The Americans Unit 3 PDF

U N IT An Era of Growth and Disunion CHAPTER 9 Expanding Markets 1825–1877 and Moving West 1825–1847 CHAPTER 10 The Uni...

U N IT An Era of Growth and Disunion CHAPTER 9 Expanding Markets 1825–1877 and Moving West 1825–1847 CHAPTER 10 The Union in Peril 1850–1861 CHAPTER 11 The Civil War 1861–1865 CHAPTER 12 Reconstruction and Its Effects 1865–1877 UNIT PROJECT Television News Broadcast As you read Unit 3, choose an event that you can present in a television news broadcast. Compile a list of information for a script. Make a list of the visual images that you will use to illustrate your report. Present your news report to the class. The Battle of Fredericksburg, December 13, 1862 by Carl Rochling 270  P CHA T E R Essential Question What were the causes and consequences of westward expansion? What You Will Learn In this chapter you will learn how westward expansion led to conflict and redefined the nation’s borders. SECTION 1: The Market Revolution Technological changes created greater interaction and more economic diversity among the regions of the nation. SECTION 2: Manifest Destiny Americans moved west, energized by their belief in the rightful expansion of the United States from the Atlantic to the Pacific. SECTION 3: Expansion in Texas Mexico offered land grants to American settlers, but conflict developed over religion and other cultural differences, and the issue of slavery. SECTION 4: The War with Mexico Tensions over the U.S. annexation of Texas led to war with Mexico, resulting in huge territorial gains for the United States. William Ranney’s 1853 painting Advice on the Prairie is an idealistic image of a family travelling west in the mid-1800s. 1832 Chief Black Hawk leads Sauk 1825 The Erie 1830 Joseph rebellion. 1836 Martin Canal connects 1828 Andrew Smith establishes Van Buren the East to the Jackson is the Mormon 1832 Andrew is elected West. elected president. Church. Jackson is reelected. president. USA WORLD 1825 1830 1 8 35 1828 Uruguay 1830 Revolutions 1833 Santa 1835 Ferdinand I becomes an inde- occur in Belgium, Anna is elected becomes emperor pendent republic. France, and Poland. president of of Austria. Mexico. 272 CHAPTER 9  Gold Rush Miners Suffer Hardships INTERACT WITH H IS TO RY In the 1820s and 1830s the country was energized by new inventions and new business. Now it is 1840, and an economic downturn dampens the hopes of workers and business owners alike. Newspaper ads urge Americans to pack up and move west. But many people and nations already inhabit the North American West. Mexico owns a large part of the area, and Native Americans have been living there for centuries. Explore the Issues s 7HAT ARE SOME REASONS COUNTRIES EXPAND their borders? s 7HAT MIGHT BE BENEFITS OR DRAWBACKS OF expansion? 1837 John Deere 1841 John 1848 Gold is discov- invents Tyler becomes ered in California. the president when 1844 James K. steel President Polk is elected 1848 Zachary Taylor plow. William Henry president. is elected president. Harrison dies. 1 84 0 1845 1850 1837 1840 Benito 1847 U.S. wins 1848 Marx and Juárez begins Constitutional Mexican-American Engels issue the liberal reform revolts occur War. Communist movement in in Lower and Manifesto. Mexico. Upper Canada. Expanding Markets and Moving West 273  C T I ON SE The Market Revolution Technological changes The linking of markets sSamuel F. B. sentrepreneur created greater interaction continues today, as new Morse stelegraph and more economic diversity technologies are opening the sspecialization sJohn Deere among the regions of the United States to globalized smarket revolution sCyrus McCormick nation. trade. scapitalism One American's Story In 1837, painter and scientist Samuel F. B. Morse, with Leonard Gale, built an TAKING NOTES electromagnetic telegraph. Morse’s first model could send signals ten miles Use the graphic through copper wire. Morse asked Congress to fund an experimental organizer online to take notes on telegraphic communication that would travel for 100 miles. important inventions in the early A PERSONAL VOICE SAMUEL F. B. MORSE 19th century. “ This mode of instantaneous communication must inevitably become an instrument of immense power, to be wielded for good or for evil.... Let the sole right of using the Telegraph belong, in the first place, to the Government, who should grant... the right to lay down a communication between any two points for the purpose of transmitting intelligence.” —quoted in Samuel F. B. Morse: His Letters and Journals Congress granted Morse $30,000 to build a 40-mile tele- graph line between Baltimore and Washington, D.C. In 1844, Morse tapped out in code the words “What hath God wrought?” The message sped from Washington, D.C., over a metal wire in less ▼ than a second. As new communication links began to put people into Samuel Morse instant communication with one another, new transportation links carried goods was a painter and people across vast regions. before he became famous as an inventor. U.S. Markets Expand In the early 19th century, rural American workers produced their own goods or traded with neighbors to meet almost all of their needs. Farm families were self- sufficient—they grew crops and raised animals for food and made their own clothing, candles, and soap. At local markets, farmers sold wood, eggs, or butter for cash, which they used to purchase the coffee, tea, sugar, or horseshoes they couldn’t produce themselves. By midcentury, however, the United States had become more industrialized, especially in the Northeast, where the rise of textile mills and the factory system changed the lives of workers and consumers. Now, workers spent their earnings 274 CHAPTER 9  on goods produced by other workers. Farmers began to shift from self-sufficiency to specialization, raising one or two cash crops that they could sell at home or abroad. ECONOMIC These developments led to a market revolution, in which people bought and sold goods rather than making them for their own use. The market revolution created a GOODYEAR AS striking change in the U.S. economy and in the daily lives ENTREPRENEUR of Americans. In these decades, goods and services multi- One entrepreneur who developed plied while incomes rose. In fact, in the 1840s, the nation- an industry still vital today was al economy grew more than it had in the previous 40 years. Charles Goodyear (1800–1860). Goodyear took a big risk that THE ENTREPRENEURIAL SPIRIT The quickening pace of paid off for the American public— U.S. economic growth depended on capitalism, the eco- but left him penniless. nomic system in which private businesses and individuals While he was exploring the problem of how to keep rubber control the means of production—such as factories, elastic and waterproof under machines, and land—and use them to earn profits. For extreme temperatures, Goodyear example, in 1813, Francis Cabot Lowell and other Boston purchased the rights of an inven- merchants had put up $400,000 to form the Boston tor who had mixed rubber with Manufacturing Company, which produced textiles. Other sulfur. In 1839, Goodyear discov- ered that when heated, the mix- businesspeople supplied their own funds to create capital— ture toughened into a durable the money, property, machines, and factories that fueled elastic. In 1844, he received a America’s expanding economy. patent for the process, named These investors, called entrepreneurs from a French vulcanization after Vulcan, the word that means “to undertake,” risked their own money in mythological god of fire. new industries. They risked losing their investment, but Unfortunately, Goodyear earned only scant monetary reward for they also stood to earn huge profits if they succeeded. his discovery, which others stole Alexander Mackay, a Scottish journalist who lived in and used. The inventor was deep Analyzing Causes Canada and traveled in the United States, applauded the in debt when he died in 1860. A What led to entrepreneurs’ competitive spirit. A the rise of capitalism? A PERSONAL VOICE ALEXANDER MACKAY “ America is a country in which fortunes have I. M. Singer’s foot-treadle sewing machine was patented in 1851 and soon dominated yet to be made.... All cannot be made wealthy, the industry. but all have a chance of securing a prize. This ▼ stimulates to the race, and hence the eagerness of the competition.” —quoted in The Western World NEW INVENTIONS Inventor-entrepreneurs began to develop goods to make life more comfortable for more people. For example, Charles Goodyear developed vulcanized rubber in 1839. Unlike untreated India rubber, the new product didn’t freeze in cold weather or melt in hot weather. People first used the product to protect their boots, but, in the early 1900s, it became indispensable in the manufacturing of automobile tires. A natural place for the growth of industrial- ization was in producing clothing, a process great- ly aided by the invention of the sewing machine. Patented by Elias Howe in 1846, the sewing machine found its first use in shoe factories. Homemakers appreciated I. M. Singer’s addition of the foot treadle, which drastically reduced the time it took to sew garments. More importantly,  the foot-treadle sewing machine led to the factory production of clothing. When clothing prices tumbled by more than 75 percent, increasing numbers of working people could afford to buy store-bought clothes. IMPACT ON HOUSEHOLD ECONOMY While entrepreneurial activity boosted America’s industrial output, American agriculture continued to flourish. Workers in industrial cities needed food. To meet this demand, American farmers began to use mechanized farm equipment produced in factories. Farmers, therefore, made significant contributions to the American industrial machine and became impor- tant consumers of manufactured items. Analyzing Manufactured items grew less expensive as technology advances lowered Effects expenses. For example, a clock that had cost $50 to craft by hand in 1800 could B Describe the be turned out by machine for half a dollar by midcentury. Falling prices meant impact of the market revolution that many workers became regular consumers. They purchased new products not on potential only for work, but for comfort as well. B customers. The Economic Revolution These new inventions, many developed in the United States, contributed immensely to changes in American N OW T HEN life. Some inventions simply made life more enjoyable. Other inventions fueled the economic revolution of the midcentury, and transformed manufacturing, transporta- FROM TELEGRAPH tion and communication. TO INTERNET What do the telegraph and the IMPACT ON COMMUNICATION Improving on a device Internet have in common? They developed by Joseph Henry, Samuel F. B. Morse, a New are both tools for instant commu- England artist, created the telegraph in 1837 to carry nication. The telegraph relied on a messages, tapped in code, across copper wire. Within ten network of wires that spanned the years, telegraph lines connected the larger cities on the country.The Internet—an interna- tional network of smaller comput- East Coast. er networks—allows any computer Businesses used the new communication device to user to communicate instantly transmit orders and to relay up-to-date information on with any other computer user in the world. MORSE CODE In 1837 Samuel TELEPHONE In 1876 Alexander MARCONI RADIO In 1895, Guglielmo Morse patents the telegraph, Graham Bell invents the telephone, Marconi, an Italian inventor, sends telegraph the first instant electronic which relies on a steady stream of code through the air as electromagnetic waves. communicator. Morse taps on a electricity, rather than electrical By the early 1900s, “the wireless” makes key to send bursts of electricity bursts, to transmit voice transmissions possible. Commercial down a wire to the receiver, where sounds. By 1900, radio stations are broadcasting music and an operator “translates” the there are over one entertainment coded bursts into understandable million telephones programs by language within seconds. in the United the 1920s. States. 18 37 1876 1895 276 CHAPTER 9  prices and sales. The telegraph was a huge success. The new railroads employed the telegraph to keep trains moving regularly and to warn engineers of safety haz- ards. By 1854, 23,000 miles of telegraph wire crossed the country. IMPACT ON TRANSPORTATION Better and faster transportation became essen- tial to the expansion of agriculture and industry. Farmers and manufacturers alike sought more direct ways to ship their goods to market. In 1807, Pennsylvanian Robert Fulton had ushered in the steamboat era when his boat, the Clermont, made the 150-mile trip up the Hudson River from New York City to Albany, New York, in 32 hours. Ships that had previously only been able to drift southward down the Mississippi with the current could now turn around to make the return trip because they were powered by steam engines. By 1830, 200 steamboats trav- eled the nation’s western rivers, thus slashing freight rates as well as voyage times. Water transport was particularly important in moving heavy machinery and such raw materials as lead and copper. Where waterways didn’t exist, workers excavated them. In 1816, America had a mere 100 miles of canals. Twenty-five years later, the country boasted more than 3,300 miles of canals. The Erie Canal was the nation’s first major canal, and it was used heavily. Shipping charges fell to about a tenth of the cost of sending goods over land. Before the first shovel broke ground on the Erie Canal in 1817, for example, freight charges between Buffalo, New York, and New York City averaged 19 cents a ton per mile. By 1830, that average had fallen to less than 2 cents. The Erie Canal’s success led to dozens of other canal projects. Farmers in Ohio no longer depended on Mississippi River passage to New Orleans. They could now ship their grain via canal and river to New York City, the nation’s major port. The canals also opened the heartland of America to world markets by connecting the Northeast to the Midwest. EMERGENCE OF RAILROADS The heyday of the canals lasted only until the 1860s, due to the rapid emergence of railroads. Although shipping by rail cost sig- nificantly more in the 1840s than did shipping by canal, railroads offered the advantage of speed. In addition, trains could operate in the winter, and they brought goods to people who lived inland. TELEVISION In the late 1800s, scien- COMPUTERS Scientists develop electroni- INTERNET Today, on the Internet, tists begin to experiment with transmit- cally powered computers during the 1940s. through e-mail (electronic mail) or online ting pictures as well as In 1951, UNIVAC I (UNIVersal Automatic conversation, any two people can have words through the air. Computer) becomes the first commercially instant dialogue. The Internet becomes In 1923, Vladimir available computer. In 1964, IBM initiates the modern tool for instant global com- Zworykin, a Russian- System/360, a family of mutually compatible munication not only born American scientist, computers that allow several terminals to be of words, but files a patent for the attached to one computer system. images, too. iconoscope, the first television camera tube suitable for broadcast- ing. In 1924 he files a patent for the kinescope, the picture tube used in receiving television signals. In 1929, Zworykin demonstrated his new television. 19 1 92 9 1964 Expanding Markets and Moving West 277  By the 1840s, steam engines pulled freight at ten miles an hour—more than four times faster than canal boats traveled. Passengers found such speeds exciting, although early train travel was far from comfortable, as Samuel Breck, a Philadelphia merchant, complained. A PERSONAL VOICE SAMUEL BRECK “ If one could stop when one wanted, and if one were not locked up in a box with 50 or 60 tobacco-chewers; and the engine and fire did not burn holes in one’s clothes... and the smell of the smoke, of the oil, and of the chimney did not poi- Analyzing son one... and [one] were not in danger of being blown sky-high or knocked off Effects the rails—it would be the perfection of travelling.” C How did —quoted in American Railroads new products, communications Eventually, railroads grew to be both safe and reliable, and the cost of rail methods, and transportation freight gradually came down. By 1850, almost 10,000 miles of track had been laid, methods help the and by 1859, railroads carried 2 billion tons of freight a year. C U.S. economy? New Markets Link Regions By the 1840s, improved transportation and communication made America’s regions interdependent. Arteries like the National Road, whose construction began in 1811, had also opened up western travel. By 1818, the road extended from Cumberland, Maryland, west to Wheeling, Virginia; by 1838, it reached as far west as Springfield, Illinois. Growing links between America’s regions contributed to the development of regional specialties. The South exported its cotton to England as well as to New England. The West’s grain and livestock fed hungry factory workers in eastern cities and in Europe. The East manufactured textiles and machinery. SOUTHERN AGRICULTURE Most of the South remained agricultural and relied on such crops as cotton, tobacco, and rice. Southerners who had seen the North’s “filthy, overcrowded, licentious factories” looked with dis- favor on industrialization. Even if wealthy Southerners LD STAGE wanted to build factories, they usually lacked the capital to W OR do so because their money was tied up in land and the slaves required to plant and harvest the crops. Though the new transportation and communication BRITAIN’S COTTON IMPORTS lines were less advanced in the South, these improvements By 1840, the American South, helped keep Americans from every region in touch with the world’s leading producer of cotton, was also the leading sup- one another. Furthermore, they changed the economic re- plier of cotton to Great Britain. In lationships between the regions, creating new markets and all, Great Britain imported four- interdependencies. fifths of its cotton from the South. Cotton directly or indirectly NORTHEAST SHIPPING AND MANUFACTURING Heavy provided work for one in eight investment in canals and railroads transformed the people in Britain, then the Northeast into the center of American commerce. After the world’s leading industrial power. opening of the Erie Canal in 1825, New York City became For its part, Britain relied so the central link between American agriculture and European heavily on Southern cotton that Analyzing markets. In fact, more cotton was exported through New some cotton growers incorrectly Causes assumed that the British would York City than through any other American city. D How did the actively support the South during The most striking development of the era, however, was transportation the Civil War. “No power on earth the rise in manufacturing. Although most Americans still revolution bind dares make war upon [cotton],” a lived in rural areas and only 14 percent of workers had man- U.S. regions to South Carolina senator boldly one another and ufacturing jobs, these workers produced more and better to the rest of the declared in 1858. “Cotton is king.” goods at lower prices than had ever been produced before. D world? 278 CHAPTER 9  MIDWEST FARMING As the Northeast be- gan to industrialize, many people moved to farm the fertile soil of the Midwest. First, however, they had to work very hard to ▼ make the land arable, or fit to cultivate. Many wooded areas had to be cleared Cyrus McCormick before fields could be planted. Then two ingenious inventions allowed farmers to patented the first develop the farmland more efficiently and cheaply, and made farming more prof- successful horse- itable. In 1837, blacksmith John Deere invented the first steel plow. It sliced drawn grain reaper (above left). through heavy soil much more easily than existing plows and therefore took less The McCormick animal power to pull. Deere’s steel plow enabled farmers to replace their oxen company grew with horses. into the huge Once harvest time arrived, the mechanical reaper, invented by Cyrus International McCormick, permitted one farmer to do the work of five hired hands. The Harvester Company. reaper was packed in parts and shipped to the farmer, along with a handbook of Their ads helped directions for assembling and operating. Armed with plows and reapers, ambi- persuade farmers tious farmers could shift from subsistence farming to growing such cash crops as to revolutionize farming. wheat and corn. Meanwhile, the rapid changes encouraged Southerners as well as Northerners to seek land in the seemingly limitless West. 1. TERMS & NAMES For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. sSamuel F. B. Morse smarket revolution sentrepreneur sJohn Deere sspecialization scapitalism stelegraph sCyrus McCormick MAIN IDEA CRITICAL THINKING 2. TAKING NOTES 3. COMPARING AND CONTRASTING 5. ANALYZING EFFECTS Create a time line like the one Compare economies of the different During the 1830s and 1840s, below, on which you label and regions of the United States in the transportation and communication date the important innovations mid-1800s. Use details from the linked the country more than ever in transportation, communication, section to support your answer. before. How did these advances and manufacturing during the early affect ordinary Americans? 4. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS 19th century. Think About: Why were the reaper and the steel plow important? UÊÊthe new kinds of transportation 1825 1850 UÊÊspecific changes in communi- cations Which innovation do you think was most important, and why? UÊÊthe new industries of the time period Expanding Markets and Moving West 279  C T I ON SE Manifest Destiny !MERICANS MOVED WEST 4HE 3OUTH AND 3OUTHWEST ARE sMANIFEST DESTINY s-ORMONS ENERGIZED BY THEIR BELIEF IN NOW THE FASTEST GROWING REGIONS s4REATY OF &ORT s*OSEPH 3MITH THE RIGHTFUL EXPANSION OF THE OF THE 5NITED 3TATES Laramie s"RIGHAM 9OUNG 5NITED 3TATES FROM THE s3ANTA &E 4RAIL sh&IFTY &OUR &ORTY !TLANTIC TO THE 0ACIFIC s/REGON 4RAIL OR &IGHT
v One American's Story Amelia Stewart Knight’s diary of her family’s five-month journey to TAKING NOTES Oregon in 1853 described “the beautiful Boise River, with her green Use the graphic timber,” which delighted the family. The last entry in the diary organizer online to describes when she and her family reached their destination, Oregon. take notes about the reasons Americans headed west. A PERSONAL VOICE AMELIA STEWART KNIGHT “ ;-=Y EIGHTH CHILD WAS BORN !FTER THIS WE PICKED UP AND FERRIED ACROSS THE #OLUMBIA 2IVER UTILIZING A SKIFF CANOES AND FLATBOAT )T TOOK THREE DAYS (ERE HUSBAND TRADED TWO YOKE OF OXEN FOR A HALF SECTION OF LAND WITH ONE HALF ACRE PLANTED TO POTATOES AND A SMALL LOG CABIN AND LEAN TO WITH NO WINDOWS 4HIS IS THE JOUR NEYS END” —quoted in Covered Wagon Women Knight’s situation was by no means unique; probably one in five women who made the trek was pregnant. Her condition, how- ever, did little to lighten her workload. Even young children shoul- dered important responsibilities on the trail. ▼ !MELIA 3TEWART +NIGHT TOLD OF The Frontier Draws Settlers CAMPING BY HOT SPRINGS WHERE Many Americans assumed that the United States would extend its dominion to SHE COULD BREW the Pacific Ocean and create a vast republic that would spread the blessings of TEA WITHOUT democracy and civilization across the continent. STARTING A FIRE !-%2)#!. -)33)/. Thomas Jefferson had dreamed that the United States would become an “empire for liberty” by expanding across the continent “with room enough for our descendants to the thousandth and thousandth generation.” Toward that end, Jefferson’s Louisiana Purchase in 1803 had doubled the young nation’s size. For a quarter century after the War of 1812, Americans explored this huge territory in limited numbers. Then, in the 1840s, expansion fever gripped the country. Americans began to believe that their movement west- ward and southward was destined and ordained by God. 280 CHAPTER 9  The editor of the United States Magazine and Democratic Review described the annexation of Texas in 1845 as “the fulfillment of our manifest destiny to over- spread the continent allotted by Providence for the free development of our yearly multiplying millions.” Many Americans immediately seized on the phrase “manifest destiny” to express their belief that the United States’ destiny was Summarizing to expand to the Pacific Ocean and into Mexican territory. They believed that this A Explain the destiny was manifest, or obvious. A concept of manifest destiny. ATTITUDES TOWARD THE FRONTIER Most Americans had practical reasons for moving west. Many settlers endured the trek because of personal economic problems. The panic of 1837, for example, had dire consequences and convinced many people that they would be better off attempting a fresh start in the West. The abundance of land in the West was the greatest attraction. Whether for farming or speculation, land ownership was an important step toward prosperity. As farmers and miners moved west, merchants followed, seeking new markets. While Americans had always traded with Europe, the transportation revolu- tion increased opportunities for trade with Asia as well. Several harbors in the Oregon Territory helped expand trade with China and Japan and also served as naval stations for a Pacific fleet. Settlers and Native Americans The increasing number of U.S. settlers moving west inevitably affected Native American communities. Most Native Americans tried to maintain strong cultural traditions, even if forced to move from ancestral lands. Some began to assim- ilate—or become part of—the advan- cing white culture. Still others, although relatively few in number, fought hard to keep whites away from their homes. THE BLACK HAWK WAR In the early 1830s, white settlers in western Illinois and eastern Iowa placed great pressure on the Native American people there to move west of the Mississippi River. Consequently, representatives from several Native American tribes visited Chief Black Hawk of the Sauk tribe, and one told of a prophet who had a vision of future events involving Black Hawk. ▼ A PERSONAL VOICE John Wesley “ He said that the Big Black Bird Hawk was the man to lead the [Native Jarvis painted Black Hawk (left) American] nations and win back the old homes of the people; that when the fight and his son, began... the warriors would be without number; that back would come Whirling Thunder the buffalo... and that in a little while the white man would be driven to the (right) in 1833. eastern ocean and across to the farther shore from whence he came.” —tribal elder quoted in Native American Testimony Evaluating Leadership The story convinced Black Hawk to lead a rebellion against the United States. B What The Black Hawk War started in Illinois and spread to the Wisconsin Territory. It motivated Black ended in August 1832, when Illinois militia members slaughtered more than 200 Hawk to rebel against the United Sauk and Fox people. As a result, the Sauk and Fox tribes were forcibly removed States? to areas west of the Mississippi. B Expanding Markets and Moving West 281  MIDDLE GROUND The place that neither the Native Americans nor the settlers dominated, according to histori- N OW T HEN an Richard White, was the middle ground. As long as set- tlers needed Native Americans as trading partners and guides, relations between settlers and Native Americans could be beneficial. Amelia Stewart Knight described such an encounter on the middle ground. A PERSONAL VOICE AMELIA STEWART KNIGHT “ Traveled 13 miles, over very bad roads, without water. After looking in vain for water, we were about to give up as THE OGLALA SIOUX it was near night, when husband came across a company of Following the Fort Laramie Treaty, friendly Cayuse Indians about to camp, who showed him the federal government gradually where to find water.... We bought a few potatoes from an reclaimed the Sioux’s sacred Indian, which will be a treat for our supper.” Black Hills, and since 1889 the —quoted in Covered Wagon Women Oglala Sioux have lived on the Pine Ridge reservation in South By the 1840s, the middle ground was well west of the Dakota. Mississippi, because the Indian Removal Act of 1830 and In the 1990s, tourism was the largest source of revenue for Pine other Indian removal treaties had pushed Native Americans Ridge, which boasts some of the off their eastern lands to make room for the settlers. most beautiful territory in the FORT LARAMIE TREATY As settlers moved west, small Northern Plains. Visitors also come for the annual pow-wow, numbers of displaced Native Americans occasionally fought held in August, and the tribe’s them. The U.S. government responded to the settlers’ fears Prairie Winds casino. of attack by calling a conference near what is now Laramie, Nevertheless, with only 20 per- Wyoming. The Cheyenne, Arapaho, Sioux, Crow, and oth- cent of adults employed and a 61 ers joined U.S. representatives in swearing “to maintain percent poverty rate, the reserva- good faith and friendship in all their mutual intercourse, tion remains one of the poorest areas in the United States. and to make an effective and lasting peace.” The 1851 Treaty of Fort Laramie provided various Native American nations control of the Central Plains, land east of the Rocky Mountains that stretched roughly from the Arkansas River north to Canada. In turn, these Native Americans promised not to attack settlers and to allow the construction of government forts and roads. The government pledged to Analyzing honor the agreed-upon boundaries and to make annual payments to the Native Effects Americans. C What were the Still the movement of settlers increased. Traditional Native American hunting effects of the U.S. government lands were trampled and depleted of buffalo and elk. The U.S. government repeat- policies toward edly violated the terms of the treaty. Subsequent treaties demanded that Native Native Americans Americans abandon their lands and move to reservations. C in the mid-1800s? Trails West While the westward movement of many U.S. settlers had disastrous effects on the Native American communities there, the experience was also somewhat perilous for traders and settlers. Nevertheless, thousands made the trek, using a series of old Native American trails and new routes. THE SANTA FE TRAIL One of the busiest and most well-known avenues of trade was the Santa Fe Trail, which led 780 miles from Independence, Missouri, to Santa Fe, New Mexico. Each spring between 1821 and the 1860s, Missouri traders loaded their cov- ered wagons with cloth, knives, and guns, and set off toward Santa Fe. For about the first 150 miles—to Council Grove, Kansas—wagons traveled alone. After that, fearing attacks by Kiowa and Comanche, among others, the traders banded into 282 CHAPTER 9 50nN American Trails West, 1860 The interior of a covered wagon may ▼ E have looked like this on its way west. NG Blackfoot RA Colum R Portland bi a R. Sioux O Yakima Nez Perce Crow DE C K CASCA M Sn i Y Mi ss ak Cheyenne s issi e Fort Hall so Riv p u ri er pi G Ri R i ve M O U N r r ve RE 0nN N. Pawnee Pla tte Council Bluffs AT Ri v er Great Salt Lake Salt Lake City PLA Sacramento Nauvoo SIE San Francisco St. Louis T A I N S INS RR Independence A r ve NE Ri o Ute VA D rad A olo toff Ar C ka n Cu nsa arro s Cim Cherokee Riv Navajo e r Creek Santa Fe Seminole ver Los Angeles Fort Smith Choctaw sissippi Ri de Chickasaw Gran Rio Mis Re PACIFIC d ive R 0nN r OCEAN El Paso 120°W 90nW Butterfield Overland Trail California Trail N Mormon Trail E Old Spanish Trail W Oregon Trail S Sante Fe Trail 0 100 200 miles 0 100 200 kilometers GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER 1. Location Approximately how long was the trail from St. Louis to El Paso? 110nW 2. Movement At a wagon train speed of about 15 A Navajo man and woman in photographs taken by Edward S. Curtis miles a day, about how long would that trip take? Expanding Markets and Moving West 283  ▼ Conestoga wagons were usually pulled by six horses. These wagons were capable of hauling loads up to six tons. organized groups of up to 100 wagons. Scouts rode along the column to check for danger. At night the traders formed the wagons into squares with their wheels interlocked, forming a corral for horses, mules, and oxen. Teamwork ended when Santa Fe came into view. Traders charged off on their own as each tried to be the first to enter the Mexican province of New Mexico. After a few days of trading, they loaded their wagons with silver, gold, and furs, and headed back to the United States. These traders established the first visible American presence in New Mexico and in the Mexican province of Arizona. THE OREGON TRAIL In 1836, Marcus and Narcissa Whitman, Methodist mis- sionaries, made their way into Oregon Territory where they set up mission schools to convert Native Americans to Christianity and educate them. By driving their wagon as far as Fort Boise, they proved that wagons could travel on the “ Eastward I go Oregon Trail, which started in Independence, Missouri, and ended in only by force, but Portland, Oregon, in the Willamette Valley. Their letters east praising westward I go the fertile soil and abundant rainfall attracted hundreds of other free.” Americans to the Oregon Trail. The route from Independence to HENRY DAVID THOREAU Portland traced some of the same paths that Lewis and Clark had fol- lowed several decades earlier. Following the Whitmans’ lead, some of the Oregon pioneers bought wooden- wheeled covered Conestoga wagons. But most walked, pushing handcarts loaded with a few precious possessions. The trip took months. Fever, diarrhea, and cholera killed many travelers, who were then buried alongside the trail. Caravans provided protection against possible attack by Native Americans. They also helped combat the loneliness of the difficult journey, as Catherine Haun, who migrated from Iowa, explained. A PERSONAL VOICE CATHERINE HAUN “ We womenfolk visited from wagon to wagon or congenial friends spent an hour walking, ever westward, and talking over our home life back in ‘the states’; telling of the loved ones left behind; voicing our hopes for the future... and even whis- pering a little friendly gossip of emigrant life.” —quoted in Frontier Women Analyzing By 1844, about 5,000 American settlers had arrived in Oregon and were farm- Events ing its green and fertile Willamette Valley. D D What difficulties were THE MORMON MIGRATION One group that migrated westward along the faced by families Oregon Trail consisted of the Mormons, a religious community that would play like the Whitmans a major role in the settling of the West. Mormon history began in western New and the Hauns? York in 1827 when Joseph Smith and five associates established the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Fayette, New York, in 1830. Smith and a growing band of followers decided to move west. They settled in Nauvoo, Illinois, in 1839. Within five years, the community numbered 20,000. When Smith’s angry neighbors printed protests against polygamy, the Mormons’ 284 CHAPTER 9  practice of having more than one wife, Smith destroyed their printing press. As a result, in 1844 he was jailed for Americans Headed West to... treason. An anti-Mormon mob broke into the jail and murdered Smith and his brother. U escape religious presecution Smith’s successor, Brigham Young, decided to move his followers beyond the boundaries of the United States. U find new markets for commerce Thousands of Mormons travelled by wagon north to U claim land for farming, ranching, Nebraska, across Wyoming to the Rockies, and then south- and mining Analyzing Motives west. In 1847, the Mormons stopped at the edge of the E Why did the lonely desert near the Great Salt Lake. E U locate harbors on the Pacific Mormons move The Mormons awarded plots of land to each family farther west in U seek employment and avoid according to its size but held common ownership of two their search for a creditors after the panic of 1837 new home? critical resources—water and timberland. Soon they had coaxed settlements and farms from the bleak landscape by U spread the virtues of democracy irrigating their fields. Salt Lake City blossomed out of the land the Mormons called Deseret. RESOLVING TERRITORIAL DISPUTES The Oregon Territory was only one point of contention between the United States and Britain. In the early 1840s, Great Britain still claimed areas in parts of what are now Maine and Minnesota. The Webster- Ashburton Treaty of 1842 settled these disputes in the East and the Midwest, but the two nations merely continued “joint occupation” of the Oregon Territory. In 1844, Democrat James K. Polk’s presidential platform called for annexation of the entire Oregon Territory. Reflecting widespread support for Polk’s views, newspapers adopted the slogan “Fifty-Four Forty or Fight!” The slogan referred to the latitude 54˚40’, the northern limit of the disputed Oregon Territory. By the mid-1840s, however, the fur trade was in decline, and Britain’s interest in the territory waned. On the American side, Polk’s advisors deemed the land north of 49˚ latitude unsuited for agriculture. Consequently, the two coun- tries peaceably agreed in 1846 to extend the mainland boundary with Canada along the forty-ninth parallel westward from the Rocky Mountains to Puget Sound, establishing the current U.S. boundary. Unfortunately, establishing the boundary in the Southwest would not be so easy. 1. TERMS & NAMES For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. smanifest destiny sSanta Fe Trail sMormons sBrigham Young sTreaty of Fort Laramie sOregon Trail sJoseph Smith s“Fifty-Four Forty or Fight!” MAIN IDEA CRITICAL THINKING 2. TAKING NOTES 3. EVALUATING 4. ANALYZING PRIMARY SOURCES Use a chart like this one to compare What were the benefits and John L. O’Sullivan, editor of the the motivations of travelers on the drawbacks of the belief in manifest United States Magazine and Oregon, Santa Fe, and Mormon trails. destiny? Use specific references to Democratic Review, described the section to support your manifest destiny as meaning that Trail Motivations response. Think About: American settlers should possess Oregon Trail UÊÊthe various reasons for the move the “whole of the continent” that westward “Providence” has given us for Mormon Trail UÊthe settlers’ point of view the development of the great Santa Fe Trail experiment of liberty and... self- UÊthe impact on Native Americans government.” Do you think the same Which do you think was the most UÊÊthe impact on the nation as a attitudes exist today? Explain. common motive? Explain. whole Expanding Markets and Moving West 285  R APH Y EO G G SPOTLIGHT Mapping the Oregon Trail In 1841, Congress appropriated $30,000 for a survey of the Oregon Trail. John C. Frémont was named to head the expeditions. Frémont earned his nickname “the Pathfinder” by leading four expeditions—which included artists, scientists, and car- tographers, among them the German-born cartographer Charles Preuss—to explore the American West between 1842 and 1848. When Frémont submitted the report of his second expedition, Congress immediately ordered the printing of 10,000 copies, which were widely distributed. The “Topographical Map of the Road from Missouri to Oregon,” drawn by Preuss, appeared in seven sheets. Though settlers first used this route in 1836, it was not until 1846 that Preuss published his map to guide them. The long, narrow map shown here is called a “strip” map, a map that shows a thin strip of the earth’s sur- face—in this case, the last stretch of the trail before reaching Fort Wallah-Wallah. 5 THE WHITMAN MISSION The explorers came upon the Whitmans’ missionary station. They found thriving families living Washington primarily on potatoes of a “remarkably good quality.” October October October October 18-19 18-19 19-20 19-20 area of detail October October20-21 20-21 October 17- Oregon October October 4 21-22 21-22 October October 22-23 22-23 October October 5 23-24 23-24 6 October October 24-25 24-25 October October 25-26 25-26 6 THE NEZ PERCE PRAIRIE Chief Looking Glass (left, in 1871) and the Nez Perce had “harmless” interactions with Frémont and his expedition. 286  1 FORT BOISÉE (BOISE) This post became an important stopping point for settlers along the trail. Though salmon were plentiful in summer, Frémont noted that in the winter Native Americans often were forced to eat “every creeping thing, however loathsome and repulsive,” to stay alive. OctoberOctober 10-11,10-11, 1843 1843 1 2 3 October October 11-12 11-12 2 MAP NOTATION October October 12-1312-13 Preuss recorded dates, October October 14-1514-15 distances, tempera- tures, and geographical features as the expedi- October October 15-16 15-16 tion progressed along the trail. -18 October October 16-17 16-17 3 RECORDING NATURAL RESOURCES On October 13, Frémont traveled through a desolate valley of the Columbia River to a region of “arable mountains,” where he observed “nutritious grasses” and good soil that would support future flocks and herds. 4 CROSSING THE MOUNTAINS Pioneers on the trail cut paths through the Blue Mountains, a wooded range that Frémont believed had been formed by “violent and extensive igneous [volcanic] action.” THINKING CRITICALLY 1. Analyzing Patterns Use the map to identify natural obstacles that settlers faced on the Oregon Trail. 2. Creating a Thematic Map Do research to find out more about early mapping efforts for other western trails. Then create a settler’s map of a small section of one trail. To help you decide what information you should show, pose some questions that a settler might have and that your map will answer. Then, sketch and label your map. SEE SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK, PAGE R32. RESEARCH WEB LINKS Expanding Markets and Moving West 287  C T I ON SE Expansion in Texas Mexico offered land grants to Today, the state of Texas sStephen F. Austin sAlamo American settlers, but conflict shares an important trading sland grant sSam Houston developed over religion and partnership with Mexico. sAntonio López de sRepublic of Texas other cultural differences, Santa Anna sannex and the issue of slavery. sTexas Revolution One American's Story In 1821, Stephen F. Austin led the first of several groups of TAKING NOTES American settlers to a fertile area “as good in every respect as Use the graphic man could wish for, land first rate, plenty of timber, fine organizer online water—beautifully rolling” along the Brazos River. However, to take notes about American Austin’s plans didn’t work out as well as he had hoped; 12 settlements in Texas. years later, he found himself in a Mexican prison and his new homeland in an uproar. After his release, Austin spoke about the impending crisis between Texas and Mexico. A PERSONAL VOICE STEPHEN F. AUSTIN “ Texas needs peace, and a local government; its inhabitants are farmers, and they need a calm and quiet life.... [But] my efforts to ▼ serve Texas involved me in the labyrinth of Mexican politics. I was arrested, Stephen Austin and have suffered a long persecution and imprisonment.... I fully hoped to have established a found Texas at peace and in tranquillity, but regret to find it in commotion; all dis- colony of organized, all in anarchy, and threatened with immediate hostilities.... Can this American settlers state of things exist without precipitating the country into a war? I think it cannot.” in Tejas, or Texas, —quoted in Texas: An Album of History then the northern- most province of Austin’s warning proved to be prophetic. The conflict between Texas and the Mexican Mexico would soon escalate into a bloody struggle. state of Coahuila. Americans Settle in the Southwest During three centuries of Spanish rule of Mexico, only a few thousand Mexican settlers had migrated to the vast landscape of what is now Texas. Despite the region’s rich natural resources and a climate conducive to agriculture, a number of problems scared off many potential Mexican settlers. One was the growing friction between Native American and Mexican inhabitants of the area. THE MISSION SYSTEM Since the earliest Spanish settlements, the Native American and Mexican populations in the Southwest had come into close con- tact. Before Mexico won its independence in 1821, Spain’s system of Roman 288 CHAPTER 9  Catholic missions in California, New Mexico, and Texas tried to convert Native Americans to Catholicism and to settle them on mission lands. To protect the missions, Spanish soldiers manned nearby presidios, or forts. The mission system declined during the 1820s and 1830s, after Mexico had won its independence. After wresting the missions from Spanish control, the Mexican government offered the surrounding lands to government officials and ranchers. While some Native Americans were forced to remain as unpaid laborers, many others fled the missions, returning to traditional ways. When Mexicans captured Native Americans for forced labor, groups of hostile Comanche and Analyzing Apache retaliated by sweeping through Texas, terrorizing Mexican settlements Effects and stealing livestock that supported many American settlers and Mexican set- A How did tlers, or Tejanos. A relations between the Mexicans and THE IMPACT OF MEXICAN INDEPENDENCE Trade opportunities between Native Americans Mexico’s northern provinces and the United States multiplied. Tejano livestock, in the Southwest mostly longhorn cattle, provided tallow, hides, and other commercial goods to change after trade in Santa Fe, New Mexico, north and west of Texas. 1821? Newly free, Mexico sought to improve its economy. Toward that end, the country eased trade restrictions and made trade with the United States more attractive than trade between northern Mexico and other sections of Mexico. Gradually, the ties loosened between Mexico and the northern provinces, which included present-day New Mexico, California, Texas, Arizona, Nevada, and Utah. Mexico was beginning to discover what Spain had previously learned: own- ing a vast territory did not necessarily mean controlling it. Mexico City—the seat of Mexican government—lay far from the northern provinces and often seemed indifferent to the problems of settlers in Texas. Native American groups, such as the N OW T HEN Apache and the Comanche, continued to threaten the thin- ly scattered Mexican settlements in New Mexico and Texas. Consequently, the Mexican government began to look for ways to strengthen ties between Mexico City and the northern provinces. MEXICO INVITES U.S. SETTLERS To prevent border vio- lations by horse thieves and to protect the territory from Native American attacks, the Mexican government encour- aged American farmers to settle in Texas. In 1821, and again in 1823 and 1824, Mexico offered enormous land grants TEJANO CULTURE to agents, who were called empresarios. The empresarios, in The Anglo and Mexican cultures turn, attracted American settlers, who eagerly bought cheap of Texas have shaped one anoth- land in return for a pledge to obey Mexican laws and er, especially in terms of music, observe the official religion of Roman Catholicism. food, and language. For example, Tejano music Many Americans as well as Mexicans rushed at the reflects roots in Mexican mariachi chance. The same restless determination that produced new as well as American country and inventions and manufactured goods fed the American urge western music and is now a to remove any barrier to settlement of the West. The popu- $100 million a year industry. As lation of Anglo, or English-speaking, settlers from Europe for language, Tejanos often speak a mixture of Spanish and English and the United States soon surpassed the population of Analyzing called Spanglish. Motives Tejanos who lived in Texas. Until the 1830s, the Anglo set- As Enrique Madrid, who lives in B What did tlers lived as naturalized Mexican citizens. B the border area between Texas Mexico hope to and Mexico, says, “We have two gain from Anglo AUSTIN IN TEXAS The most successful empresario, very powerful cultures coming to settlement in Stephen F. Austin, established a colony between the Brazos terms with each other every day Texas? and Colorado rivers, where “no drunkard, no gambler, no on the banks of the Rio Grande profane swearer, and no idler” would be allowed. By 1825, and creating a new culture.” Austin had issued 297 land grants to the group that later Expanding Markets and Moving West 289  became known as Texas’s Old Three Hundred. Each family received 177 very inex- pensive acres of farmland, or 4,428 acres for stock grazing, as well as a 10-year exemption from paying taxes. “I am convinced,” Austin said, “that I could take on fifteen hundred families as easily as three hundred.” At the colony’s capital in San Felipe, a visiting blacksmith, Noah Smithwick, described an established town, with “weddings and other social gatherings.” Smithwick stayed in a simple home but learned that “in the course of time the Evaluating pole cabin gave place to a handsome brick house and that the rude furnishings Leadership were replaced by the best the country boasted.” C C Why was Stephen Austin’s In 1836, Mary Austin Holley, Stephen Austin’s cousin, wrote admiringly colony so about towns such as Galveston on the Gulf Coast and Bastrop. successful? A PERSONAL VOICE MARY AUSTIN HOLLEY “ Bastrop... continues to grow rapidly. It is a favorite spot for new settlers, and is quite the rage at present.... It is situated on a bend of the [Colorado], sloping beautifully down to the water, with ranges of timber—first oak, then pine, then VIDEO cedar, rising in regular succession behind it.” Independence for Texas —quoted in Texas: An Album of History Word about Texas spread throughout the United States. Posters boldly stated, “Go To Texas!” Confident that Texas KEY PLAYER eventually would yield great wealth, Americans increasing- ly discussed extending the U.S. boundaries to the river they called the Rio Grande (known in Mexico as the Rio Bravo). President John Quincy Adams had previ