent to the central nervous system ▪ Central nervous system assesses information and activates effectors (muscles and glands)  Brain Sensory receptor Spinal cord Nerves (d) Nervous System Fast-acting control system of the body; responds to internal and external changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands. Organ System Overview ▪Endocrine system ▪Secretes chemical molecules, called hormones, into the blood ▪Body functions controlled by hormones include: ▪ Growth ▪ Reproduction ▪ Use of nutrients Organ System Overview ▪Endocrine system (continued) ▪Endocrine glands include: ▪ Pituitary gland ▪ Thyroid and parathyroids ▪ Adrenal glands ▪ Thymus ▪ Pancreas ▪ Pineal gland ▪ Ovaries (females) and testes (males)  Pineal gland Pituitary gland Thyroid gland (parathyroid glands on posterior aspect) Thymus gland Adrenal glands Pancreas Testis (male) Ovary (female) (e) Endocrine System Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use by body cells. Organ System Overview ▪ Cardiovascular system ▪ Includes heart and blood vessels ▪ Heart pumps blood ▪ Vessels transport blood to tissues ▪ Blood transports: ▪ Oxygen and carbon dioxide ▪ Nutrients ▪ Hormones ▪ Blood also contains white blood cells and chemicals that provide protection from foreign invaders  Heart Blood vessels (f) Cardiovascular System Blood vessels transport blood, which carries oxygen, nutrients, hormones, carbon dioxide, wastes, etc.; the heart pumps blood. Organ System Overview ▪ Lymphatic system ▪ Includes lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and lymphoid organs ▪ Complements the cardiovascular system by returning leaked fluids back to bloodstream ▪ Lymph nodes and other lymphoid organs cleanse the blood ▪ Houses white blood cells, which are involved in immunity  Lymph nodes Lymphatic vessels (g) Lymphatic System Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood; disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream; houses white blood cells involved in immunity. Organ System Overview ▪Respiratory system ▪ Includes the nasal passages, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs ▪ Gases are exchanged with the blood through air sacs in the lungs ▪ Supplies the body with oxygen ▪ Removes carbon dioxide  Nasal cavity Pharynx Larynx Trachea Bronchi Lungs (h) Respiratory System Keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide; the gaseous exchanges occur through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs. Organ System Overview ▪Digestive system ▪ Includes the oral cavity (mouth), esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, rectum, and accessory organs ▪ Breaks down food ▪ Allows for nutrient absorption into blood ▪ Eliminates indigestible material as feces  Oral cavity Esophagus Stomach Small intestine Large intestine Rectum (i) Digestive System Breaks food down into absorbable nutrients that enter the blood for distribution to body cells; indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces. Organ System Overview ▪Urinary system ▪ Includes the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra ▪ Eliminates nitrogenous wastes ▪ Maintains acid-base balance ▪ Regulates water and electrolyte balance ▪ Helps regulate normal blood pressure  Kidney Ureter Urinary bladder Urethra (j) Urinary System Eliminates nitrogen-containing wastes from the body; regulates water, electrolyte, and acid-base balance of the blood. Organ System Overview ▪Reproductive system ▪ For males, includes the testes, scrotum, penis, accessory glands, and duct system ▪ Testes produce sperm ▪ Duct system carries sperm to exterior ▪ For females, includes the ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, and vagina ▪ Ovaries produce eggs ▪ Uterus provides site of development for fetus  Mammary glands (in breasts) Prostate Seminal gland Uterine vesicles tube Ovary Uterus Penis Testis Vagina Scrotum (k) Male Reproductive System (l) Female Reproductive System Overall function of the reproductive system is production of offspring. Testes produce sperm and male sex hormone; ducts and glands aid in delivery of viable sperm to the female reproductive tract. Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones; remaining structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of the fetus. Mammary glands of female breasts produce milk to nourish the newborn. Maintaining Life: Necessary Life Functions ▪ Maintaining boundaries ▪ Boundaries separate the “inside” from the “outside” ▪ Movement ▪ Locomotion ▪ Movement of substances ▪ Responsiveness (irritability) ▪ Ability to sense changes and react ▪ Digestion ▪ Breakdown and absorption of nutrients Necessary Life Functions ▪ Metabolism—chemical reactions within the body ▪ Breaks down complex molecules into smaller ones ▪ Builds larger molecules from smaller ones ▪ Produces energy (ATP) ▪ Regulated by hormones ▪ Excretion ▪ Eliminates excreta (waste) from metabolic reactions ▪ Wastes may be removed in urine, feces, or sweat Necessary Life Functions ▪ Reproduction ▪ Occurs on cellular level or organismal level ▪ On cellular level—new cells are used for growth and repair ▪ On organismal level—the reproductive system handles the task ▪ Growth ▪ Increases cell size or body size (through increasing the number of cells) ▪ Hormones play a major role Survival Needs ▪ Nutrients ▪ Chemicals used for energy and cell building ▪ Include carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, and minerals ▪ Oxygen ▪ Required for chemical reactions ▪ Made available by the cooperation of the respiratory and cardiovascular systems Survival Needs ▪ Water ▪ 60 to 80 percent of body weight ▪ Most abundant chemical in the human body ▪ Provides fluid base for body secretions and excretions ▪ Normal body temperature ▪ 37ºC (98.6ºF) ▪ Below this temperature, chemical reactions slow and stop ▪ Above this temperature, chemical reactions proceed too rapidly Survival Needs ▪Atmospheric pressure ▪ Must be appropriate for gas exchange Terminology and the Body Plan ▪Special terminology is used to prevent misunderstanding ▪Exact terms are used for: ▪ Position ▪ Direction ▪ Regions ▪ Structures Terminology and the Body Plan ▪Anatomical position ▪ Standard body position used to avoid confusion ▪ Terminology refers to this position regardless of actual body position ▪ Stand erect, feet parallel, arms hanging at the sides with palms facing forward and thumbs pointing away from the body Terminology and the Body Plan Terminology and the Body Plan ▪Directional terms ▪ Explain the location of one body structure in relation to another Directional Terms ▪ Superior (cranial or cephalic): toward the head or upper part of a structure or the body; above ▪ Inferior (caudal): away from the head or toward the lower part of a structure or the body; below Directional Terms ▪ Anterior (ventral): toward or at the front of the body; in front of the body ▪ Posterior (dorsal): toward or at the backside of the body; behind the body Directional Terms ▪ Medial: toward or at the midline of the body; on the inner side of ▪ Lateral: away from the midline of the body; on the outer side of ▪ Intermediate: between a more medial and a more lateral structure  Directional Terms ▪ Proximal: close to the origin of the body part or point of attachment to a limb to the body trunk ▪ Distal: farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. Directional Terms ▪ Superficial (external): toward or at the body surface ▪ Deep (internal): away from the body surface; more internal Regional Terms ▪ Anterior (ventral) body landmarks Cephalic Frontal Orbital Upper limb Nasal Acromial Buccal Deltoid Oral Brachial (arm) Mental Antecubital Cervical Olecranal Thoracic Sternal Antebrachial Axillary (forearm) Pectoral Carpal (wrist) Abdominal Manus (hand) Umbilical Digital Pelvic Inguinal (groin) Lower limb Coxal (hip) Pubic (genital) Femoral (thigh) Patellar Crural (leg) KEY: Thorax Fibular Abdomen Pedal (foot) Tarsal (ankle) Digital (a) Anterior/Ventral  Regional Terms ▪ Posterior (dorsal) body landmarks © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Cephalic Upper limb Occipital (back Acromial of head) Cervical Brachial (arm) Olecranal Back (dorsal) Antebrachial Scapular (forearm) Vertebral Lumbar Manus (hand) Sacral Digital Gluteal Lower limb Femoral (thigh) Popliteal Sural (calf) Fibular KEY: Pedal (foot) Back (Dorsum) Calcaneal Plantar (b) Posterior/Dorsal Body Planes and Sections ▪ Sections are cuts along imaginary lines known as planes ▪ Three types of planes or sections exist as right angles to one another Body Planes and Sections ▪ A sagittal section divides the body (or organ) into left and right parts ▪ A median, or midsagittal, section divides the body (or organ) into equal left and right parts ▪ A frontal, or coronal, section divides the body (or organ) into anterior and posterior parts ▪ A transverse, or cross, section divides the body (or organ) into superior and inferior parts (a) Median (midsagittal) (b) Frontal (coronal) plane (c) Transverse plane Vertebral Right Left column lung Heart lung Liver Aorta Pancreas Spleen Rectum Intestines Liver Stomach Spleen Subcutaneous Spinal fat layer cord Body Cavities ▪Two internal body cavities ▪ Dorsal ▪ Ventral ▪Body cavities provide varying degrees of protection to organs within them Cranial cavity Thoracic cavity Diaphragm Abdominopelvic Abdominal Spinal cavity cavity cavity Pelvic cavity KEY: Dorsal body cavity Ventral body cavity  Body Cavities ▪Dorsal body cavity has two subdivisions 1. Cranial cavity ▪ Houses the brain ▪ Protected by the skull 2. Spinal cavity ▪ Houses the spinal cord ▪ Protected by the vertebrae © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. Body Cavities ▪Ventral body cavity has two subdivisions separated by the diaphragm 1. Thoracic cavity 2. Abdominopelvic cavity Body Cavities ▪Thoracic cavity ▪ Cavity superior to the diaphragm ▪ Houses heart, lungs, and other organs ▪ Mediastinum, the central region, houses heart, trachea, and other organs ▪ Protected by the rib cage Body Cavities ▪ Abdominopelvic cavity ▪ Cavity inferior to the diaphragm ▪ Superior abdominal cavity contains the stomach, liver, and other organs ▪ Protected only by trunk muscles ▪ Inferior pelvic cavity contains reproductive organs, bladder, and rectum ▪ Protected somewhat by bony pelvis ▪ No physical structure separates abdominal from pelvic cavities Body Cavities ▪Abdominopelvic cavity subdivisions ▪ Four quadrants ▪ Nine regions Right upper Left upper quadrant quadrant (RUQ) (LUQ) Right lower Left lower quadrant quadrant (RLQ) (LLQ)  Diaphragm Liver Stomach Right Left Large hypochondriac Epigastric hypochondriac region region region intestine Large intestine Right Left Small intestine lumbar Umbilical lumbar region region region Appendix Right iliac Hypogastric Left iliac Urinary (inguinal) (pubic) (inguinal) bladder region region region (b) Anterior view of the nine regions (a) Nine regions delineated by four planes showing the superficial organs Body Cavities ▪Other body cavities include: ▪Oral and digestive cavities ▪Nasal cavity ▪Orbital cavities ▪Middle ear cavities  Assignment!!! Using a short bond paper, draw the 4 quadrants and 9 regions each. Label with as many organs as you can find in every area.  3 Input: Information 4 Output: Information is sent along afferent Control is sent along efferent pathway to control Center pathway to effector. center. Afferent Efferent pathway pathway Receptor Effector 2 Receptor detects change. 5 Response of effector feeds back to reduce 1 Stimulus the effect of produces stimulus and change in returns variable VARIABLE (in homeostasis) to homeostatic variable. level.  1 Stimulus produces change in VARIABLE (in homeostasis) variable.  Receptor 2 Receptor detects change. 1 Stimulus produces change in VARIABLE (in homeostasis) variable.  3 Input: Information is sent along afferent Control pathway to control Center center. Afferent pathway Receptor 2 Receptor detects change. 1 Stimulus produces change in VARIABLE (in homeostasis) variable.  3 Input: Information 4 Output: Information is sent along afferent Control is sent along efferent pathway to control Center pathway to effector. center. Afferent Efferent pathway pathway Receptor Effector 2 Receptor detects change. 1 Stimulus produces change in VARIABLE (in homeostasis) variable.  3 Input: Information 4 Output: Information is sent along afferent Control is sent along efferent pathway to control Center pathway to effector. center. Afferent Efferent pathway pathway Receptor Effector 2 Receptor detects change. 5 Response of effector feeds back to reduce 1 Stimulus the effect of produces stimulus and change in returns variable VARIABLE (in homeostasis) to homeostatic variable. level.