teaching and learning ppt.pdf

TEACHING AND LEARING khaemba Unit Objectives By the end of this unit you will be able to: Outline the historical background and trends of education in Kenya Describe the principles of teaching and learning Explain the teaching and learning process including the traditional and innovative process Describe and apply various teaching and learning methods Explain the process and components of curriculum development Select and apply appropriate instructional media and teaching aids Evaluate learners using appropriate student performance assessment methods Historical Background, Trends in and Principles of Education in Kenya] Introduction Welcome to section one of this unit, which will deal with the historical background, trends in and principles of education in Kenya. Objectives By the end of this section you will be able to: Outline the historical background of education in Kenya Outline the inﬂuence of educational trends on nursing education Deﬁne learning Outline the general principles of learning List the principles and conditions for adult learning Explain the basis for the three groups of theories of learning Explain the principles of teaching Relate the principles of teaching to learning The History of Education in Kenya What do you know about the history of education in Kenya? Education is as old as mankind and learning takes place in various ways. Individuals are at different levels of learning at any given time and education inﬂuences the way people behave in different circumstances. It is important for you to know the level of the learners’ education so as to be able to select an appropriate teaching strategy. Inﬂuence of Educational Trends on the Development of Nursing Education Before independence, many people went to traditional healers and herbalists for treatment. The colonialists, through the Imperial British East Africa Company (IBEA), from 1895-1901 were involved in the creation of a medical department. This department was meant to oversee the health care of the members of the colonial community, but eventually spread to encompass colonial employees and members of the wider community. Principles of Learning and Teaching Learning is a process resulting in some modiﬁcation in the way of thinking, feeling or doing by the learner. Learning can also be deﬁned as ’a process of acquiring new habits, knowledge and skills which enable students to do something that they could not do before’ (Cox and Ewan, 1998) What are principles? Principles are rules, laws, truth or facts about something. Principles arise as a result of repeated experience, leading to a deeper understanding of ideas on the processes of teaching and learning. These situations and experiences have tested certain theories in the learning environment. These theories, in turn, have an inﬂuence on the development of principles. These hypotheses or theories explain why and how people learn or don’t learn. Students learn what is relevant and useful. Students learn when the material is presented in a logical, sequential order. Students learn when they are actively involved. Students learn when they receive feedback on their performance Characteristics of Learning Several important characteristics of learning can be observed in a teaching and learning situation. These revolve around a situation that: Produces a behaviour change in the learner. Leads to change that is gradual, adaptable and selective. Results from repetitive practice and experience. Is not directly observable, it is abstract. This means that there are activities the learner must do in order to learn. For example, learners listen to somebody or to a sound. They talk to each other, observe activities, watch a practical example, perform under instructions and are able to repeat an action following a demonstration. conditions for learning Feedback and Evaluation Learning is a consequence of experience from repetitive acts. People need to be able to check what they are learning, try it out for themselves and correct mistakes. This is related to motivation and it produces a sense of satisfaction from the lesson when the learner realizes that they can also perform. Practice and Repetition Learning evolves from competence through repetition. This applies both to skills and knowledge. Learning is something that people do or participate in doing. As the saying goes, ‘practice makes perfect’ Systematic Approach Learning is easier if it is organised systematically. It should start from the known to the unknown. As you teach, you should relate the new information to the old information that the learner already knows Principles and Conditions for Adult Learning (Andragogy) Adults learn differently from children. The art of helping adults to learn is called andragogy while the art of helping children to learn is referred to as pedagogy. Principles and conditions for effective adult learning include: Individual pace. Active learning. Integrated learning. Cumulative learning. Learning for understanding and application of knowledge. Relevant and useful learning. Interest for learning. Progression in learning. Open minded, reﬂective and critical learning. Respect for teachers and students. The Basis and Foundation of the Theories of Learning There are three main schools of thought in the theory of learning. Cognitive Theories These theories originated from a group of scholars who studied the ways in which knowledge is acquired, stored, correlated and retrieved. Cognitive theorists believe that knowing is a mental process that results in one being aware of a situation or project. You will now look at several of these theorists in turn. B. S. Bloom He proposed three domains of learning. These were: affective, that is concerned with attitudes. Cognitive domain, that is, concerned with knowledge. Psychomotor domain, that is, concerned with muscular and mental activities. According to Bloom, there are levels of learning that a learner must go through, starting from the basic existing knowledge to the highest level possible, that is, from simple to complex D.P. Ausubel Ausubel emphasised that learning should start from the known to the unknown and from simple to complex. He noted that new information ﬁts into existing knowledge like a key ﬁts into a lock. For example, a child is taught how to cook ugali after learning how to make uji. J. Bruner Bruner recommended discovery learning. The teacher provides problems for the learners to solve on their own and the resources with which they must do so. The learner must have adequate information about the resources, that is, their functions and use. This is an innovative approach that reminds the learner they can learn if they want to, and that in problem solving, there are many ways to approach a situation. Some observations include: The learner is challenged to discover things for themselves The learner uses known knowledge to create new knowledge Getting the right solution motivates the learner The learner will be able to tackle issues for themselves Behaviourist Theories Some of the main behaviourists of the 1920s included Thorndike, who looked at learning objectives to direct goal, Pavlov who studied the conditioning reﬂex, punishment and reinforcement and Watson who was interested in active participation, that is learning by practice. B.F. Skinner According to Skinner's theory, it is possible to increase the probability that learning will occur and behaviour will be shaped in the direction the teacher wants, if the behaviour is rewarded. In order to maintain the strength of that behaviour, reinforcement by continued rewards is necessary. To be effective, the reinforcement must be immediate, and should be positive rather than aversive. Successive steps in the learning process should be as small as possible, each successful act being followed by a reward. R. M. Gagne Gagne categorised learning into different domains so that the different conditions for learning and assessment could be planned accordingly. The domains identiﬁed by Gagne are motor skills, verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies and attitudes. Gagne’s approach is a useful one as it helps in planning effective learning experiences Humanistic and Social Psychologists Carl Rogers Rogers provided a learner-centred view of learning. His main propositions were that: All humans have a natural potential and desire to learn. Learning occurs when the student perceives relevance related to their own purposes. Signiﬁcant learning is acquired through doing. Learning is more effective when the learner is responsible for choosing their direction, discovering resources and formulating problems. Most learning is self initiated and involves the whole person, including their feelings as well as intellect. Self evaluation is a basic skill that is necessary for effective mature learning. Learners should retain a continuing openness to change. Abraham Maslow Traditional teaching and learning has concentrated on force-feeding prescribed knowledge and has neglected to encourage the development of the student as a person with a role in society. According to Maslow, education should help students to look within themselves, and from this self knowledge, develop a set of values which will guide them in their working life. Maslow emphasizes the importance of learning for self enhancement rather than simply for utility Conditions That Make the Environment Conducive to Learning Learning is encouraged in an atmosphere that: Encourages people to be active Emphasises the personal nature of learning Accepts that difference is desirable Recognises people’s right to make mistakes Tolerates imperfection Encourages openness of mind and trust in self Makes the individual feel respected and accepted Facilitates discovery Puts emphasis on self evaluation and cooperation Permits confrontation You learn best when: You know what your goal is. You are motivated by the relevance of these goals to your personal/professional needs. You work in small tutorial groups. You can alternate between personal study and work in a small tutorial group. You are in an active situation, with responsibility and a speciﬁc objective. You are in an enhancing environment (calm, good staff/student relations, competent teaching staff, lively atmosphere). You are able to work at your own pace. Ct--- You are able to put what you have just learnt into practice (repetition). The learning will help you solve a problem. You have opportunities for formative self evaluation and critical review by others (peer criticism). You are exposed to different types of stimuli (visual, extended listening summary, review). You face the challenge of being evaluated or tested. You know how to inform/instruct others. You are able to have outside contacts (travel, conferences EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVE  An objective is a statement describing an instructional outcome  It doesn’t include how the task will be achieved , types of those instructions or performance of the teacher  An objective enables the teacher help students in learning process so that they may acquire desired knowledge ,skills and attitude necessary in provision of healthcare.  An objective should clearly state its intended outcome not to open to ambiguous interpretation Cont……. Phrases opened with speciﬁc meaning To write To identify To solve To construct To draw To compile Phrases with many interpretations To really understand To enjoy To believe To have faith in To internalize Categories of objectives  Objectives are grouped in three major domains/categories ,namely; a) Cognitive/knowledge domain b) Psychomotor/skill domain c) Affective/attitudinal domain Cognitive domain  Cognitive domain is one given a lot of attention  It includes objectives concerning knowledge or information that includes: o Thinking o Naming o Recognizing o Prediction and so on Benjamin S.Bloom and his associates developed a taxonomy for this domain Taxonomy is a method of sequential classiﬁcation from simple to higher levels. Cont……..  They arranged this domain from simple to higher levels of learning as follows: Knowledge  Ability to memorize ,recall or otherwise repeat information presented earlier Comprehension  Ability to interpret or restate the information acquired on knowledge Application  Ability to use the information ,theories ,principles , laws or new situations. Analysis  Ability to divide complex knowledge into it separate parts and to recognize the relationship. Cont……… Synthesis  Ability to bring together separate elements of knowledge to form new patterns Evaluation  Ability to make judgment or appraisals based on knowledge or a given criteria. Psychomotor domain  This is the second category into which learning objectives is classiﬁed.  It includes the skills requiring use and coordination of skeletal muscles e.g. manipulation of tools ,operation of machines ,speaking and writing.  No widely acceptable taxonomy of psychomotor domain that has been developed though some suggestions have been proposed. They include: a. Grossly bodily movements e.g. arms ,shoulders ,fee t ,legs e.t.c b. ﬁnely coordinated movements e.g. hands and ﬁngers ,feet and ﬁngers c. Non-verbal communication e.g. facial expression, gestures e.t.c d. Speech behavior e.g. producing and coordinating sound for instant foreign language or literature reading Affective domain  This is the third category of learning objective  It includes objectives concerned with attitudes , appreciation ,values and emotions  This domain is very important in learning but very little has been written on it.  It is classiﬁed into ﬁve levels as follows: a) Receiving  Willingness to give attention to an event or activity b) Responding  Willing to react to an event through some form of participation c) Valuing  Willing to accept an event through the expression of a positive attitude d) Organizing  Considers values and selects the most appropriate alternatives on their merits e) Characterizing by a value complex  Acts in accordance with values he/she accepts and incorporates the resultant behavior into his/her personality General qualities of a good objective  An objective should have the following: a) Consistency: conveys the same meaning each time b) Unequivocal: no argument/dispute about its meaning c) Feasible: can be achieved d) Observable: seen to be happening e) Measurable: quantiﬁed in an objective way Check point  What are the qualities of a good speciﬁc objective? Speciﬁc Measurable Achievable Realistic Time bound. Importance of good objectives  They form the backbone of any instructional programme  They inform the students what is required of them and this help them to prepare for their self directed studies  Objectives helps in the teacher to organize his/her subject matter in the appropriate sequence  Objectives helps in selection of appropriate learning experiences for the students  They form platform for evaluation of learning process  Objectives create a good form for communicating about the learning process TEACHING Teaching is an interaction between the teacher and the learner under the teacher’s supervision in order to bring about expected changes in the learner’s behaviour Why Would You Want To Teach? There are many reasons for wanting to teach. You may want to assist learners to: Acquire, retain, comprehend and be able to use knowledge. Understand, analyze, synthesize and evaluate. Achieve skills at a certain level. Establish habits which are helpful for their development. Develop certain attitudes. Methods or Approaches used when Teaching. There are several approaches that can be used when teaching. Generally, a teacher talks to learners. However, the teacher should also: Talk with learners Let the learners talk to each other Show learners how to perform certain tasks Allow learners to practice and supervise themselves Principles of Teaching There are several principles of teaching. Active Learning As a teacher, you should encourage learners to actively participate during teaching and learning sessions. You can do this in many ways: Give students activities to perform. Ask questions. Set problems or projects. Give feedback. Tell learners how well they are doing. Show or tell them how they could have done better. Clarity Make your teaching as clear as possible. You can do this by speaking audibly, writing neatly and selecting your visual aids carefully and appropriately to convey a meaning to the learner Mastery Ensure mastery by continuously assessing the learners as well as assessing them at the end of courses. Individualise Vary teaching methods. This allows you to take into account the individual differences of the learners. Motivate Motivate your learners by making sure that your teaching is interesting, relevant and rewarding to the learners. Planning for Teaching Planning is very important. It involves six key elements.These are: Decision Making In decision making, the teacher must make key choices regarding: What the learner should learn. This can be done by preparing learning objectives. The content, which should be arranged in sequence or progression. Appropriate learning activities and teaching methods should be selected. The amount of time to be allocated to different learning activities, assessment procedures and methods to be used. Identiﬁcation of resources needed for teaching. Learners should be informed about the teaching plan. Evaluation, which should be carried out both for teaching and learning. Communication Communication is a major principle in both teaching and learning. If a teacher cannot communicate, learning becomes a problem. The teacher can use various methods to ensure effective communication. The teacher can: Explaining to and advise the learner Help the learners exchange ideas Provoke the learners to think Use varied teaching techniques Detect whether the learners understand and take appropriate measures Resources Adequate resources must be provided to ensure effective teaching and learning. The resources must be prepared and obtained before teaching starts. To ensure that resources are available, a teacher can: Request all required resources in advance. Prepare, select or adapt educational materials (hand outs, exercise books) for the session. Arrange learning experiences, especially those that provide opportunities to practice skills, for example, ﬁeld visits. Arrange for learners’ attachments and projects. Involve other health service personnel in teaching the learner. Arrange access to materials, such as libraries, audiovisual programmes and microscopes. Counselling Teaching and learning can be diﬃcult for both the teacher and the learner. The teacher should provide support to the learner. The teacher should: Show the learner that they care Listen and attempt to understand their student Help the learner to identify their options so as to make decisions Provide advice and information that helps the learner Assessment Teaching and learner assessments must be planned and incorporated into all teaching and learning activities. Assessments guide teachers on what should be taught next and the depth of what should be taught. The teacher can plan for assessments in many ways. The teacher can: Design assessments that measure how much the learner will have learnt. Use the assessment to guide the learner’s learning. Use the assessment to give feedback to the learner. Use the assessment to decide whether the learner is competent to provide health care. Encourage the learners to self assess and assess others. Continuing Self Education Continuing education is vital for all health professionals because of the rapid increase in knowledge as well as the rapid changes in technology that characterise the world today. Learners perceive the teacher as a resource for information, skills and advice. Therefore, you as a teacher must stay informed through self education. This means that you should know the subject matter that is to be taught and where to ﬁnd relevant information. You should also know the health care delivery systems and any other relevant resources that are locally available Teaching and Learning Processes in the Health Professions Introduction Objectives At the end of this section you will be able to: Explain what the teaching and learning process entails. Distinguish between traditional and innovative teaching and learning processes. Describe and prepare a lesson plan. Explain and apply micro teaching skills. Explain and apply innovative teaching skills (super skills) appropriate for adult learners. In order for you to be able to go to a classroom, a laboratory, a clinical setting or a ﬁeld practical site to teach, it is necessary for you to ﬁrst of all identify the exact area to be taught in a curriculum. You should deﬁne the subject matter or the topic you will teach and the speciﬁc objectives and contents to be covered. Depending on the allotted time, you have to make a lesson plan and implement it. This is the process that an effective teacher follows. Lesson Plan After you identify your content and accompanying skills and attitudes, you will develop a teaching plan. This plan is also referred to as a lesson plan A lesson plan is a written description used in a teaching and learning situation to guide the teacher to systematically present the subject matter in a logical, interrelated and integrated way such that learning is reinforced and enhanced. Before you plan a lesson ask yourself the following questions:  Who are your learners?  What is the learner’s entry behaviour? In other words, what is their educational level? What is their background? How is it related to what you plan to teach?  What shall you teach?  What are your objectives for teaching this topic?  Which teaching methods shall you choose?  How best shall you motivate the learners in their own learning?  In what activities will you engage the learners in order for them to understand the objectives and perform?  What resources do you need?  How shall you monitor the progress of your teaching?  How shall you check that the lesson was a success? Micro Teaching Skills Effective implementation of a good lesson plan in traditional teaching processes requires the teacher to apply special skills known as micro teaching skills. This is done by developing speciﬁc teaching skills within a small group of students as the audience in a simulated situation, instead of suddenly being faced with a large number of students, which can be threatening. Micro teaching involves self assessment and recognition of one’s weaknesses and strengths. When used with peers, they act as both learners and evaluators of the teacher’s performance Micro teaching skills consist of: 1. Set induction, which is the skill of appropriately introducing a topic or starting a lesson and capturing the learner’s attention. 2. Stimulus variation, that is, the skill of varying focus movements, speech and content delivery to retain the learner’s attention. 3. Reinforcement, which is the technique of rewarding students to promote good behaviour and attention. 4. Questioning, that is, the technique of using questions to promote interaction with learners to hold their attention. 5. Use of examples and explanations that promote learning. 6. Closure, that is, helping learners achieve ’mental’ closure of a learning session in ways that help them to remember what they learn, for example, by encouraging students to summarise what they have learnt. Teaching and Learning Methods Learning can be great fun, but only if the right method is applied at the right time to the right type of learner. Varying methods of teaching can make learning fun because: Individuals are different and one method may be effective for one learner but not for another. Every task involves a number of subtasks, which are carried out differently. One teaching method may not be appropriate for all subtasks. A variation of teaching methods results in a variety of stimuli. This helps to sustain the attention and interest of the learner. Practicals A practical lesson is where students perform tasks. These practicals could also be performed in their future working areas. Practicals have many advantages and a few disadvantages Advantages It provides a better understanding of the lecture content It leads to creativity on the part of the student It is effective for stimulating independent thought and changing attitudes It is a good way of achieving a desired level of competence for the student It provides immediate feedback on the performance of the teacher It provides for the individual student to be helped by the teacher It provides an opportunity for development Interpersonal relationships between teachers and students Disadvantages It is not an economical way of using manpower and resources. It takes time to carry out practical work. It needs administrative staff for preparation and maintenance of materials. It requires special accommodation arrangements for students, that is, closer to the area where the practical will take place. Lecture Method A lecture is a lesson given orally by a teacher Advantages It is economical in the use of time Appropriate for large groups Use of a single lecture theatre Allows for the use of experts in delivery of content by expert Disadvantages Some students may be left behind Poor student involvement Impersonal No respect for individual pace Does not help students learn how to solve problems Demonstration A speciﬁc learning task is performed by the teacher while students observe and learn. This method is mainly used to show learners how to perform. The demonstration should be repeated by the learners to ensure that they have understood Advantages It provides an economical way of using manpower and materials. It provides audio-visual observation of the subject. Students understand the subject matter better after seeing a demonstration. It may be a good means of teaching where resources are readily available. It provides a way of pacing a student’s way of learning. It can provide a wide range of knowledge in a limited time. Disadvantages It is a one-way learning process from instructor to students. Students are just passive observers as it may not provide for activity on the part of the students. It may not provide the necessary repetition depending on the individual’s pace of learning. It has little regard for students’ individual differences. There is no immediate feedback to the instructor on what has been learnt. It is relatively ineffective for achieving competence unless students are given opportunities to practise. Seminar or Workshop A seminar is a session headed by a teacher, a trained senior student or an enthusiastic student from the class, where an assigned subject is discussed. The subject has to be prepared beforehand and presented by the student. The other students will then discuss, criticize and comment on the material presented. The teacher should be available to be consulted by the group Advantages It promotes interpersonal relationships between students. Students can learn a lot from each other. It allows for teamwork and personal ﬂexibility. Teachers can encourage full participation by all students. It provides creativity and independent thought on the part of students. It provides immediate feedback of knowledge gained. It facilitates exchange of ideas. It trains students to work independently in preparing papers for presentation. It provides greater control of communication between students and teachers. Disadvantages It is not an economical way of using manpower unless senior students act as supervisors and teachers are only called in as consultants. It is too slow to cover more than a limited amount of subject matter. It may suffer from interruptions. It cannot provide the repetition necessary for individual needs. Project A project is an assignment given to an individual learner, a pair of learners or a group of learners in which they carry out a piece of independent work on a particular topic. The learners have to organise the assignment and prepare a written report to submit to the teacher. Advantages It provides activities and calls for creativity on the part of the student. It encourages initiative in the student. It encourages learners to be independent. Learners can work at their own pace. It may provide opportunities for interpersonal relationships between learners and people from other departments. The results of a project provide feedback of students’ progress to the teacher. Disadvantages It takes time to carry out a project. Learners may ﬁnd that the project adds too much to their workload. It creates administrative problems in arranging programmes. Unless suﬃcient time is allowed, the learners may produce a superﬁcial report Small Group Discussion Small group discussion is an appropriate technique for encouraging learners to analyse, synthesise and evaluate the knowledge that they acquire (higher order cognitive skills). Advantages Allows sharing of resources within the group, that is, there is shared commitment to learning. Learners help each other with diﬃcult points. Provides learners with opportunities to interact with the instructor and fellow learners. Learners learn to evaluate the logic of and the evidence for their own and other’s positions, that is, learning is through self expression and intercommunication. Allows learners to become active participants in the learning process rather than passive recipients of information from one source. The work motivates students to learn more. Provides an opportunity for the synthesis of varied experiences and data derived from lectures, laboratories, clinics and readings. The student grasps the idea of self learning without fear of failure. Disadvantages Dominance of vocal and aggressive members over others in a group may hinder equal growth of all members in the learning process. A group discussion does not guarantee that an objective will be accomplished within a ﬁxed time. The members of the group must bring to the discussion a body of information that is suﬃciently broad and deep. Lack of planning by the group leader or the group itself concerning the agenda and speciﬁc learning objectives. As the size of the group increases, the eﬃciency and effectiveness of the method will decrease. Guideposts to Choosing an Appropriate Method How much time does it require? Where will the teaching take place? How many learners are involved? At what level are the learners? Teaching Skills There are different types of teaching skills. Cognitive skills refer to knowledge application, while thinking skills, refer to the ability to make decisions, choose appropriate alternatives and exercise caution. Finally, psychomotor skills relate to the use of the hands, the ability to do things or perform procedures. There are several methods used for teaching skills. These include: Describing the skill. Explaining the reason and stages in performing it. Demonstrating the skill. Performing the skill correctly with an explanation of what you, as the expert, are doing. Role of a Clinical Teacher As you plan to teach in a clinical setting, ask yourself the following questions: Is the learner performing safely, kindly and with conﬁdence? Is the learner aware of the reason for each procedure? Is the patient the focus of the procedure? Is the demonstration enabling the learner to link with the theory covered earlier As a clinical teacher, you therefore should be:  A skilled, experienced nurse concerned with the maintenance and improvement of standards of patient care.  Concerned to help your learner to develop their potential as a nurse.  Able to gain satisfaction from caring for patients.  Able to gain satisfaction from teaching, especially individuals and small groups.  Keen to create a favourable environment for learning.  Alert to the opportunities available for facilitating learning in the clinical situation  A model for your learner. Evaluating teaching/ learning process Broad objective By the end of the lesson the student will be able to describe the assessment process Speciﬁc objectives Differentiate between evaluation, assessment and examination Describe the purpose of evaluating learners Explain the various assessment methods for knowledge, skills and attitudes Develop appropriate assessment tools Describe characteristics of a good evaluation tool Evaluation, assessment$examination Have been used interchangeably to mean the same, however there is a difference Evaluation -encompasses the functions of examining and assessing, -placing a value in a learners performance in order to make decisions about a student, a subject or a course e.g. pass,failure, successful etc Assessment Is the method or process of ﬁnding out how much a student has learnt. Determining whether the learners are achieving or have achieved the objectives of a course. This is achieved through examinations Examinations Are the tools or formal mechanisms which are used to assess the learning of students NB Evaluation is an integral part of instructional process and is the most important tasks of a teacher Purpose of evaluating learners To help the learner understand him/her self To motivate the learner To predict the level of learners future performance To judge the level of the learner’s achievement Cont To monitor the learners progress for the purpose of providing feedback To determine teaching effectiveness To license practice of a profession To identify weak and strong areas of a course Cont To grade and rank students for awards For protection of society The teacher is able to guide students on matters with regard to career choices. Types of evaluation 1) Formative evaluation(Diagnostic) -Is a progressive evaluation done on a continuous basis -provides feedback on the strengths and weaknesses, so that corrective measures are taken e.g. placement testing or pretest At the end of a module 2) Summative(terminal) evaluation This is carried out at the end of a term or course or programme;  For awarding a grade  For awarding a certiﬁcate  For awarding license to practice  For selecting learners for further educational programme NB The content evaluated is selected from the entire course work covered in the term/year with samples of all the learning tasks A good evaluation system should include both formative and summative evaluation Cont Formative gives diagnostic feedback to both teacher $ student, summative reveals the student’s ability to integrate and apply learning Assessing Knowledge Oral examinations - The learner is interviewed by one or two examiners -The examiner can probe to ﬁnd out how much each student knows -Students may be anxious -Marking is un-reliable Written examinations Multiple choice questions Short answer questions Essay / long answer questions True/false Matching Multiple choice questions They are questions where four or ﬁve answers are given and the student has to choose the correct or best answer They have 3 parts;  Stem –the question itself  The correct answer  The incorrect answer(s)-distractors NB Make the question clear Try to base it on a real situation or an actual patient Choose good distractors Factors to remember when choosing questions Do not make incorrect answers ridiculous or make the correct answers obvious Example To improve the health of the children in your area, which would be most useful in your dispensary? Cont A) Ten more staff B) An ambulance C) Upgrading to an hospital D) A fridge and vaccines Neither (a),(b) nor (c) are at all possible for a dispensary, so the only possible answer is (d) Cont Do not make the incorrect answer too long Example The best food for a young child is; a) Tinned milk b) Goat’s milk c) Cow’s milk d) Breast milk with extra solid food added after the age of 4 months Cont Using common mistakes the distractors can be very effective Example; A child with fever has been admitted to your health centre. He does not seem to have any infection. You have given him AL.What else should you do? Cont a) Check for dehydration b) Give antibiotics c) Refer him to hospital d) Give aspirin NB (b),(c) and (d) are all common mistakes made at health centres Advantages Easy to score/mark Objectivity is high Covers a wide area Dis-advantages Diﬃcult to construct Can not assess complex learning, only simple knowledge Essay questions For them to be useful, they must be speciﬁc, describing exactly what the students should do. Example; Bad essay; write an essay on polio immunization Good essay Describe how you would explain to mother’s why their children should be immunized against polio Cont Prepare marking scheme and follow it. Types of marking schemes 1) Analytical scoring(Analytical marking technique) -The examiner sets out a number of crucial points which must appear in the answer(speciﬁcs) Cont The students answer is then compared to this model answer and marks given Specify how many marks should be given for accurate spelling and general clarity of explanation Cont The scheme should be used by all teachers marking the essay. This improves reliability After the exam show the marking scheme to students and discuss it with them. This helps them to learn 2) Impressionist marking technique(scoring) Best used with relative grading The marker looks for the correct answers, proper use of language and logical ﬂow of ideas in the answer He reads through the script and gives the impression The grades used are not usually percentages but scales such as excellent,good,average, satisfactory or sorted out by quality, that is,25% low, 50% middle, 25% high to form the normal Advantages of essay questions Easy to construct Encourages creativity and freedom of expression Prevents guessing Motivates students to study for purpose of understanding concepts, principles and generalization rather than memorization of facts Dis-advantages/weaknesses Diﬃculty in scoring-low marker reliability Subjectivity in scoring-scoring depends on the score’s state of mind, also “Hallo effect” Poor content sampling-inadequate sampling of items Time consuming in answering and grading(marking is diﬃcult) Cont Student fatigue-this may affect the quality of the answers Marks may be affected by writing ability and grammar Choice is often included-it’s diﬃcult to construct questions of the same degree of diﬃculty General rules for marking essays Grade answer question by question not student by student Conceal the name of student Provide feedback to learners Assessing skills By observing the student performing the skill and making judgment about the quality of the performance This can be done by using rating scales or checklists NB Practical skills are considered among the more important components of training in all professions Cont Excellence in theory does not compensate for a failure in practical Cont Skills can also be assessed through the use of: Objective structured clinical examination (OSCE) Objective structured practical examination (OSPE) For both methods, candidates pass through a number of examination stations to answer or solve various problems. All candidates get the same experience Objective structured clinical examination(OSCE) This is a comprehensive examination of a patient. The student spends 15 to 60 minutes with a patient and then discusses that patient with a panel of examiners (long case). The exam should be set up in the following manner: Brief examination of a patient followed by oral questions (known as viva voce). Assessment of the learner’s actual work during practice using rating scales. Assessment of log and procedure books. Stages of setting an OSPE Identify topics/competencies to be tested on. Decide the number of stations and timing. Allocate topics and competencies to be tested. Set up instructions for examiners rating scales/check list for each station. List resources required for each station. Cont These include examiners, markers and observers, patients, normal persons and simulation and room furniture, that is, beds, clocks, bells and so on. Allocate marks for each station. Allocate marks within the station, that is, for each item of the question, Prepare standard/model answers for the questions Assessing attitudes Attitudes should be assessed during the course but not in the ﬁnal examination 1) Indirectly –around a skill e.g. while dressing a wound, is the student gentle? 2) Over along period-it is diﬃcult to pretend for a long period, deduce their attitudes as they work(continuously) Types of tools to use Likert skill; -Is a rating skill based on a table analysis(5 -1) e.g. XY forms Semantic differentials -scale on opposite characteristics eg Keen and willing -Not keen Always punctual- always late Polite to patients-rude to patients Practical assessment Objectives; To identify the learner’s areas of strengths and weaknesses in need of assistance To ﬁnd out how safe the learner is at carrying out procedures on the patients To grade the learner as pass or fail Guidelines to clinical skill testing The candidate; Must be adequately prepared to enable him to carry out those procedures on the patient, Must have;  Adequate theoretical instructions  Adequate opportunity to practice the skills under competent supervision  Be informed in good time about the test The Examiner Should be as objective as possible-avoid being inﬂuenced by previous experiences (past mistakes),give clear instructions as to what you want the learner to do during the test Must be conversant with the skills that the learner is going to be tested on Cont Test only those skills that the learner has been given an opportunity to practice- institutional policy Design a consistent rational way of awarding marks Cont Should be conversant with the items in the assessment guide forms As much as possible complete the test within the same duration for all the candidates Try not to hurry the candidate during the performance, slow speed should be considered when awarding scores Cont Protect the patient from bad practice from the learner Discuss the outcome of the test with the candidate immediately while the facts are still fresh in the minds of all Cont Give the grades and be sympathetic during the discussion of her/his weaknesses and the implications of the grades Environment Must be conducive to the testing Characteristics of a good evaluation/Examination(practical or theory) Should be valid-measure what it is supposed to measure Should be reliable-accurate and consistent Should be objective-free from bias Should discriminate; range in scores between the highest and the lowest Practical-resources and number of students to be examined Grading Is awarding of marks/scores/value ,to the assignment performed Example; -Percentage -pass or fail -good,average,excellent -letter grades;A,B,C,D Conclusion Evaluation of student performance is important, mainly because it gauges the extent to which educational objectives have been achieved and guides the teacher in deciding what steps to be planned next to facilitate learning for the students Instructional Media/ Teaching Aids Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: Describe projected and non projected teaching aids Outline the major advantages and disadvantages of teaching aids Select appropriate teaching and learning sessions Take appropriate care of teaching aids Learning from the Environment What senses do we use to learn from our environment? You learn more effectively if you use more than one of your senses. The more senses you use, the more effective your learning becomes. The senses are: Sight – visual. Hearing – audio. Smell – nasal. Taste – taste. Touch – tactile Modern technology enables learners to combine the use of several senses. This is achieved through the use of various types of teaching aids. There are two kinds of aids: Projected aids Non projected aids Deﬁnition A teaching aid like a teacher is meant to facilitate learning by; Helping to communicate information clearly and maintain students’ interest Communication and consequently teaching is more effective when more than one sense is used(multi-sensory).This improves retention(ability to remember) Types of teaching aids 1)Projected The information is relayed to the screen Examples; Over head projector, ﬁlm projector, slide projector, video tapes,LCD projector and computer 2) non-projected Chalk board, white board(markers board) Posters photographs(pictures)/diagrams Flip chart Cont Flannel boards Text-books, journals,handouts,newspaper Magnetic visual aids The real thing or object Factors to consider when selecting media Availability Students characteristics Venue Teacher’s skill Content Objectives Method Safety of the media Principles of media use Relevant Available Affordable Easy to use Should be used at the right time Importance of using teaching aids Enhances classroom interaction Enhance teacher- student relationship. Accelerates students learning It creates students creativity and innovativeness. Provides a variety of learning experiences Provides a universal language Helps to cater for individual differences. Over head projector It is a visual media aid on which a transparency is projected onto a screen through a mirror and lens system Discuss the parts; Fan,switch, lenses/mirror system,window,adjustable knob,column,power source,body,halogen lamp Accessories Screen-Permanent or mobile Trolley Pointer Transparencies Electric power cable Masking paper Pens/markers Effective use of OHP Position the screen appropriately. For all to see. Focus the image on the screen in an appreciable manner Avail masking sheets Prepare transparencies and arrange them in order Cont Clean window and focusing caps Avail pointer Switch off the ohp when placing or removing the transparencies Use a pointer to indicate on the transparency Cont Use masking sheets to reveal point after point Allow the lamp to cool after switching off the mains Don’t move the ohp when the fan is on Points to note when preparing transparencies; Do not write too near the edge Lettering should not be too small A transparency should convey one theme, ensure clarity and impact Use thin paper for masking Handout These are written papers given out by teachers to students They act as guides for work to be done or references to be looked up or to remind students of the main points of a lesson or learning experience NB An handout should not be used as a substitute to manuals, text and references It is both a visual aid to learning and an addition to private study Design Do not reproduce a textbook The introduction should relate the new material to the learner’s past experience Summarize the major ideas Use major and minor headings Cont Leave space between paragraphs and sections for learners to make notes Simplify expressions Put questions and exercises within the text to stimulate thinking The content, language and spelling should be accurate Cont Handouts must be clear and arranged in a logical order with good arrangement of headings, words and diagrams Should have references Ideas that require emphasis may have bold print to highlight them Chalk board Most convenient and most used teaching aid It requires planning in order to achieve effective learning Points to note for good use of chalkboard What is put on the board should relate to what is being explained that time to avoid distraction Write only the essential points and examples like your lesson plan outline Cont Plan the board so that information develops from one stage to the next. The board is not a scrap paper Write letters/ﬁgures which can be seen by all learners Cont Deliver the lecture to your learners(audience) not to the board. Write ﬁrst then explain as you stand aside or vice versa Face the board at an angle such that you can maintain eye contact with the learners Posters Are usually single leafed They consist of pictures or words only or a mixture of both Points to note when preparing a poster for heterogeneous audience Make it simple. One direct message Use simple language. Be precise Should have staying power e.g. “The blind will see” Cont Should be legible-Big font Should be attractive-Title and picture Should be visible-Background colour “The real thing” Is the best teaching aid Try as much as possible to use the real thing in your lessons Example;  It is much better to teach mothers how to wash a baby by using a real baby rather than a doll NB The closer the imitation to the real thing, the better the teaching aid A ﬁeld trip is the general term for taking a class to the “real thing” Even the best designed teaching aid can not replace practical work Computer The presentations may be projected onto a screen ,using a special projection unit or viewed by individuals or small groups on a standard computer monitor Create notes or handouts sheets that include the presentation along with space for notes Advantages You can save the presentation ﬁles in the computer and update the information easily Most graphics software is easy to use and creates attractive, interesting presentation materials. They can include photographs and other animations Dis-advantages Computers are expensive and require maintenance Sometimes computers “crash” or “freeze” and information can be lost if not saved Assignment; Read more on computer presentations (Ref; Effective teaching: A guide for educating health workers Steps in using teaching aids 1) Selecting the teaching aid to suit the lesson 2) Preview the teaching aids to ensure they convey the message you want 3) Plan how and in what order you intend to use your teaching aids. Cont 4) present your teaching aids appropriately and give adequate explanation 5) Evaluate your teaching aids with the same class Importance of using teaching aids Assignment Read and make notes on; Flip charts Flannel board Storage and maintenance of speciﬁc aids Curriculum Design and Development Introduction Curriculum Design and Development Welcome to section four of this unit. This section focuses on curriculum design and development. Objectives By the end of this section you will be able to: Deﬁne a curriculum Describe the components of a curriculum Explain factors that inﬂuence curriculum development Describe three approaches to curriculum development Outline the process of curriculum development Curriculum A curriculum is a description of all that takes place in an educational institution from the ﬁrst to the last day of training. A curriculum has been likened to a racecourse and it entails all the activities and the events, which take place from the ﬁrst event to the very last. A curriculum is also the document in which all the activities, transactions and the events of a training programme are described Components of the Curriculum The following are important components of a curriculum. A Statement of Justiﬁcation Gives the justiﬁcation/rationale and philosophy of the training programme and why the programme is required. Resources An outline of the physical, administrative and ﬁnancial requirements for the course. It is also a description of the minimal facilities in terms of buildings, equipment Entry Requirements Description of the entry requirements for the students and methods of selection. Educational Goals and Objectives Describes the goals and educational objectives of the course Content This is what will be covered in a course according to the stated objectives. Learning Experiences Are intended to be descriptions of the teaching and learning methods to be employed during the educational programme. Programme Outlines a logical sequence of events. Duration Speciﬁcation of how long each unit or learning block should last. Assessment Outlines methods of continuous evaluation, ﬁnal certiﬁcation, remedial activities and referral of failed candidates. Course Descriptions Highlights the title, unit, course objectives, course content and code for each course taught in the programme Factors Inﬂuencing the Development of a Curriculum 1. Academic Factors The teachers who teach the main subjects of a discipline often borrow from their past experiences and merge them with the current trends of the discipline. For example, you now have more nurse graduates who are prepared in advanced nursing practices and you can introduce content that was not included before Social Factors What is taught has to reﬂect what is current within the contemporary society. This means it has to be relevant to the needs of the local people socially and culturally. For example, with the advent of AIDS, this new topic has had to be included in the content Economic Factors The cost of implementation of a curriculum can determine the type of health worker trained by a given country. In developing countries, staff are often trained at a lower level of education in skills that are usually taught to university graduates in highly industrialised countries. This is because in developing countries, university education adds a cost burden to the limited resources Political Factors Politicians or political investors can inﬂuence the numbers to be trained and even the level of training. For instance, the introduction of the quota system in the Kenyan basic education system was politically motivated with the aim that all ethnic groups might receive equal attention. This, therefore, implies that an individual does not develop a curriculum. It is a cooperative process in which many interested parties contribute Consultations must be made where possible from all people who might be involved in the development of your health curriculum. These are the people who, in one way or another, exert inﬂuence directly or indirectly or decide what activities should be involved, including the style of implementation of the curriculum. These people fall into two categories: internal and external participants. You will now look at the ﬁrst category Internal Participants in Curriculum Development Internal participants in curriculum development include individuals from professional associations, ministries of health and education, boards of examinations, administrators of the training institutions, teachers and students. This group of participants is, therefore, called internal because they are directly involved in the curriculum and so have a greater impact on its development. They develop the curriculum, teach it and evaluate the curriculum and the students. External Participants in Curriculum Development The external participants constitute the second category. Although are not directly involved in curriculum development, they are either beneﬁciaries of the product, service or provide resources to facilitate its implementation or may liase within the institution in various ways. As such, they can easily inﬂuence decisions made by the internal group. This group comprises the community, business, industry and non governmental organisations Major Approaches to Curriculum Development There are several approaches to curriculum development. 1. subject centered This is carried out by subject specialists, who determine the subdivision of content and the methods and timing of instruction. 2. Integrated Approach This approach attempts to integrate or combine in a meaningful way, disciplined knowledge to impact wholesome learning for student application 3. Competency-based Approach It aims at identifying professional competencies required and the teaching required to achieve these competencies The Process of Developing Competency-Based Curricula Ten Steps to Competency-Based Curriculum Development Step 1 Identiﬁcation of health problems or needs. Step 2 Identiﬁcation of professional roles and functions. Step 3 Performing task analysis on professional roles and functions. Development of educational goals and objectives on the basis of Step 4 professional functions and task analysis. Identiﬁcation and selection of subject matter or content to be Step 5 learnt. Step 6 Identiﬁcation of teaching and learning methods. Step 7 Identiﬁcation or selection of learning resources. Identiﬁcation of assessment tools to determine learner Step 8 performance. Step 9 Curriculum implementation. Step 10 Curriculum review and change.

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