The-History-of-English (1).docx

The History of English: Overview This unit considers the history of the English language and marks the substantial changes, the English language had undergone. It gives an insight into changes in grammar and vocabulary, as well as syntax and pronunciation through the periods. Some examples will be...

The History of English: Overview This unit considers the history of the English language and marks the substantial changes, the English language had undergone. It gives an insight into changes in grammar and vocabulary, as well as syntax and pronunciation through the periods. Some examples will be given and study questions provided. Overview: English belongs to the Anglo-Frisian group of the West Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family. The origin of English goes back to the 5th century AD when Germanic tribes invaded Britain. Its development can be subdivided into a number of linguistically different [periods](https://oer-vlc.de/mod/page/view.php?id=9858). The difference between these periods is due to various [linguistic changes ](https://oer-vlc.de/mod/page/view.php?id=9865)ranging from phonological to lexical. Periods The development of the English language as a descendant of the Germanic branch of Indo-European is usually divided into three major periods: - [Old English](https://oer-vlc.de/mod/page/view.php?id=9859) (OE) - [Middle English](https://oer-vlc.de/mod/page/view.php?id=9860) (ME) - [Present-Day English](https://oer-vlc.de/mod/page/view.php?id=9862) (PDE) Sometimes an excursion into [Early Modern English ](https://oer-vlc.de/mod/page/view.php?id=9861)(EMnE) can be found. Old English ----------- English has been spoken in England since around 450 AD. Correctly speaking, it was not English, but a set of varieties of West Germanic. The earliest period in the history of the English language is referred to as Old English. It is characterized by a series of invasions by the Germanic tribes, the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, in the fifth century AD. It is from the first two that we have the term \"Anglo-Saxons\" to describe the people, and from the first tribe that we have a word for their language, \"Englisc\", and for their new land, \"Engla-land. Between the sixth and the eighth century AD, the Anglo-Saxons were converted to Christianity and numerous Latin words came into the English language. From the eighth century onwards the Vikings came first to plunder and then to settle in parts of the coastal regions of Britain. Their language was Old Norse, which left its mark on the English language. Middle English -------------- The period of Middle English can be taken to begin with the Norman invasion in 1066 and the subsequent conquest of the whole of England and to last till about 1500. The arrival of the Norman French in England, following their victory at Hastings under William the Conqueror, brought about eminent changes in the vocabulary of English.For about 200 years French was the language of the nobility, the government, the law and civilized behaviour in England. As a consequence of this, writing in English lost its position in society and only very slowly regained it. It is not until the late 12th century that works in English slowly began to appear again. Printing was introduced in the second half of the 15th century (1476) by William Caxton and was the single most important factor that led to the standardization of English, based on the English spoken in London, the then center of the country. The Middle English period ends with Henry VIII\'s ascent to the throne in 1509. Early Modern English -------------------- The EMnE period is taken to have begun with the introduction of printing by William Caxton in 1476. Furthermore, it is common to regard it as having lasted to about 1700, although there is no single internal or external event to justify that time span. This era is characterized by a large influx of words from the classical languages Greek and Latin, with a kind of climax in 1660. The endeavours of conservative scholars to latinize their English also included the altered spellings which were supposed to render the Latin original recognizable in the English form. During the 16th and 17th centuries a need for new words arose because of the many discoveries and developments in the New Sciences. English was said to be imperfect in contrast to Latin and Greek. One means of remedy was the borrowing of new words from these sources. These loans were not always welcomed by the literate public and the terms \"hard words\" or \"inkhorn terms\" were created to describe these borrowings. As part of the general expansion of learning, the *Royal Society* was founded in 1662. Sprats famous *History of the Royal Society of London* (1668) gives an insight into this institution and their manner of discourse: a new scientific, plain style was developed with an exact correspondence between name and referent. Present-Day English ------------------- By about 1700, the English language differed only slightly from PDE. The main changes that had begun during the ME period were all completed: 2nd person verb forms, along with the pronouns *thou* and *thee*, had disappeared from ordinary educated speech. Auxiliary *do* had come to be used as we use it today. The most important external development after 1700 concerned the position of the English language among the languages of the world. Colonization had led to the spread of English around the globe. Today, English constitutes the most widely used individual language of our time with more than 300 million native speakers and more than 1.5 billion official users. The main branches are [British](https://oer-vlc.de/mod/page/view.php?id=9864) and [American](https://oer-vlc.de/mod/page/view.php?id=9863) English. American English ---------------- There is no uniform accent of North American English, rather there are various phonological dialects whose differences can be manifested on the basis of ongoing sound changes. The following major dialects can be distinguished: - African American English - American Indian English - Canadian - Northeastern American - Southern States American English In teaching American English, it seems that Northern varieties with their resistance to the low back merger are to be preferred to other varieties. In these Northern varieties we can define: - 14 Monophthongs -   3 Diphthongs - 24 Consonants The vowel phonemes differ from the other varieties of English, for example from British English, to a relatively large extent. The consonantal phonemes, by contrast, are almost identical with the other varieties of English, yet, their allophonic realization is different in a number of cases. British English --------------- The main variety of British English is referred to as Received Pronunciation (RP). In RP we can define a total of 44 phonemes: - 12 Monophthongs -   8 Diphthongs - 24 Consonants The vowel phonemes differ from the other varieties of English, for example from American English, to a relatively large extent. The consonantal phonemes, by contrast, are almost identical with the other varieties of English, yet, their allophonic realization is different in a number of cases. Major Changes ------------- Languages are always in a state of flux. All living languages undergo constant changes in which all aspects of language structure are affected. The English language has changed enormously from OE to its present-day form. Over and above the numerous [lexical changes](https://oer-vlc.de/mod/page/view.php?id=9869), English underwent a large number of [phonological changes](https://oer-vlc.de/mod/page/view.php?id=9866) resulting in [morphological](https://oer-vlc.de/mod/page/view.php?id=9867) and [syntactic changes](https://oer-vlc.de/mod/page/view.php?id=9868). The most obvious of these changes was the change in word order. Whereas the order in OE could vary considerably, most notably between SVO and SOV, the order in PDE is relatively fixed. Phonological ------------ Numerous phonological changes have affected the sound system of English from its beginnings to the present day. The most important of these sound changes are among others: - Assimilation - Dissimilation - Merger (or Coalescence) - Split - Loss Beginning in the twelfth century and continuing until the eighteenth century (but with its main effects in the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries) the sounds of the long stressed vowels in English changed their places of articulation. This shift has been referred to as the Great Vowel Shift. Old and Middle English were written in the Latin alphabet and the vowels were represented by the letters assigned to the sounds in Latin. For example, Middle English \"long e\" in Chaucer\'s \"sheep\" had the value of Latin \"e\" (and sounded like Modern English \"shape\" (/e/) in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)). It had much the same value as written long e has in most modern European languages. Consequently, one can read Chaucer\'s long vowels with the same values as in Latin or any continental European language and come pretty close to the Middle English values. Morphological ------------- The development of the English morphology can generally be described as a process from synthesis to analysis. Inflectional suffixes (Lat. *am-a-bo*) were increasingly replaced by periphrastic forms (*I will love*). The system of declension underwent several processes of \'paradigmatic leveling\'. They were the results of phonological processes that led to a reduction of inflectional endings: ------ -------- ---------------------------------- Step Period Case System 0 IE 5 cases 1 OE 4 cases: Dative = Instrumental 2 OE 3 cases: Nominative = Accusative 3 ME 2 cases: Genitive, General case 4 EMnE 2 cases ------ -------- ---------------------------------- Syntactic --------- Some striking differences between the structure of sentences in Old English and Modern English involve word order. In Old English we generally find the ordering subject-verb-object, also common in Modern English. But there are other, different orders that are not to be found in Present-Day English. For example, the subject can follow the verb or the object can be placed before the verb or at the very beginning of a sentence. Here are some examples. Also noteworthy is the fact that Present-Day English has lost a large number of inflectional affixes from many parts of speech. As in Latin, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, articles and adverbs all took different inflectional endings according to their syntactic function. Lexical ------- Britain was invaded by different tribes which brought along different languages. As a consequence, many words were borrowed from the Scandinavian invaders as well as from Latin, Celtic and most importantly after 1066, from French. Lexical change, i.e. change that concerns the vocabulary of a language, is perhaps the most obvious area of linguistic change and for many people the most fascinating. It is profoundly connected with the life, the literature and the culture of a community. To find out about lexical history, or etymology, many languages employ specialized dictionaries. Well-known types of lexical change are: - widening - narrowing - shift - figurative use Timeline -------- -------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ca. 5,000 BC Neolithic (new stone age) Period begins; first evidence of farming appears; stone axes, antler combs, pottery in common use. ca. 4,000 BC Construction of the \"Sweet Track\" begun (named for its discoverer, Ray Sweet); many similar raised, wooden walkways were constructed at this time providing a way to traverse the low, boggy, swampy areas in the Somerset Levels, near Glastonbury; earliest-known camps or communities appear (ie. Hembury, Devon). ca. 2,300 BC Construction begun on Britain\'s largest stone circle at Avebury. ca. 2,000 BC Metal objects are widely manufactured in England about this time, first from copper, then with arsenic and tin added; woven cloth appears in Britain, evidenced by findings of pins and cloth fasteners in graves; construction begun on  Stonehenge\'s inner ring of bluestones. ca. 1,800-1,200 BC Control of society passes from priests to those who control the manufacture of metal objects. 55 BC Julius Caesar\'s first invasion of Britain. 54 BC Julius Caesar\'s second invasion of Britain. British forces led, this time, by Cassivellaunus, a capable commander. Despite early Roman advances, the British continued to harass the invaders, effectively. A \"deal\" with the Trinovantes (tribal enemies of Cassivellaunus), and the subsequent desertion of other British tribes, finally guaranteed Roman victory. Caesar\'s first two expeditions to Britain were only exploratory in nature, and were never intended to absorb Britain into the Roman sphere, at that time. 63 AD Joseph of Arimathea came to Glastonbury on the first Christian mission to Britain. c\. 75-77 The Roman conquest of Britain is completed, as Wales is finally subdued; Julius Agricola is imperial governor 167 At the request of King Lucius, the missionaries, Phagan and Deruvian,were said to have been sent by Pope Eleutherius to convert the Britons to Christianity. This is, perhaps, the most widely believed of the legends about the founding of Christianity in Britain. 209 St. Alban, first British martyr, was killed for his faith in one of the few persecutions of Christians ever to take place on the island, during the governorship of Gaius Junius Faustinus Postumianus. 311 Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire ends. 313 Edict of Toleration proclaimed in Milan, in which Christianity is made legal throughout the empire. 324 Constantin finally achieves full control over an undivided empire. 360s Series of attacks on Britain from the north by the Picts, the Attacotti and the Irish (Scots), requiring the intervention of Roman generals leading special legions. 407 In place of the assassinated Marcus, Gratian was elevated \"to the purple,\" but lasted only four months. Constantine III was hailed as the new emperor by the Roman garrison in Britain. He proceeded to follow the example of Magnus Maximus by withdrawing the remaining Roman legion, the Second Augusta, and crossing over into Gaul to rally support for his cause. Constantine\'s departure could be what Nennius called \"the end of the Roman Empire in Britain\" 410 Britain gains \"independence\" from Rome. The Goths, under Alaric, sack Rome; End of the Roman Empire 600 onw. Increasing influence of the Saxons 633 Mercians under Penda defeat Northumbrians 642 Mercians under Penda again defeat the Northumbrians 655 Oswy, king of Northumbria, defeats and kills Penda of Mercia 664 Synod of Whitby; Oswy abandons the Celtic Christian Church and accepts the faith of Rome: decline of the Celtic Church 731 The Venerable Bede, British monk, completes his history of the Church in England 735 Death of the Venerable Bede 757 Offa, King of Mercia (to 796), builds Offa\'s Dyke to keep out the Welsh 779 Offa, King of Mercia, becomes King of all England 793 Vikings invade Britain for the first time in a surprise attack on the monastic community at Lindisfarne (Holy Island). 796 Death of Offa: end of Mercian supremacy in England 802 Egbert, King of Wessex (to 839) 828 Egbert of Wessex is recognized as overlord of other English kings 839 Aethelwulf, son of Egbert, King of Wessex (to 858) 844 Kenneth MacAlpine, King of the Scots, conquers the Picts; founds a unified Scotland 858 AEthelbald, eldest surviving son of AEthelwulf, King of Wessex (to 860) 860 AEthelbert, third son of AEthelwulf, King of Wessex (to 865) 865 AEthelred I, fourth son of AEthelwulf, King of Wessex (to 871) 871 The Danes attack Wessex; are defeated by AEthelred at Ashdown;\ Alfred the Great(to 899) becomes King of Wessex 878 Alfred decisively defeats the Danes at Edington. The Peace of Wedmore, divided England into Wessex in the south and the Danes in the north, the Danelaw. 886 Alfred captures London from the Danes 899 Edward the Elder, King of Wessex (to 924) 901 Edward the Elder takes the title \"King of the Angles and Saxons\" 913 Edward the Elder recaptures Essex from the Danes 924 Athelstan, son of Edward the Elder, becomes king of Wessex and effective ruler of most of England (to 939) 926 Athelstan annexes Northumbria, and forces the kings of Wales, Strathclyde, the Picts, and the Scots to submit to him 937 Battle of Brunanburh: Athelstan defeats alliance of Scots, Celts, Danes, and Vikings, and takes the title of \"King of all Britain\" 939 Edmund, half brother of Athelstan, King of England (to 946) 945 Dunstan becomes abbot of Glastonbury 946 Edred, younger brother of Edmund, King of England (to 955); Dunstan is named his chief minister 955 Edwy, son of Edmund, King of England (to 959). 956 Dunstan sent into exile by Edwy 957 Mercians and Northumbrians rebel against Edwy 959 Edgar the Peaceful, younger brother of Edwy, King of England (to 975) 975 Edward the Martyr, son of Edgar, King of England (to 978) 978 Edward the Martyr murdered at Corfe Castle; AEthelred II, the Unready (ill-counselled), younger brother of Edward the Martyr, King of England (to 1016) 980 The Danes renew their raids on England attacking Chester and Southampton 991 Battle of Maldon: Byrhtnoth of Essex defeated by Danish invaders; AEthelred II buys off the Danes with 10,000 pounds of silver (Danegeld) 992 AEthelred makes a truce with Duke Richard I of Normandy 994 Danes under Sweyn and Norwegians under Olaf Trygvesson sail up the Thames and besiege London; bought off by AEthelred 1003 Sweyn and an army of Norsemen land in England and wreak a terrible vengeance 1007 AEthelred buys two years\' peace from the Danes for 36,000 pounds of silver 1012 The Danes sack Canterbury: they are bought off for 48,000 pounds of silver 1013 Sweyn lands in England and is proclaimed king; AEthelred flees to Normandy 1014 The English recall AEthelred II as King on the death of Sweyn; Canute retreats to Denmark 1015 Canute again invades England; this leads to a war between Danes and Saxons 1016 Edmund Ironside, son of AEthelred II, King of England: he and Canute divide the Kingdom, Canute holds the north and Edmund Wessex; Edmund is assassinated; Canute, King of England (to 1035) 1017 Canute divides England into four earldoms 1019 Canute marries Emma of Normandy, widow of AEthelred II 1035 Death of Canute: his possessions are divided; Harold I, Harefoot, becomes King of England (to 1040) 1040 Hardicanute, King of England (to 1042); he dies of drink 1042 Edward the Confessor, son of AEthelred II, King of England (to 1066) 1051 Earl Godwin exiled (until 1052): he returns with a fleet and wins back his power 1052 Edward the Confessor founds Westminster Abbey, near London 1053 Death of Godwin: his son Harold succeeds him as Earl of Wessex 1055 Harold\'s brother Tostig becomes Earl of Northumbria 1063 Harold and Tostig subdue Wales 1064 Harold is shipwrecked in Normandy; while there, he swears a solemn oath to support William of Normandy\'s claim to England 1065 Northumbria rebels against Tostig, who is exiled 1066 Harold II is crowned king the day after Edward the Confessor dies. Tostig and Harold Hardraada of Norway invade England: Harold defeats them at the Battle of Stamford Bridge, killing both; Battle of Hastings: 19 days after battle of Stamford Bridge, William of Normandy lands at Pevensey, defeats and kills Harold; William I, the Conqueror, first Norman King of England (to 1087) 1067 Work is begun on building the Tower of London. 1068 The Norman Conquest continues until 1069: William subdues the north of England (the \"Harrying of the North\" ): the region is laid waste 1070 Hereward the Wake begins a Saxon revolt in the Fens of eastern England; Lanfranc, an Italian lawyer, becomes William\'s formidable Archbishop of Canterbury. Lanfranc rebuilds Canterbury Cathedral and establishes the primacy of the see of Canterbury over York, but does not enforce clerical celibacy. 1072 William invades Scotland, and also receives the submission of Hereward the Wake. 1080 William, in a letter, reminds the bishop of Rome that the King of England owes him no allegiance. 1086 The Domesday Book is completed in England 1087 William II, Rufus, King of England (to 1100); his elder brother, Robert, is Duke of Normandy 1093 Donald Bane, King of Scots (to 1097), following the death of his brother, Malcolm III, in battle against the English 1097 Edgar, second son of Malcolm Canmore, King of Scotland (to 1107); he defeats Donald Bane with the assistance of William II of England 1099 Crusaders capture Jerusalem; Godfrey of Bouillon is elected King of Jerusalem 1100 Henry I, youngest son of William the Conqueror, King of England (to 1135), following assassination of William Rufus 1106 Henry I defeats his brother Robert, Duke of Normandy, at battle of Tinchebrai: Robert remains captive for life 1113 Founding of the Order of St. John is formally acknowledged by the papacy 1114 Matilda (Maud), daughter of Henry I of England marries Emperor Henry V 1118 Hugues de Payens founds the order of the Knights Templar 1120 William, heir of Henry I of England, is drowned in wreck of the \"White Ship\" 1129 Empress Matilda, widow of Henry V, marries Geoffrey the Handsome, Count of Anjou, nicknamed \" Plantagenet \" 1139 Matilda lands in England 1141 Matilda captures Stephen at the battle of Lincoln, and reigns disastrously as queen; she is driven out by a popular rising and Stephen restored 1148 Matilda leaves England for the last time 1152 Marriage of Louis VII of France and Eleanor of Aquitaine is annulled on grounds of blood relationship; Eleanor marries Henry of Anjou, allying Aquitaine to his\ lands of Anjou and Normandy, two months after her divorce 1153 Henry of Anjou, son of Matilda, invades England and forces Stephen to make him heir to the English throne 1154 Henry II, King of England (to 1189); he also rules more than half of France; Pope Adrian IV (to 1159) (Nicholas Breakspear, the only English pope) 1155 Henry II appoints the Archdeacon of Canterbury, Thomas a Becket, as Chancellor 1159 Henry II levies scutage, payment in cash instead of military service 1162 Becket is appointed Archbishop of Canterbury and at once quarrels with Henry II over the Church\'s rights 1164 Constitutions of Clarendon; restatement of laws governing trial of ecclesiastics in England; Becket is forced to flee to France 1170 Becket is reconciled with Henry II, returns to Canterbury; is murdered by four knights after Henry\'s hasty words against him 1173 Rebellion of Henry\'s eldest sons, Henry, Richard, and Geoffrey, supported by their mother, Eleanor of Aquitaine; Thomas a Becket canonized 1189 Richard I, Coeur de Lion eldest surviving son of Henry II, King of England (to 1199) 1191 The bodies of King Arthur and Guinevere were reported to have been exhumed from a grave at Glastonbury Abbey; Richard I conquers Cyprus and captures the city of Acre 1192 Richard I captures Jaffa, makes peace with Saladin; on the way home he is captured by his enemy, Duke Leopold of Austria 1193 Leopold hands Richard over to Emperor Henry VI, who demands ransom 1194 Richard is ransomed and returns to England 1204 John Lackland looses English possessions in France; French gradually becomes a less important language in England 1207 Pope Innocent III appoints Stephen Langton as Archbishop of Canterbury (Langton is the man who divided the books of the Bible into chapters); John refuses to let him take office 1208 Innocent III lays England under interdict 1209 Cambridge University is founded in England; Innocent III excommunicates John for attacks on Church property 1213 Innocent III declares John deposed; John resigns his kingship to the pope and receives it back as a holding from the Roman legate, thereby ending the interdict. 1215 Signing of Magna Carta; English barons force John to agree to a statement of their rights 1216 Henry III becomes king of England at age nine (to 1272) 1227 Henry III begins personal rule in England 1256 Prince Llewellyn sweeps English from Wales 1264 Simon de Montfort and other English barons defeat Henry III at battle of Lewes 1265 De Montfort\'s Parliament: burgesses from major towns summoned to Parliament for the first time; Henry III\'s son Edward defeats and kills Simon de Montfort at battle of Evesham 1269 Rebuilding of Westminster Abbey begun by Henry III. 1272 Edward I, King of England (to 1307) 1283 Edward I defeats and kills Llewellyn, Prince of Wales, and executes Llewellyn\'s brother David; conquest of Wales complete 1290 Edward I expells all Jews from England 1291 Scots acknowledge Edward I of England as suzerain; he arbitrates in succession dispute 1295 Edward I\'s Model Parliament: knights and burgesses from English shires and towns summoned. First representative parliament 1296 Edward I of England deposes John Balliol from Scottish throne 1297 Battle of Cambuskenneth: Scottish patriot William Wallace defeats English army 1298 Edward I defeats Wallace at battle of Falkirk and reconquers Scotland 1301 Edward I of England invests his baby son Edward as Prince of Wales 1305 The English capture and execute William Wallace 1306 New Scottish rebellion against English rule led by Robert Bruce. Robert I, the Bruce crowned King of Scotland (to 1329) at Scone 1307 Edward I dies on march north to crush Robert Bruce. Edward II, King of England (to 1327) 1310 English barons appoint 21 peers, the Lords Ordainers, to manage Edward II\'s household 1312 Order of Knights Templar abolished 1314 Battle of Bannockburn: Robert Bruce defeats Edward II and makes Scotland independent 1326 Queen Isabella and Roger Mortimer sail from France with an army to rebel against Edward II of England 1327 Parliament declares Edward II deposed, and his son accedes to the throne as Edward III. Edward II is hideously murdered, nine months later 1328 Charles IV dies, ending the Capetian dynasty. Philip of Valois succeeds him as Philip VI. 1329 Edward III of England does simple homage for Aquitaine (Guienne), but refuses to do liege homage. 1333 Edward III invades Scotland on Balliol\'s behalf and defeats the Scots at battle of Halidon Hill 1336 Edward places an embargo on English exports of wool to Flanders. 1337 Philip declares Edward\'s fiefs forfeit and begins harassing the frontiers of Aquitaine; Edward III, provoked by these attacks on his territories in France, declares himself king of France; \"The Hundred Years\' War \"; begins (ends 1453) 1338 Treaty of Koblenz: alliance between England and the Holy Roman Empire;\ Edward III formally claims the French crown. 1340 Naval victory at Sluys gives England the command of the English Channel; English Parliament passes four statues providing that taxation shall be imposed only by Parliament 1342 Approximate year of birth of Geoffrey Chaucer 1346 Edward III of England invades France with a large army and defeats an even bigger army under Philip VI at the Battle of Creacutecy 1347 The English capture Calais 1348 Edward III establishes the Order of the Garter; Black Death (bubonic plague) reaches England 1351 The English remove the Pope\'s power to give English benefices to foreigners 1353 Statue of Praemunire: English Parliament forbids appeals to Pope 1356 Edward the Black Prince, son of Edward III, defeats the French at the battle of Poitiers, capturing King John II 1358 The Jacquerie 1360 Peace of Bretigny ends the first stage of the Hundred Years\' War. Edward III gives up claim to French throne 1369 Second stage of war between England and France begins 1370 French troops commanded by Bertrand du Guesclin; Edward, the Black Prince, sacks Limoges 1372 French troops recapture Poitou and Brittany; Naval battle of La Rochelle: French regain control of English Channel 1373 John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, son of Edward III, leads new English invasion of France 1374 John of Gaunt returns to England and takes charge of the government; Edward III in his dotage, the Black Prince is ill 1375 Truce of Bruges ends hostilities between England and France 1376 The Good Parliament in England, called by Edward the Black Prince, introduces many reforms of government; Death of Edward the Black Prince, aged 45; The Civil Dominion of John Wyclif, an Oxford don, calling for Church reforms 1377 Richard II, son of the Black Prince, King of England (to 1399) 1381 Peasants\' Revolt in England; John Wyclif, an Oxford theologian, publishes his \"Confession\", denying that the \"substance\" of bread and wine are miraculously changed during the Eucharist. 1382 John Wyclif is expelled from Oxford because of his opposition to certain Church doctrines 1386 John of Gaunt leads an expedition to Castile, which he claims in his wife\'s name; fails 1388 1387 Geoffrey Chaucer begins work on The Canterbury Tales 1389 Richard II, aged 22, assumes power 1394 Richard II leads expedition to subdue Ireland; returns to England 1395 1396 Richard II marries the seven-year old Princess Isabella of France 1399 Death of John of Gaunt; Gaunt\'s eldest son, Henry of Bolingbroke, lands in Yorkshire with 40 followers, and soon has 60,000 supporters: Richard II is deposed; Bolingbroke becomes Henry IV, King of England (to 1413) 1400 Richard II murdered at Pontefract Castle; Owen Glendower proclaims himself Prince of Wales and begins rebellion; Geoffrey Chaucer dies 1401 Persecution of Lollards for revolting against clergy. 1402 Henry IV enters Wales in pursuit of Glendower 1403 Battle of Shrewsbury; rebellion by the Percy family: Henry IV defeats and kills Harry \"Hotspur\" Percy 1406 Henry, Prince of Wales, defeats Welsh 1413 Henry V, King of England (to 1422) 1415 Henry V invades France, and defeats the French at\ Agincourt 1416 Death of Owen Glendower 1420 Treaty of Troyes 1422 Deaths of Henry V of England and Charles VI of France; Henry VI, King of England (to 1461) 1424 John, Duke of Bedford, regent for Henry VI of England, defeats the French at Cravant 1428 Henry VI begins siege of Orleans 1429 A French force, led by military commander Joan of Arc (Jeanne d\'Arc), relieves the siege of Orleans; Charles VII crowned king of France at Rheims 1430 Burgundians capture Jeanne d\'Arc and hand her over to the English 1431 Jeanne d\'Arc burned as a witch at Rouen; Henry VI of England crowned king of France in Paris 1453 Bordeaux falls to the French, Hundred Years\' War ends; England\'s only French possession is Calais; In England, Henry VI becomes insane 1454 Richard, Duke of York, is regent of England while Henry VI is insane; Printing with movable type is perfected in Germany by Johannes Gutenberg 1455 Henry VI recovers. Richard of York is replaced by Somerset and excluded from the Royal Council; War of the Roses - civil war in England between royal houses of York and Lancaster (until 1485); Battle of St. Albans. Somerset defeated and killed 1460 Battle of Wakefield. Richard of York is defeated and killed; Earl of Warwick (the Kingmaker) captures London for the Yorkists; Battle of Northampton: Henry VI is captured by Yorkists 1461 Battles of Mortimer\'s Cross and Towton: Richard\'s son, Edward of York, defeats Lancastrians and becomes king; Edward IV, King of England (to 1483) 1465 Henry VI imprisoned by Edward IV 1466 Warwick\'s quarrels with Edward IV begin; forms alliance with Louis XI 1470 Warwick turns Lancastrian: he defeats Edward IV and restores Henry VI 1471 Battle of Barnet. Edward IV defeats and kills Warwick; Henry VI dies, probably murdered in the Tower of London 1475 Edward IV invades France; Peace of Piequigny between England and France 1476 William Caxton sets up a printing press at Westminster 1483 Death of Edward IV; Edward V, King of England; he is deposed by his uncle, Richard Duke of Gloucester; Richard III, King of England (to 1485); Edward V and his brother are murdered in the Tower of London 1484 Caxton prints Morte D\'Arthur, the poetic collection of legends about King Arthur compiled by Sir Thomas Malory 1485 Battle of Bosworth Field: Henry Tudor, with men, money and arms provided by Charles VIII of France, defeats and kills Richard III in the decisive (but not final) battle of the War of the Roses. 1486 Henry VII (Tudor) married Elizabeth of York uniting houses of York and Lancaster. 1487 Battle of Stoke Field: In the final engagement of the Wars of the Roses, Henry VII, defeats Yorkist army \"led\" by Lambert Simnel (who was impersonating Edward, the nephew of Edward IV, the only plausible royal alternative to Henry, who was confined in the Tower of London). 1496 Henry VII joins the Holy League; commercial treaty between England and Netherlands. 1497 John Cabot discovers Newfoundland 1502 Margaret, daughter of Henry VII, marries James IV of Scotland. 1509 Henry VIII becomes king. 1513 Battle of Flodden Field (fought at Flodden Edge, Northumberland) in which invading Scots are defeated by the English under their commander, 70 year old Thomas Howard, Earl of Surrey; James IV of Scotland is killed. 1515 Thomas Wolsey, Archbishop of York, is made Lord Chancellor of England and Cardinal 1517 The Protestant Reformation begins; Martin Luther nails his \"95 Theses\" against the Catholic practice of selling indulgences, on the church door at Wittenberg 1520 Field of Cloth of Gold: Francois I of France meets Henry VIII but fails to gain his support against Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V 1521 Henry VIII receives the title \"Defender of the Faith\" from Pope Leo X for his opposition to Luther 1529 Henry VIII dismisses Lord Chancellor Thomas Wolsey for failing to obtain the Pope\'s consent to his divorce from Catherine of Aragon; Sir Thomas More appointed Lord Chancellor; Henry VIII summons the \"Reformation Parliament\" and begins to cut the ties with the Church of Rome 1530 Thomas Wolsey dies 1532 Sir Thomas More resigns over the question of Henry VIII\'s divorce 1533 Henry VIII marries Anne Boleyn and is excommunicated by Pope Clement VII; Thomas Cranmer appointed Archbishop of Canterbury 1534 Act of Supremacy : Henry VIII declared supreme head of the Church of England 1535 Sir Thomas More is beheaded in Tower of London for failing to take the Oath of Supremacy 1536 Anne Boleyn is beheaded; Henry VIII marries Jane Seymour; dissolution of monasteries in England begins under the direction of  Thomas Cromwell , completed in 1539. 1537 Jane Seymour dies after the birth of a son, the future Edward VI 1539 Dissolution of Glastonbury Abbey; buildings torched and looted by king\'s men; Abbot Richard Whiting is executed by hanging atop Glastonbury Tor. 1540 Henry VIII marries Anne of Cleves following negotiations by Thomas Cromwell; Henry divorces Anne of Cleves and marries  Catherine Howard; Thomas Cromwell executed on charge of treason 1542 Catherine Howard is executed 1543 Henry VIII marries Catherine Parr; alliance between Henry and Charles V (Holy Roman Emperor) against Scotland and France 1544 Henry VIII and Charles V invade France 1547 Edward VI, King of England; Duke of Somerset acts as Protector 1549 Introduction of uniform Protestant service in England based on Edward VI\'s Book of Common Prayer 1550 The fall of Duke of Somerset; Duke of Northumberland succeeds as Protector 1551 Archbishop Cranmer publishes Forty-two Articles of Religion 1553 On the death of Edward VI, Lady Jane Grey is proclaimed Queen of England by the Duke of Northumberland, her reign lasts nine days; Mary I, daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon, Queen of England (to 1558); Restoration of Roman Catholic bishops in England 1554 Execution of Lady Jane Grey 1555 England returns to Roman Catholicism: Protestants are persecuted and about 300, including Cranmer, are burned at the stake 1558 England loses Calais, the last English possession in France; Death of Mary I; Elizabeth I, daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, becomes Queen; Repeal of Catholic legislation in England 1560 Treaty of Berwick between Elizabeth I and Scottish reformers; Treaty of Edinburgh among England, France, and Scotland 1563 The Thirty-nine Articles, which complete establishment of the Anglican Church 1564 Peace of Troyes between England and France 1567 Murder of Lord Darnley, husband of Mary Queen of Scots, probably by the Earl of Bothwell;Mary Queen of Scots marries Bothwell, is imprisoned, and forced to abdicate; James VI, King of Scotland 1568 Mary Queen of Scots escapes to England and is imprisoned by Elizabeth I at Fotheringay Castle 1577 Alliance between England and Netherlands; Francis Drake sails around the world (to 1580) 1584 William of Orange is murdered and England sends aid to the Netherlands; 1586 Expedition of Sir Francis Drake to the West Indies; Conspiracy against Elizabeth I involving Mary Queen of Scots 1587 Execution of Mary Queen of Scots; England at war with Spain; Drake destroys Spanish fleet at Cadiz 1588 The Spanish Armada is defeated by the English fleet under Lord Howard of Effingham, Sir Francis Drake, and Sir John Hawkins: war between Spain and England continues until 1603 1597 Irish rebellion under Hugh O\'Neill, Earl of Tyrone (finally put down 1601) 1600 Elizabeth I grants charter to East India Company 1601 Elizabethan Poor Law charges the parishes with providing for the needy; Essex attempts rebellion, and is executed 1603 Elizabeth dies; James VI of Scotland becomes James I of England 1604 Hampton Court Conference: no relaxation by the Church towards Puritans; James bans Jesuits; England and Spain make peace 1605 Gunpowder Plot; Guy Fawkes and other Roman Catholic conspirators fail in attempt to blow up Parliament and James I. 1607 Parliament rejects proposals for union between England and Scotland; colony of Virginia is founded at Jamestown by John Smith; Henry Hudson begins voyage to eastern Greenland and Hudson River 1610 Hudson Bay discovered 1611 James I\'s authorized version (King James Version) of the Bible is completed; English and Scottish Protestant colonists settle in Ulster 1614 James I dissolves the \"Addled Parliament\" which has failed to pass any legislation 1618 Thirty Years\' War begins in central Europe, lasts until 1648 1620 Pilgrims land at Plymouth Rock on Cape Cod, Massachusetts, in the \"Mayflower\"; found New Plymouth 1622 James I dissolves Parliament for asserting its right to debate foreign affairs 1624 Alliance between James I and France; Parliament votes for war against Spain; Virginia becomes crown colony 1625 Charles I, King of England (to 1649); Charles I marries Henrietta Maria, sister of Louis XIII of France; dissolves Parliament which fails to vote him money 1627 Duke of Buckingham leads an expedition to aid the Huguenots but fails; France at war with England. 1628 Petition of Right; Charles I forced to accept Parliament\'s statement of civil rights in return for finances 1629 Charles I dissolves Parliament and rules personally until 1640 1630 England makes peace with France and Spain 1639 First Bishops\' War between Charles I and the Scottish Church; ends with Pacification of Dunse 1640 Charles I summons the \"Short \" Parliament ; dissolved for refusal to grant money; Second Bishops\' War; ends with Treaty of Ripon; The Long Parliament begins. 1641 Triennial Act requires Parliament to be summoned every three years; Star Chamber and High Commission abolished by Parliament; Catholics in Ireland revolt; some 30,000 Protestants massacred; Grand Remonstrance of Parliament to Charles I 1642 Charles I fails in attempt to arrest five members of Parliament and rejects Parliament\'s Nineteen Propositions; Civil War (until 1645) begins with battle of Edgehill between Cavaliers (Royalists) and Roundheads (Parliamentarians) 1643 Solemn League and Covenant is signed by Parliament 1644 Battle of Marston Moor; Oliver Cromwell defeats Prince Rupert 1645 Formation of Cromwell\'s New Model Army; Battle of Naseby; Charles I defeated by Parliamentary forces 1646 Charles I surrenders to the Scots 1647 Scots surrender Charles I to Parliament; he escapes to the Isle of Wright; makes secret treaty with Scots. 1648 Scots invade England and are defeated by Cromwell at battle of Preston. Pride\'s Purge: Presbyterians expelled from Parliament (known as the Rump Parliament); Treaty of Westphalia ends Thirty Years\' War 1649 Charles I is tried and executed; The Commonwealth, in which England is governed as a republic, is established and lasts until 1660; Cromwell harshly suppresses Catholic rebellions in Ireland 1650 Charles II lands in Scotland; is proclaimed king. 1701 The Act of Settlement settles the Royal Succession on the Protestant descendants of Sophia of Hanover. Death of the former King James II in exile in France. The French king recognizes James II\'s son as \"King James III\". King William forms a grand alliance between England, Holland and Austria to prevent the union of the Spanish and French crowns. The War of the Spanish Succession breaks out in Europe over the vacant throne 1702 Death of King William III in a riding accident. He is succeeded by his sister-in-law, Queen Anne. England declares war on France as part of the War of the Spanish Succession 1704 British, Dutch, German and Austrian troops, under the Duke of Marlborough, defeat the French and Bavarians at the Battle of Blenheim. British, Bavarian and Austrian troops under Marlborough defeat the French at the Battle of Ramillies, and expel the French from the Netherlands. The British capture Gibraltar from Spain 1706 Benjamin Franklin was born. 1707 The Act of Union unites the kingdoms of England and Scotland and transfers the seat of Scottish Government to London 1708 The Duke of Marlborough defeats the French at the Battle of Oudenarede. The French incur heavy losses. Queen Anne vetoes a parliamentary bill to recognise the Scottish militia. This is the last time a bill is vetoed by the sovereign 1709 Marlborough defeats the French at the Battle of Malplaquet 1710 A Tory ministry is formed, under Harley, with the impeachment of Dr. Sacheverell and the fall of the Whig government 1713 The Treaty of Utrecht is signed by Britain and France, thus concluding the War of the Spanish Succession 1714 Death of Queen Anne at Kensington Palace. She is succeeded by her distant cousin, the Elector George of Hanover, as King George I. A new parliament is elected with a strong Whig majority, led by Charles Townshend and Robert Walpole 1715 The Jacobite Rebellion begins in Scotland with the aim of overthrowing the Hanovarian succession and placing the \"Old Pretender\" - James II\'s son - on the throne. The rebellion is easily defeated 1716 The Septennial Act sets General Elections to be held every seven years 1717 Townshend is dismissed from government by George I, causing Walpole to resign. The Whig party is split. Convocation is suspended 1719 South Sea Bubble bursts, leaving many investors ruined after speculating with stock of the \'South Sea Company\' 1721 Sir Robert Walpole returns to government as First Lord of the Treasury. He remains in office until 1742 and effectively becomes Britain\'s first Prime Minister 1722 Death of the Duke of Marlborough. The Jacobite \'Atterbury Plot\' is hatched 1726 First circulating library in Britain opens in Edinburgh. Jonathan Swift publishes his \'Gulliver\'s Travels\' 1727 Death of great British scientist, Sir Isaac Newton and of King George I (in Hanover). The latter is succeeded by his son as King George II.  Samuel Johnson was born. 1729 Alexander Pope publishes his \' Dunciad\' 1730 A split occurs between Walpole and Townshend 1732 A royal charter is granted for the founding of Georgia in America 1733 The \'Excise Crisis\' occurs and Walpole is forced to abandon his plans to reorganize customs and excise 1737 Death of King George II\'s wife, Queen Caroline 1738 John and Charles Wesley start the Methodist movement in Britain 1739 Britain goes to war with Spain in the \'War of Jenkins\' Ear\'. The cause: Captain Jenkins\' ear was claimed to have been cut off during a Naval Skirmish 1740 Commencement of the War of Austrian Succession in Europe 1742 Walpole resigns as Prime Minister 1743 George II leads British troops into battle at Dettingen in Bavaria 1744 Ministry of Pelham 1745 Jacobite Rebellion in Scotland led by \'Bonnie Prince Charlie\'. There is a Scottish victory at Prestonpans 1746 The Duke of Cumberland crushes the Scottish Jacobites at the Battle of Culloden 1748 The Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle brings the War of Austrian Succession to a close 1751 Death of Frederick, Prince of Wales. His son, Prince George, becomes heir to the throne 1752 Adoption of the Gregorian Calendar in Britain 1753 Parliament passes the Jewish Naturalization Bill 1754 The ministry of Newcastle 1756 Britain, allied with Prussia, declares war against France and her allies, Austria and Russia. The Seven Years\' War begins 1757 The Pitt-Newcastle ministry. Robert Clive wins the Battle of Plassey and secures the Indian province of Bengal for Britain. William Pitt becomes Prime Minister 1759 Wolfe captures Quebec and expels the French from Canada 1760 Death of King George II. He is succeeded by his grandson as George III 1761 Laurence Sterne publishes his \'Tristram Shandy\' 1762 The Earl of Bute is appointed Prime Minister. He becomes very unpopular and employs a bodyguard 1763 Peace of Paris ends the Seven Years\' War. Grenville ministry. James Boswell meets Samuel Johnson in May in Davies\'s London bookshop. 1765 Rockingham ministry. The American Stamp Act raises taxes in the colonies in an attempt to make their defence self-financing 1766 Chatham ministry. Repeal of the American Stamp Act 1768 Grafton ministry. The Middlesex Election Crisis occurs 1769 James Watt patents the Steam Engine 1769-70 Captain James Cook\'s first voyage to explore the Pacific. His last discovery was Australia. 1770 Lord North begins service as Prime Minister. The Falkland Island Crisis occurs. Edmund Burke publishes his \'Thoughts on the Present Discontents\'. William Wordsworth was born. 1771 The Encyclopedia Britannica is first published. Walter Scott was born. 1773 American colonists protest at the East India Company\'s monopoly over tea exports to the colonies, at the so-called \'Boston Tea Party\'. The World\'s first cast-iron bridge is constructed over the River Severn at Coalbrookdale 1774 Parliament passes the Coercive Acts in retaliation for the \'Boston Tea Party\' 1775 American War of Independence begins when colonists fight British troops at Lexington. James Watt further develops his steam engine 1776 On 4th July, the American Congress passes their Declaration of Independence from Britain. Edward Gibbons\' publishes his \'Decline and Fall\' and Adam Smith, his \'Wealth if Nations\' 1779 The rise of Wyvill\'s Association Movement 1780 The Gordon Riots develop from a procession to petition parliament against the Catholic Relief Act 1781 The Americans obtain a great victory over British troops at the surrender of Yorktown 1782 End of Lord North\'s time as Prime Minister. He is succeeded by Rockingham in his second ministry. Ireland obtains a short-lived parliament 1783 Shelburne\'s ministry, followed by that of William Pitt the Younger. Britain recognises American independence at the Peace of Versailles. Fox-North coalition established 1784 Parliament passes the East India Act 1785 Pitt\'s motion for Parliamentary Reform is defeated 1786 The Eden commercial treaty with France is drawn up 1788 George III suffers his first attack of \'madness\' (caused by porphyria) 1789 Outbreak of the French Revolution 1790 Edmund Burke publishes his \'Reflections on the Revolution in France\' 1791 James Boswell publishes his \'The Life of Samuel Johnson\' and Thomas Paine, his \'Rights of Man\' 1792 Coal gas is used for lighting for the first time. Mary Wollstonecraft publishes her \'Vindication of the Rights of Women\' 1793 Outbreak of War between Britain and France. The voluntary Board of Agriculture is set up. Commercial depression throughout Britain 1795 The \'Speenhamland\' system of outdoor relief is adopted, subsidies are paid to make wages up to the cost of subsistence 1796 Vaccination against smallpox is introduced 1798 Introduction of a tax of ten percent on incomes over £200. T.R. Malthus publishes his \'Essay on Population\' 1799 Trade Unions are suppressed. Napoleon is appointed First Consul in France 1799-1801 Commercial boom in Britain 1800 Act of Union with Ireland unites Parliaments of England and Ireland 1801 Close of Pitt the Younger\'s Ministry. The first British Census is undertaken 1802 Peace with France is established. Peel introduces the first factory legislation 1803 Beginning of the Napoleonic Wars. Britain declares war on France. Parliament passes the General Enclosure Act, simplifying the process of enclosing common land 1805 Nelson destroys the French and Spanish fleets at the Battle of Trafalgar, but is killed in the process 1808-14 Peninsular War to drive the French out of Spain 1809 William Ewart Gladstone was born. 1809-10 Commercial boom in Britain 1810 Final illness of George III begins 1811 Depression caused by Orders of Council. There are Luddite disturbances in Nottinghamshire and Yorkshire. The King\'s illness leads to his son, the Prince of Wales, becoming Regent 1812 Prime Minister Spencer Perceval is assassinated in the House of Commons by a disgruntled bankrupt 1813 Jane Austen\'s \'Pride and Prejudice\' is published. The monopolies of the East India Company are abolished 1815 The defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte at Waterloo marks the end of the Napoleonic Wars. Peace is established in Europe at the Congress of Vienna. The Corn Laws are passed by Parliament to protect British agriculture from cheap imports 1815-17 Commercial boom in Britain 1817 Economic slump in Britain leads to the \'Blanketeers\' March\' and other disturbances 1818 Death of the King\'s wife, Queen Caroline. Mary Shelley publishes her \'Frankenstein\' 1819 Troops intervene at a mass political reform meeting in Manchester, killing and wounding four hundred people at the \'Peterloo Massacre\' 1820 Death of the blind and deranged King George III. He is succeeded by his son, the Prince Regent, who becomes King George IV. A radical plot to murder the Cabinet, known as the Cato Street Conspiracy, fails. Trial of Queen Caroline, in which George IV attempts to divorce her for adultery 1821 Queen Caroline is excluded from the coronation 1821-23 Famine in Ireland 1823 The Royal Academy of Music is established in London. The British Museum is extended and extensively rebuilt to house an expanding collection 1824 The National Gallery is established. Commercial boom in Britain 1825 Nash reconstructs Buckingham Palace. The World\'s first railway service, the Stockton and Darlington Railway opens. Trade Unions are legalized. Commercial depression in Britain 1828 The Duke of Wellington becomes British Prime Minister 1829 The Metropolitan Police Force is set up by Robert Peel. Parliament passes the Catholic Relief Act, ending most restrictions on Catholic Civil Rights. They are allowed to own property and run for public office, including parliament 1830 Death of King George IV at Windsor. He is succeeded by his brother, William IV. Opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. Rise of the Whigs, under Grey 1830-32 First major cholera epidemic in Britain 1831 \'Swing\' Riots in rural areas against the mechanization of agricultural activities. The new London Bridge is opened over the River Thames 1832 The first or great Reform Act is passed. This climax of a period of political reform extends the vote to a further 500,000 people and redistributes Parliamentary seats on a more equitable basis 1833 Abolition of Slavery throughout the British Empire. Parliament passes the Factory Act, prohibiting children aged less than nine from working in factories, and reducing the working hours of women and older children. Start of the Oxford Movement in the Anglican Church 1834 Parliament passes the Poor Law Act, establishing workhouses for the poor. Robert Owen founds the Grand National Consolidated Trade Union. The government acts against \'illegal oaths\' in such unionism, resulting in the Tolpuddle Martyrs being transported to Australia. Fire destroys the Palace of Westminster 1835 Parliament passes the Municipal Reform Act, requiring members of town councils to be elected by ratepayers and councils to publish their financial accounts. Mark Twain was born. 1835-36 Commercial boom with \'little\' railway mania across Britain 1837 Death of King William IV at Windsor. He is succeeded by his niece, Victoria. Births, deaths and marriages must be registered by law. Charles Dickens publishes \'Oliver Twist,\' drawing attention to Britain\'s poor. James Murray was born. 1838 The Anti-Corn Law League is established. Publication of the People\'s Charter. The start of Chartism 1839 Chartist Riots take place 1840 Queen Victoria marries Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. The penny post is instituted. Thomas Hardy was born. 1841 The first British Census recording the names of the populace is undertaken. The Tories come to power. Sir Robert Peel becomes Prime Minister 1844 Parliament passes the Bank Charter Act. Foundation of the Rochdale Co-Operative Society and the Royal Commission on the Health of Towns 1844-45 Railway mania explodes across Britain. Massive investment and speculation leads to the laying of 5,000 miles of track 1845-49 Irish Potato Famine kills more than a million people 1846 End of Sir Robert Peel\'s Ministry. Whigs come to Power. Repeal of the Corn Laws 1848 Major Chartist demonstration in London. Revolutions in Europe. Parliament passes the Public Health Act 1850 Robert L. Stevenson was born. 1851 The Great Exhibition is staged in Hyde Park. Thanks to Prince Albert, it is a great success 1852 Death of the Duke of Wellington. Derby\'s first minority Conservative government. Aberdeen\'s coalition government is established 1853 Vaccination against smallpox is made compulsory. Queen Victoria uses chloroform during birth of Prince Leopold. Gladstone presents his first budget 1854 The Northcote-Trevelyan civil service report is published. The Crimean War begins as Britain and France attempt to defend European interests in the Middle East against Russia 1855 End of Aberdeen\'s coalition government. Palmerston\'s first government comes to power 1856 Crimean War comes to an end. The Victoria Cross is instituted for military bravery 1857-58 The Second Opium War opens China to European trade. The Indian Mutiny erupts against British Rule on the sub-continent 1858 Derby establishes his second minority government. Parliament passes the India Act 1859 End of Derby\'s second minority government. Palmerston brings his second Liberal government to power. Charles Darwin publishes his \'The Origin of the Species\' 1860 Gladstone\'s budget and the Anglo-French Cobden Treaty codifies and extends the principles of free trade 1861 Death of Prince Albert, Prince Consort 1862 Parliament passes the Limited Liability Act in order to provide vital stimulus for the accumulation of capital in shares 1863 Edward, Prince of Wales, marries Princess Alexandra of Denmark. The Salvation Army is founded 1865 Death of Palmerston. Russell establishes his second Liberal government. Rudyard Kipling was born. 1866 Russell and Gladstone fail to have their moderate Reform Bill passed in parliament. Derby takes power in his third minority Conservative government 1867 Derby and Disraeli\'s Second Reform Bill doubles the franchise to two million. Canada becomes the first independent dominion in the British Empire under the Dominion of Canada Act 1868 Disraeli succeeds Derby as Prime Minister. Gladstone becomes Prime Minister for the first time 1869 The Irish Church is disestablished. The Suez Canal is opened. Mahatma Gandhi was born. 1870 Primary education becomes compulsory in Britain through the Forster-Ripon English Elementary Education Act. Parliament also passes the Women\'s Property Act, extending the rights of married women, and the Irish Land Act 1871 Trade Unions are legalized 1872 Secret voting is introduced for elections. Parliament passes the Scottish Education Act 1873 Gladstone\'s government resigns after the defeat of their Irish Universities Bill. Disraeli declines to take up office instead 1874 Disraeli becomes Conservative Prime Minister for the second time. Winston Churchill is born. 1875 Disraeli purchases a controlling interest for Britain in the Suez Canal. Agricultural depression increases 1875-76 Parliament passes R.A. Cross\'s Conservative social reforms 1876 Queen Victoria becomes Empress of India. The massacre of Christians in Turkish Bulgaria leads to anti-Turkish campaigns in Britain, led by Gladstone 1877 Confederation of British and Boer states established in South Africa 1878 The Congress of Berlin is held. Disraeli announces \'peace with honour\' 1879 A trade depression emerges in Britain. The Zulu War is fought in South Africa. The British are defeated at Isandhlwana, but are victorious at Ulundi 1879-80 Gladstone\'s Midlothian campaign denounces imperialism in South Africa and Afghanistan 1880 Gladstone establishes his second Liberal government 1880-81 The first Anglo-Boer War is fought 1881 Parliament passes the Irish Land and Coercion Acts 1882 Britain occupies Egypt. A triple alliance is established between Germany, Austria and Italy. James Joyce was born. 1884 Parliament passes the third Reform Act which further extends the franchise 1885 Death of General Gordon at Khartoum. Burma is annexed. Salisbury succeeds Gladstone with his first minority Conservative government. Parliament passes the Redistribution Act 1886 Gladstone\'s third Liberal government fails to pass its first Irish Home Rule Bill through the House of Commons. Gladstone resigns as Prime Minister. Split in the Liberal Party. Salisbury establishes his second Conservative-Liberal-Unionist government. The Royal Niger Company is chartered. Gold is discovered in the Transvaal 1887 Queen Victoria celebrates her Golden Jubilee. The Independent Labour Party is founded. The British East Africa Company is chartered 1888 The County Councils\' Act establishes representative county based authorities 1889 London Dockers\' Strike. The British South Africa Company is chartered 1892 Gladstone forms his fourth Liberal government 1893 Second Irish Home Rule Bill fails to pass the House of Lords 1894 Rosebery takes power with his minority Liberal government 1895 Salisbury forms his third Unionist ministry 1896 The British conquest of the Sudan begins 1897 Queen Victoria celebrates her Diamond Jubilee 1898 British rule over Sudan fully established. German Naval expansion begins. Death of Gladstone. 1899 British disasters in South Africa 1899-1902 Boer War in South Africa 1900 Salisbury wins the Khaki election. The Labour Representation Committee is formed. Parliament passes the Commonwealth of Australia Act 1901 Death of Queen Victoria. She is succeeded by her son, Prince Albert, as King Edward VII 1902 Arthur Balfour becomes Prime Minister (1902-1910). His Education Bill abolishes the School Boards and placed primary, technical and secondary education under the control of local authorities. Balfour also strengthens Britains defenses 1904 An Anglo-French agreement is completed, mainly over their respective interests in Egypt and Morocco 1906 The Labour Representative Committee becomes known as the Labour Party. The question of tariff reform divides the Conservatives. An Anglo-Russian Entente is completed. A Tripartite Pact declares the independence of Ethiopia but divides the country into British, French, and Italian spheres of interest 1910 Death of King Edward VII. He is succeded by his second son, George V 1911 Parliament limits the House of Lords' delaying power. Nationwide strikes by dock workers, railway men and miners brought the country to a standstill. The National Insurance Act was passed by the government. 1912 The Home Rule Bill (finally pushed through in 1914) 1914-1918 World War I 1915 A German offensive at Verdun and the Battle of the Somme. The wartime coalition government is formed. Lloyd George and Winston Churchill argue for the Gallipoli campaign. 1916 Lloyd George takes charge of a coalition ministry. Fuel shortages motivate Parliament to pass a \"summer time\" act, advancing clocks one hour to make the most of available light. James Harold Wilson was born. Edward Heath was born. 1917 British efforts are rewarded by the entry of the United States into the War in April 1918 Following the Armistice, Lloyd George represented Britain during the negotiation of the peace terms at Versailles. The beginning of the Great Depression. Women over thirty were granted the right to vote, following their efforts as factory workers taking the places of men called up for the military 1919 The Peace Treaty. The George Square riot in Edinburgh practically ensure the Labour Party\'s national victory in the General Election of 1922. The Dail Eireann proclaimes the Irish Republic on January 21. 1920 The League of Nations meets for the first time in Geneva in November without the United States and Russia. The Ireland Act divides Ireland into Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland. 1921 The Anglo-Irish Treaty of December 1922 In Italy, in November 1922, general fears of communism lead King Victor Emmanuel to summon Benito Mussolini to form a ministry in which he would be given dictatorial powers to restore order and bring about reforms. 1924 Labour had become the chief challenger to the Conservative Party, and forms its first government under James Ramsey MacDonald. In October of that year, however, Britain once more turns to the Conservatives under Stanley Baldwin. 1925 Further mass unemployment results when theChancellor of the Exchequer, Winston Churchill, returns Britain to the gold standard. As a result, the pound is devalued. 1926 A general strike takes place. The Widows, Orphans and Old Age Health Contributory Pension scheme extends the Act of 1911 and insures over 20 million people 1928 The Equal Franchise Act gives the parliamentary vote to all women over twenty one. 1929 The Local Government Act reduces the number of local government authorities and extends the services they provide. A Labour government comes to power at the beginning of a world-wide depression triggered by the Wall Street Crash. 1930 In Italy Mussolini begins protesting the terms of Versailles 1931 Agriculture is aided by the adoption of a protective tariff and import quotas. The Statute of Westminster, passed in November, establishes the independence of the Dominions. 1932 The Imperial Economic Conference meets in Ottawa, Canada in July 1934 In Germany, Hitler becomes Chancellor on July 30. In August, he becomes President of the Reich on the death of Hindenburg. Mussolini invades Ethiopia. 1935 Hitler announces open conscription, in defiance of the conditions laid down at Versailles 1936 George VI comes to the throne after the abdication of his older brother Edward VIII. In March, at the height of the crisis in Ethiopia, Hitler sends his armies into the Rhineland. The German and Italian dictators sign a pact known as the Rome-Berlin Axis. 1938 Hitler´s troops march into Austria in March. British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain agrees, along with the French Premier, to hand over the Sudetenland to Germany in the cause of buying \"peace with honor\". 1939 Britain declares war on Germany on September 3; two days after Hitler\'s armies invade Poland. Conscription is ordered for all men 20 years and older. France followes Britain by declaring war on Germany. 1940 After a disastrous British attempt to force the Germans out of Narvik, Norway, a humiliated Chamberlain resignes in favor of Winston Churchill. The Battle of Britain begins with an attack of German bombers on England, July 10. On September 17, following decisive losses, Hitler postpones the invasion of Britain. 1941 In September, Japan concludes a pact with the Axis powers. On December 7, their Imperial Air force cripples the US Navy at Pearl Harbor. On December 11, Germany declares war on the US. Japanese forces then capture the British possessions of Malaya, Burma, Hong Kong and Singapore. They then advance practically unopposed to the borders of India in the West and Australia in the South 1942 At the Battle of El Alamein in October the British Eighth Army (the \"Desert Rats\") under Montgomery destroy a German fighting machine of 250,000 men. 1943 A huge German army surrendered at Stalingrad. 1944 On the sixth of June, \"D-Day\", the invasion of the Continent by allied forces in Operation Overlord marks the beginning of the end of the war in the West. By September 1944, Germany still has enough resources to produce a thousand V-2 rockets a month, most of which are directed toward London. 1945 In April, allied forces meet with the Russians at the Elbe. On May 7, Germany surrenders. The War in Europe comes to an end on May 8. By May 6, Burma is retaken. The War in the Pacific comes to an end on August 14. Japan only surrenders after the American Airforce dropsatomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. In Britain the election returns the Labour Party to power with a huge majority. 1947 Bob Marley is born. 1945-1968 Over 500 million people in former British dependencies become self-governing, most becoming members of the British Commonwealth. 1946-1950 The nationalization of the Bank of England, the coal industry, electricity and gas, and air transport, along with road, rail and waterways. A total of 20 percent of all British industry is converted to public ownership by 1950. 1948 The National Health Service is introduced by the government to provide free medical treatment for all, from the spectacles and false teeth, to maternity and child welfare services. Nationalization of the hospitals made nationwide care available for the injured and seriously ill. The \"Welfare State\" begins. Eire is declared a republic in April, with Northern Ireland remaining part of the United Kingdom. The introduction of the Land-Rover to world markets is a godsend for British exports. 1949 Britain declines to attend the Council of Europe that meets in May. NATO is organized. 1950 Britain stays out of the European Coal and Steel Community established by Germany and France 1950-1954 Rationing is abolished. 1951 Festival of Britain, held in London. The Conservatives resume control of the government, lead by the aging Winston Churchill. Economic prospects seem to be on the upturn. In less than one year, the balance of payments deficit has become a surplus. 1951-1954 The plan to rebuild war-damaged cities: The Conservative Government embarkes on a huge housing program to replace the bomb damage, homelessness and dereliction in British cities. Under Harold Macmillan, the target of 300,000 homes a year is surpassed, and many \"New Towns\" are established. 1952 The death of King George VI. He is succeded by his daughter, Queen Elizabeth II. In December, a four-day London \"smog\" raises the city\'s death toll to three times its normal level. 1954 The four-minute mile is broken for the first time in history by Roger Bannister. 1955 Winston Churchill, in ill-health, resigns in favor of Anthony Eden. In October, London passes its Clean Air Act to ban the burning of untreated coal to prevent a recurrence of the killer smog. Britain\'s first fluoridation of community drinking water begins in November. 1956 The Suez Crisis. The Clean Air Act is adopted by the whole country to ban the burning of soft coal and other smoky fuels. At Calder Hall, Britain initiates full-scale use of nuclear fuel to produce electricity. 1957 The Treaty of Rome establishes the European Economic Community (EEC), but Britain stays out mainly to protect its relationship with Commonwealth countries (its sources of cheap food). A new era in transatlantic passenger service begins in October, when two De Havilland Comet lV\'s complete the journey from Britain to the US in under six hours. Harold Macmillan states that \"most of our people have never had it so good.\" 1958 Protests against the building of nuclear weapons produce the famous annual Aldermaston marches. When Iceland extends her fishery limits to 12 miles offshore, protests from British fishing vessels lead to the so-called \"Cod War\". 1959 England develops the Hovercraft which crosses water (e.g. the English Channel) on a cushion of air. The Bristol Britannia is produced, the first large turboprop aircraft to be used in commercial aviation. 1962 One of the worst cold spells in history occurrs in the winter when pipes freeze. In general, the whole country shiver. 1963 The Profumo affair: Britain\'s war minister is forced to resign the discovery that one of his mistresses (Christine Keeler) has been supplying information about Britain\'s nuclear capacity to a known Russian spy. 1964 Australia\'s sale of nearly 6 million tons of iron ore from the Hamersly Range deposits allowes a major expansion of the Japanese steel industry, making her an industrial superpower. Australia is partly responsible for the great decline in Britain\'s steel industry. 1965 The miniskirt of Mary Quant appears, and Chelsea becomes an international conglomerate of fashion, cosmetics, fabrics and other consumer items. London becomes \"swinging \" London. Groups such as the Beatles and the Rolling Stones make British music popular all over the world and bring in much needed income. A drop in infant mortality rates points to the great strides being made in Britain\'s health services. 1966 The disaster at Aberfan in South Wales: A mountain of mine waste pours down on the junior school. The tragedy focuses attention on the despoiled landscape of South Wales mining valleys and lead to much-overdue government efforts at reclamation and re-greening of \"the Valleys.\" 1967 The pound is devalued in an attempt to check inflation and improve the trade deficit. Francis Chichester succeeds in doing a round-the-world flight in his Gypsy Moth. 1968 Britain converts to the decimal system, ending the age-old system in which 240 pennies equaled one pound. Thus the nation joined most of the world\'s system of decimal coinage. It also launches the QE2 as the successor to the passenger liner Queen Elizabeth. On April 4 Martin Luther King was killed. -------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------