Ghost Dance and Holy Ghost: Nineteenth-Century Christianization Policy in Twentieth Century Native American Free Exercise Cases (PDF)

Ghost Dance and Holy Ghost: The Echoes of Nineteenth-Century Christianization Policy in Twentieth-Century Native American Free Exercise Cases Summer Week 2 Article by Allison M. Dussias History As early as 1776 the United States government has been providing funding for missionaries to convert India...

Ghost Dance and Holy Ghost: The Echoes of Nineteenth-Century Christianization Policy in Twentieth-Century Native American Free Exercise Cases Summer Week 2 Article by Allison M. Dussias History As early as 1776 the United States government has been providing funding for missionaries to convert Indians to Christianity Peace policy 1869-1882 The Peace Policy was put in place under Ulysses S. Grant as a way to try to promote peace between the Indians and the government because the old ways of communication were not working. Peace Policy — The Government used Christian Organizations to promote peace and better communication between the Indians and the government. — The religious groups were “implementing a policy to provide churches and schools that would lead the Indians to appreciate the comforts and benefits of a Christian civilization and thus be prepared ultimately to assume the duties and privileges of citizenship.” Peace Policy: The Board of Indian Commissioners In 1869 congress authorized the president to “organize a board of commissioners, to consist of not more than ten persons to be selected by him from men eminent for their intelligence and philanthropy, to serve without compensation.” Board of Indian Commissioners — Duties Included Supervise distribution of supplies to Indians as well as payments — Liason between Christian Missionaries and the Government — Annual meetings to discuss statistics, problems, and progress — Board of Indian Commissioners The first meeting held by the Board of Indian Commissioners found that the Indians were treated unfairly and unjustly by the United States government. The board felt that the Indians were treated poorly and that Christianization was the answer to the Indians problems. The End of Peace Policy — The Peace Policy began to generate more criticism as time went on. Missionaries began to feel that their work was too difficult and violence between Indians and whites grew. — President Hayes tried to continue the policy after he became President in 1877. He was focused primarily in land ownership with the Indians, rather than doing away with their religion. — The Peace Policy was finally put to an end in 1882 under Chester Arthur. Religion in schools — Although the Peace Policy came to an end, religious groups were still very present — The government funded religious groups in attempt to educate the Indians and do away with traditional Indian customs. — This was not seen as unconstitutional until the late 1880’s. — Finally in 1900 funding was cut for education in sectarian schools and were government run “in order to become exemplary Americans in the Protestant tradition of the Nation.” Religion in Schools Cont. “Although the federal government ended direct government funding of sectarian contract schools in the 1890’s, government officials continued to believe in the need for the Indian religious education. Religious instruction was to be provided in the government’s Indian schools on a non-denomenational basis.” Religion in Schools… — 1890 Rules for Indian Schools Observe the Sabbath — Attend Sabbath School or Sunday Services — School employees had the right to decide whether or not they were to attend services, Indians did not have a choice. — Dancing — Destroying dancing within Indian communities was an attempt to destroy Indian religious practices. — “If it is the purpose of the Government to civilize the Indians, they must be compelled to desist from the savage barbarous practices that are calculated to continue them in savagery, no matter what exterior influences are brought to bear on them.” – Secretary of the Interior Henry Teller 1883 Dancing — Teller’s Letter to the Indians wrote that the following were now to be Indian offenses: War dance — Sun dance — Scalp dance — Medicine men — Destruction/distribution of property — Dancing — How did the government justify suppressing Indian religious customs and traditions? Heathen — Pagan — Warlike — Victim to lust — Question of whether dances were truly religious in nature — Dances that involved property interfered with the governments efforts to encourage property ownership — Dancing — How did they stop the dances? Withholding government rations — Hunger — Destruction of dance houses — Keeping them from traveling to other tribes to perform their dances — The Sioux Ghost Dance and the 1890 Wounded Knee Massacre — 1888-1889 Lakota Sioux heard of an Indian Messiah. They believed in his message and began learning his dance and spreading his message. — “You must not hurt anybody or do harm to anyone.You must not fight. Do right always.” — It was promised that the Great Spirit would make things better for the Indians. — The Ghost Dance Religion spread rapidly. — Sioux Ghost Dance Sioux Ghost Dance — Some newspapers sensationalized the dance and many white — — — — settlers fled… Fear of a revolution Fear of violence and war Fear of the number of Sioux uniting Destruction of property Sioux Ghost Dance — The government sent troops to confront the Sioux Indians in November of 1890. Half of the United States army and infantry were aimed at the Sioux Reservations. When Sitting Bull ,leader of the Sioux, was arrested he was killed by Indian Policemen. The Sioux then followed Big Foot to Pine Ridge Reservation where they were eventually stopped by the Seventh Calvary and escorted to Wounded Knee Creek. The Indians set up camp there. The Indians were ordered to hand over there guns. Tepees were searched and a gun went off. When this happened the army shot and killed as many as 300 Indians… many of whom were simply trying to escape. — http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HQGW5a0q51w — http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dc7fZonjD1M&feature =related Sioux Indian Dance — The massacre was recognized as teaching the Sioux an important lesson…. “the danger of opposing the law of the Great Father.” The Pueblo Dances — The government’s attempts to suppress the ceremonial Pueblo Dances was the most prominent example of Indian suppression in the 20th century. — The Commissioner of Indian Affairs kept a secret dance file of claims and reports about the Pueblo Dances… Immoral Practices — Sexual excesses — “the barbarism of the whole celebration exceeded everything that we thought possible on this continent.” — The Pueblo Dances — Charles Burke, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, issued a letter to all Indians with the following guidelines… 1 dance per month — No dancing in the months of March, April, June, July, or August — No one under the age of 50 is permitted to dance — In the case of the Pueblo Dances there was no consideration for the Free Exercise Clause… the concern was about making Indians into property owners and farmers Free Exercise Claims — Indians of the past and of the present face problems with the First Amendment, Free Exercise of Religion. — Anglo-Americans see law, religion, art, economics, etc. as being separate from each other — Native Americans see law, religion, art, economics, etc. as a unified whole…. This forces them into a non-Indian category when they are up against the court system. — Some federal courts/judges have recognized the overlap of culture/religion but there is the fear that some will not and they will not be protected under the 1st Amendment New Rider vs. Board of Education — Three Pawnee students told to cut their long braids — “No more than a desire to express pride in their heritage” — …. Decision was that it was culture and not religion=no protection Sequoyah Vs. Tennessee Valley Authority — The Cherokees wanted dams to be completed so that they could perform their religious rituals and protect their cemeteries. — Decision=folklore, not religion Diaz vs. Collins — Prison inmates wearing headbands — Headbands linked to “duties to their creator, humans, family, and community” — Decision= culture not religion Translating Religion in Court — Many times Native Americans face the problem of translating religion in court. Vocabulary — Concepts — Structure of belief systems — Religious Differences Native Americans Anglo-American Christians — No set rituals — Church gatherings — Individualistic — Authoritative — Outdoors — Indoor settings — Oral transmission — Bible Translating Religion in Court — Oftentimes there aren’t words in English that precisely describe Native words. Example: Medicine — A judge may hear the word medicine and associate it with physical healing. Native Americans associate it with spiritual power. — Translating Religion in Court — Native Americans will sometimes use analogies to explain their belief systems and to try to get religious protection. Example: Griffin vs. Dugger — In this case a Blackfoot inmate did not want to cut his hair for religious reasons. He tried to explain that it would be like taking a Bible from a Catholic. His case was denied. — Others have tried to explain that the drums used in their ceremonies/rituals are like the organs in a church service. — Example: Diaz vs. Collins — Headband worn by Native Americans is similar to the headgear worn by Christians, Muslims, and Jewish. Case was denied. — Property — “The presence of traditional religious beliefs, and the absence of Christianity in the Indians Souls means that their souls were available for missionary conquest, just as the presence of Indian land usage patterns, and the absence of European land usage patterns, meant that Indian land was available for acquisition by purchase or by conquest.” Property in the Courts — Example: Crow Vs. Gullet The Lakota Sioux Indians were concerned with construction that was taking place at Bear Butte Park. — Because the Sioux were not interested in owning the property the courts saw no violation in the construction. — Property in the Courts — Attakai vs. United States The Navajos claimed that fencing and construction were getting in the way of their religious practices — The courts decided that it was land and they had every right to construct on it and build on it because it was not property or a structure of the Native’s — — Although there is no more overt government effort of suppression today, Native Americans still face many obstacles. They are still are up against many who do not understand their religion and their culture. Many continue to have to justify their way of life.