Human Nutrition Notes - CAIE Biology IGCSE PDF

CAIE Biology IGCSE 7: Human Nutrition Notes (Content in bold is for Extended students only) This work by PMT Education is licensed under https://bit.ly/pmt-cc https://bit.ly/pmt-edu-cc CC BY-NC-ND 4.0...

CAIE Biology IGCSE 7: Human Nutrition Notes (Content in bold is for Extended students only) This work by PMT Education is licensed under https://bit.ly/pmt-cc https://bit.ly/pmt-edu-cc CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 https://bit.ly/pmt-cc https://bit.ly/pmt-edu https://bit.ly/pmt-cc  Diet Humans need many different nutrients to survive. To receive these nutrients in the correct quantities, a balanced diet must be eaten. A balanced diet includes all essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats and vitamins, in the correct amounts needed for growth and repair. Balanced diets vary between people. The amounts of nutrients needed are different for people of different ages and genders. The amount of nutrients needed also varies depending on the amount of physical activity undertaken by individual people each day. In addition, pregnant and breastfeeding women need more nutrients as they must be able to feed their baby as well as themselves. Nutrients and their importance: Carbohydrates - found in foods such as pasta, rice and potatoes; carbohydrates are used as a source of energy in respiration in cells. Fats and oils - found in fatty meats, cheese and butter. Fats have a variety of roles in organisms including insulation, energy, waterproofing, structure and protection around delicate organs. Protein - found in meat, fish and eggs. Proteins are broken down into amino acids in digestion and absorbed into the blood. They are then used in cells to produce new proteins by protein synthesis, where they are used as enzymes in reactions and for structure. They can also be used for signalling as hormones, and carrying other molecules, for example haemoglobin which carries oxygen in the blood. Vitamins (C and D) - Vitamin C is found in citrus fruits and some other vegetables and is used in the synthesis of proteins which help make up the skin, ligaments and blood vessels. Vitamin C is also used in the repair of tissues. Vitamin D is found in dairy products, eggs and fish oil. It helps the uptake of calcium during digestion and is also a factor in maintaining healthy bones. Mineral ions (calcium and iron) - Calcium is needed for healthy bones and teeth and is found in dairy products and fish. It also has a role in blood clotting. Iron is found in red meat and some green vegetables. Iron is present in haemoglobin and plays an important role in transporting oxygen around the body in the blood for cells to use in respiration. A https://bit.ly/pmt-cc https://bit.ly/pmt-edu https://bit.ly/pmt-cc  lack of iron leads to anaemia and can cause tiredness, as enough energy will not be produced. Fibre (roughage) - Found in vegetables, fruit and whole grains. Fibre is not digested and thus helps food to move through the stomach and intestines, it also adds bulk. Water - Comes from both drinks (80%) and food (20%). Water moves into the blood via osmosis during digestion and then into cells. Here it acts as a solvent in which chemical reactions occur. It also helps to maintain a constant temperature in the body due to its high specific heat capacity and is a metabolite. Malnutrition: The lack of a balanced diet can lead to malnutrition which can have a variety of outcomes: Scurvy - caused by lack of vitamin C, leads to bleeding under the skin and around gums, premature stopping of bone growth in children leading to stunted growth, and very dry skin and hair. Rickets - caused by lack of vitamin D. Rickets is a condition that causes weak and soft bones, as well as deformities. It can also cause stunted growth in children as the bones cannot develop correctly. https://bit.ly/pmt-cc https://bit.ly/pmt-edu https://bit.ly/pmt-cc  Digestive System Once food is ingested (taken into the body), it undergoes both physical and chemical digestion as it is broken down. Physical digestion breaks down food into smaller molecules without chemical change to increase the surface area of food for the action of enzymes in chemical digestion. This occurs in the mouth due to chewing and in the stomach as food is churned. Chemical digestion is the breaking down of large, insoluble molecules into smaller, soluble molecules with the use of enzymes, so that the products can be absorbed. Absorption occurs as the smaller molecules and ions pass through the walls of the small intestine into the blood. These molecules then travel around the body, where they are assimilated into the cells and used in metabolic reactions. Food that is not digested and absorbed is egested as faeces. Structure of the digestive system: https://bit.ly/pmt-cc https://bit.ly/pmt-edu https://bit.ly/pmt-cc  Mouth and salivary glands - food is mechanically digested in the mouth by the teeth. The salivary glands release saliva which contains carbohydrase enzymes. These begin the chemical digestion of starch. Oesophagus - this allows food to pass from the mouth to the stomach by peristalsis. Stomach - Protease enzymes break down protein in chemical digestion. The food is also churned to break them into smaller pieces by mechanical digestion. Hydrochloric acid is present to maintain an optimum pH for enzyme action and kills bacteria by creating extremely acidic conditions, which denatures the enzymes within them. Small intestine - the small intestine consists of the duodenum and ileum. In the duodenum, the acidity from the stomach is neutralised and protease, lipase and amylase enzymes are secreted to break down molecules. The ileum is the final part of the small intestine and is where the products of the digestion are absorbed into the blood. Pancreas - the pancreas secretes pancreatic juices into the small intestine. This contains lipase, protease and amylase enzymes to break down food so that it can be absorbed. Liver - The liver makes bile. Bile is also secreted into the small intestine and has two functions: firstly, it neutralises the acidic conditions from the stomach (bile is alkaline) to provide a suitable pH for enzymes to work at. It also emulsifies fats, increasing their surface area so enzymes can digest them more quickly. Gall bladder - Bile made in the liver is stored here before being secreted into the small intestine. Large intestine - indigestible food passes through the large intestine. The large intestine consists of the colon, rectum and anus. Remaining salts and water are absorbed here (most is absorbed in the small intestine). Digestive processes: Ingestion- taking in food and drink into the body. This occurs in the mouth. Digestion- the breakdown of large molecules into smaller molecules. There are two types of digestion: https://bit.ly/pmt-cc https://bit.ly/pmt-edu https://bit.ly/pmt-cc  ○ Physical digestion - this occurs in the mouth and continued in the stomach ○ Chemical Digestion - occurs mainly in the small intestine Absorption - nutrients in the food are mainly absorbed from the small intestine into the blood. Some water and salts are absorbed from the large intestine. Assimilation - nutrients absorbed are transported via the bloodstream to cells to be used Egestion - removal of indigestible remnants of food from the body as faeces. This occurs in the anus. Physical Digestion Physical digestion is the breakdown of food into smaller pieces. This does not involve any chemical change to the food molecules. Physical digestion increases the surface area of food for the action of enzymes in chemical digestion. Role of teeth in physical digestion: Physical digestion first occurs in the mouth. Incisors and canines at the front of the mouth are used to bite and tear food, before it is passed to the premolars and molars at the back of the mouth which are used for chewing and grinding food into smaller sections. https://bit.ly/pmt-cc https://bit.ly/pmt-edu https://bit.ly/pmt-cc Tooth structure: Enamel - enamel is very hard. It covers the tooth and protects the tissue inside. Dentine - found underneath the enamel, dentine is less hard than enamel and thus decays more easily if the enamel is worn away. Pulp - central part of the tooth. The pulp is made of soft tissue which contains blood vessels and nerves. Cement - covers the root of the tooth and stabilises it Gums are soft tissue that protect the bone and roots of the teeth. Role of stomach in physical digestion: The walls in the stomach contain muscle which contract to mix and grind the food. Role of bile in physical digestion: Bile, which is produced in the liver, is used to emulsify fats and oils, increasing their surface area for chemical digestion. Chemical digestion Chemical digestion is the breakdown of large insoluble molecules to small soluble molecules so that it can be absorbed and used in the body. Enzymes: Amylase breaks down starch into simpler sugars. Amylase breaks down starch into maltose, and then maltase breaks down maltose into glucose. Maltase is a membrane-bound enzyme found in the membranes of epithelial cells in the small intestine. Amylase is found in saliva and is also present in the small intestine. Protease breaks down protein into amino acids. Pepsin and trypsin are proteases. Pepsin works in the acidic conditions of the stomach, whereas trypsin works in the alkaline conditions of the small intestine. These enzymes have different optimum pH, since in the stomach the conditions are very acidic (pH 1.5), whereas in the small intestine the pH is about 6-7. These enzymes will stop working in the wrong pH as they will become denatured. https://bit.ly/pmt-cc https://bit.ly/pmt-edu https://bit.ly/pmt-cc  Lipase breaks down fats into glycerol and fatty acids. It is secreted into the small intestine. To aid digestion: Hydrochloric acid increases the stomach's acidity. This acidity will kill any harmful bacteria in the food. The low pH of the stomach is also the optimum pH of the enzyme protease. Thus protease can effectively break down proteins in this environment. Bile is an alkaline mixture, neutralising the acidic mixture entering the duodenum from the stomach. The enzymes in the small intestine work best at a neutral or slightly alkaline pH. Therefore neutralisation by bile allows enzymes in the small intestine to work more effectively. Absorption Digested food products are absorbed in the small intestine. Cells lining the small intestine are adapted for absorption by having hair-like projections called villi and microvilli, which increase the surface area in the small intestine. Each villus contains capillaries, which carry absorbed nutrients away. This maintains a high concentration gradient in the lumen of the small intestines, which allows more nutrients to diffuse into the capillaries. They also contain lacteals, which absorb fats. Water is absorbed in the small intestine and in the colon, but most of the absorption occurs in the small intestine. https://bit.ly/pmt-cc https://bit.ly/pmt-edu https://bit.ly/pmt-cc