Sociology of Work Study Unit 3 PDF

Sociology of Work Study unit 3  Learning Outcomes At the end of this chapter you should be able to: ❑ discuss and evaluate the meaning of work ❑ discuss and evaluate its transition from historical periods to the current ❑ explain and apply the various sociological perspectives of...

Sociology of Work Study unit 3  Learning Outcomes At the end of this chapter you should be able to: ❑ discuss and evaluate the meaning of work ❑ discuss and evaluate its transition from historical periods to the current ❑ explain and apply the various sociological perspectives of work ❑ describe and discuss the notion of unemployment and the factors that influence it ❑ list and explain the several features of the labour force ❑ describe and understand the concept of power in the workplace ❑ apply your own situations to issues surrounding the future of work What is work?  WORK Core Concept 1 …can be understood sociologically as any activity offered, conducted or delivered by an individual that is productive. Such work can be paid or unpaid, contractual, voluntary or forced. In the modern era, it is vital to take note of rapid external changes that often remould our understanding of work. ▪ Work is usually conducted in exchange for salary ▪ Decades ago, work was exchanged for anything in return – food, articles, shelter, etc. ▪ Concept of work associated predominantly with paid employment ▪ Paid employment is vital - cost of living should be covered ▪ Irrespective of class, creed or nationality, maintaining a job is a significant part of life  Early history of work in SA ▪ Work existed in a society even without money (reward) ▪ Reasons to work was influenced by social obligations to kin ▪ Hunter-gatherers: o Work was done to consume the day with productive activities o Work came to a halt as the minimum necessary activity has been reached o Immediate consumers of food  COLONIALISM Core Concept 2 …refers to a process whereby countries with more economic and military power than other countries make these countries or regions subservient to them through political and / or military interventions. These colonies are then exploited economically with economic benefit returning to the colonising countries. ▪ Cape trade route was monopolised by the Portuguese during 16th century ▪ Slave trading a large part of trade ▪ VOC (Dutch East Indian Company) Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie ▪ adapted all mercantilist measures to enhance their business interests - , tariffs, monopoly, favoritism, corruption, slavery, dismissal without legal process ▪ First examples of multi-national companies, “…hardest and dirtiest work” – Benin, Mauritius, Khoi-San people (refused – low wages) ▪ VOC used legal and illegal measures to protect their commercial interests  Pre-industrial era ▪ Discovery of diamonds (1870) and gold (1872) played an influential role in SA’s industrialization ▪ Before this, SA was an agricultural society Craftsmen and merchants supplied services to communities ▪ The Master and Servant Act (1841) govern employment relations – amended (1856) o Governed rules of work – black employees (hard punishment) o Collective labour relations – non existent ▪ Unskilled labour force - most black African employees (servants and labourers on farms) ▪ Skilled labour force - white, coloured and Asian people  Early industrialisation 1913 –large scale strikes occurred –the Riotous Assemblies Act passed – to prevent riots and maintain Discovery of gold (1870) and diamonds (1872) peace and order resulted in: ▪ 1914 – Industrial Disputes and Trades Bill was o An influx of labour in Witwatersrand passed – curtailed any strikes until conciliation o Generation of industries that support the procedures were followed mining community – railway, engineering, ▪ Unions emerging in secondary industries and building industries services – engineering, building trade, etc. ▪ European immigrants (British) were employed – o Work in these industries was semi-skilled or SA experienced an inadequate supply of skilled unskilled labour o Employees were of all races ▪ 1897 – 1st regulation based on industrial colour ▪ 1922 – white workers went on strike (153 bar – black African employees were barred from miners killed, 500 wounded) certain jobs and occupations ▪ Government decided that statutory machinery for collective bargaining and the settlement of 1900s –strike action on the rise by white and disputes were required black employees ▪ 1911 – ‘Mines and Works Act’ established – ▪ Resulted in the drafting of the Industrial reserved jobs for white mine workers Conciliation Act of 1924 (wages, work hours)  The rise in Manufacturing and Service industries (1925-1948) ▪ Flourishing of gold mine industry led to growth in manufacturing and service sectors ▪ Unionisation among employees occurred ▪ Several labour councils developed – labour relations rationalized ▪ Extensive strikes commenced – to foster better working conditions ▪ 1930 –Industrial Conciliation Act amended – allowed for representation of black African employee interests on industrial councils  ▪ The history of work has been influenced by the Apartheid regime of NP (1948) Core Concept 3 ▪ Segregation based on race ▪ A hierarchy of racial groups existed – white people (highest ranking) APARTHEID ▪ Race groups segregated in terms of housing, …is a political system of residential areas, social activities, and type of work governance employed in South carried out Africa by the National Party based ▪ Certain jobs were reserved for white people and on racial segregation and other for black people (lower paying jobs) discrimination. ▪ Apartheid has had a lasting effect on the country’s Inequality among citizens was socioeconomic status, specifically on the labour demonstrated throughout this market period, especially in context of ▪ Apartheid regime was a system of: race. o racial segregation o difference in their rights in the workplace and The Apartheid Era (1948-1994) society  POST-APARTHEID The birth of a democratic South Africa. Democracy Core Concept 4 involved the inclusion and consensus of all South African citizens regardless of race or gender. Under democracy, all South Africans were given equal rights, this included their entitlement to work under any occupational category regardless of their racial ▪ Today, everyone has the right to vote status. ▪ Several redress policies and new labour legislations had been put in place: o Labour Relations Act ▪ Era characterised by: o Employment Equity Act o Basic Conditions of Employment Act o Increased casualisation of work o Skills Development Act o Growth in youth unemployment o Growth in labour flexibility ▪ Aim to: o De-racialise workplaces o Decline in union membership o Create democratic workplaces (some sectors) o Jobless economic growth The transition of work  FORDISM Core Concept 5 …can be most commonly associated with the assembly line, the social welfare state, high wages, mass production, secure labour markets in the West and consumption. It is also known as the golden age of capitalism. The rise of Fordism Fordism involved the alienation of workers and a Beginning of 20th century – Henry reduction in employee morale. Ford was aware that there existed a ▪ Set up 1st assembly line (1913) potential market for cars ▪ Division of labour, fragmented tasks, Standardization of He was one of 5% of the population who products, Mass production, Tight managerial control could afford a car ▪ Introduce high wages ($5 a day - 1914) – believed it In 1909: “I will build a car for the great would solve deskilling, degradation of work and labour multitude…it will be so low in price that problems no man making a good salary will be ▪ Fordist design: unable to own one” o Promoted alienation of workers & Decrease morale  Fordism ▪ Marx: Work is an activity through which ▪ Weber: Alienation occurs due to: man could achieve self-realization o Bureaucracy (“depersonalization”) o Loss of individuality ▪ Marx, Engels &Tucker: escalation of o Loss of the abilities to obtain one’s alienation (individual from society and own purpose (self actualization) themselves) due to: o Private property ▪ Alienation: o Transformation of labour into a o Loss of an individual’s own generic commodity nature in a work activity – workers o Division of labour are isolated, autonomous life ▪ Marx: D-epersonalistion and loss of unity (bureaucracy)  Fordism The Fordist model reached its peak in the West in 1950’s By the mid-1970’s – Fordism was in crises ▪ Fordism failed: o Inflexible labour forces o Rigidity o Nature of skills o Consumer demand ▪ Neo-Fordism (alternative production system): o Allow for greater flexibility in production o Use of technology o Expand range of products offered o Tight managerial control still enforced  POST-FORDISM Core Concept 6 …can be seen as a way of organising work that emphasises customisation, decentralisation, flexibility, flexible labour markets, boundary less careers. ▪ Reduction of division of labour ▪ Decentralization – flattening of hierarchy ▪ More flexibility ▪ Specialisation ▪ Do away with assembly line ▪ Enhance level of skills of workers – multi- skilling ▪ Create team work structures – including in decision making ▪ Specialised niche markets for high quality products and services ▪ New technology to produce smaller batches of products (non-standardized) Sociological perspectives of work Core Concept DIVISION OF LABOUR …refers to work that is split into specialised tasks, that are then carried out by different sets of workers; each set/category are equipped to perform that specific task through training (Durkheim, 1933) The division of labour usually results in segregation and alienation from workers  BUREAUCRACY Organisations that employ bureaucratic frameworks usually enforce a rigid set of rules and hierarchy with minimal Core Concept 7 flexibility offered to its employees. Organisations that employ a bureaucratic structure are governed by inflexibility and strong control over work processes and procedures. Bureaucratic vs non-bureaucratic structures  Employees should be treated as human beings Core Concept 8 too, not only as workers Happy worker = productive worker HERZBERG’S TWO FACTOR ▪ Hygiene factors refers to work conditions, THEORY rewards, job security, etc. A theory of two factors: hygiene (external factors) o When at low level – decrease and motivation, and their productivity o Can lead to dissatisfaction if 'wrong', but influence on employee which do not lead to satisfaction if 'right‘ performance. o Play a strong role in motivating employees  Herzberg’s two factor theory ▪ Motivation factors refers to achievement, advancements, recognition, growth, responsibility and the work itself ▪ ‘Hygiene' factors + Motivation factors = satisfaction and motivation to perform well ▪ Motivation factors involved: o A democratic approach to management o Enhancing the nature and content of the job through certain methods, e.g. autonomy o Job enlargement – a variety of tasks o Job enrichment – a wider range of more complex, interesting and challenging task Core Concept 9 McGREGOR’S X-Y THEORY has as its central focus organisational development which improves organisational culture (Kumar and Kumar, 2011). Theory X explained that workers displayed a natural disliking for work, while Theory Y on the contrary maintained that workers were active agents that enjoyed working due to goals of self-actualisation  Theory X ▪ Refers to an authoritarian style of ▪ Participative management style managing employees o Punishment had to be enforced to ▪ Believe: bring about better performance o Employees aim to pursue o Employees had to be directed organizational objectives o Coercion into work is not a motivator ▪ Suggest that the average employee: o Some people do like work o Dislike work o Trust brings about responsible o Try to avoid responsibilities behavior o Employees take on organizational goals and align them with their own goals in an attempt to achieve self- actualization  Theory Y This theory is useful in explaining that all workers do not always have to be coerced into fulfilling work duties, and in some instances, find work to be enjoyable.  Core Concept 10 UNEMPLOYMENT …is a state of joblessness experienced by an individual who is an active job seeker The level of unemployment has vast effects on the country’s socio-economic wellbeing  Unemployment South Africa ▪ SA unemployment rate Q2 2019: 29% The unemployed are those people in within ▪ SA youth unemployment (15-24 jaar oud) Q2: the economically active population who: 56.4% Did not work during the 7 weeks prior to ▪ SA youth unemployment (aged 15–34 years) the interview rate Q2 2019: 40,3% Want to work ▪ SA youth unemployment (aged 15–24 years) rate Are available to start work within a week of Q2 2018: 32,3% (approximately 3,3 million) were the interview not in employment, education or training Have taken active steps to look for work in A NEET is a young person who is "Not in Education, the 4 weeks prior to the interview Employment, or Training"  Unemployment ▪ Several factors contribute towards level of unemployment e.g.: Demand for labour: o The supply and demand for labour o Education and skill levels Refers to all the types of labour that are o Conditions of the economy required by the economy o Willingness of individuals to work o Nature of work on offer o Conditions of employment – working Supply of labour: hours, working environment, level of ▪ Refers to persons who work, or who salaries/wages want to work and to the kinds of labour that is available in the labour market  Unemployment ▪ Factors that influence the demand of ▪ Factors that influence the supply of labour: labour: o Cost of hiring employees – depend o Skills possessed by labour force – on economic climate of national certain skills required in labour and international economy and market success of firm o Age – technological (younger); senior o Internal and external conditions – positions (mature age group) e.g. technology can replace individuals o Geographic locations – relocation o Demand for certain products or issues (Difficult? Easy?) services o Size of population (fertility and within market mortality rates) o Influence of globalization and its o Willingness to work, nature of work integration of different countries – on offer and conditions of heightened demand of professional employment skills  Youth unemployment ▪ Youth constitute over 47% of 200 million unemployed people, globally ▪ Thus, 90 million youth unemployed – 3x more than adults ▪ Developing countries – most challenged by youth unemployment (more informal, low-paid work) ▪ Internal Labour Organisation (ILO) = more than 50% of African youth unemployed Core Concept 11 TRADE UNIONS are organised labour movements at a global, national or organisational level, and that may be seen as the voice and representation of workers Trade unions are useful in ensuring the rights of members are upheld and prevents unfair practises in the workplace  Trade unions in SA 1970’s: ▪ Workerists (movement) ▪ Independent Unions involved with o Consolidating the union at shop manufacturing, commerce, construction and floor level transport o Fought against class exploitation ▪ Mining and agriculture excluded from being o Argued that liberation could only occur organized if class system was diminished ▪ Only highly paid occupations were organised o Driven by white students – focused ▪ Industrialisation system in SA termed dualistic: on class, not race o One system for white, coloured and Indian ▪ Trade Unions in SA: workers o Congress of SA Trade Unions (COSATU) Ruled by the Industrial Conciliation Act of o Federation of Unions of SA (FEDUSA) 1956 o National Council of Trade Unions (NACTU) Enabled to established registered trade o Labour representation in National Economic unions Development and Labour Council (NEDLAC) o Another system for African workers o Change work environment from pre- Restricted to plant-based work apartheid to post-apartheid committees o Strikes diminished between 1970’s – 1980’s  Trade unions in SA ▪ Constitution & Labour legislation affords Bargaining councils: workers the right to collective bargaining Permanent collective bargaining institutions ▪ Employers and employees – not established on a voluntary basis by employer and equal bargaining power employee organisations in a specific industry to negotiate wages and other conditions of ▪ Outcome of collective bargaining depends on: employment and to resolve disputes o Market forces and Economic environment Profitability Standards of living Unemployment Market conditions  Trade unions in SA Factors influence or threaten trade unions: ▪ Recent political and economic changes ▪ Globalisation and flexibility ▪ Insecure employment ▪ Small businesses ▪ Geographic dispersion of production ▪ Skills composition ▪ Women workers ▪ Increased unemployment  Core Concept 13 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LABOUR FORCE are the dimensions, features and elements within the labour pool that affect the socioeconomic ▪ Characteristics include: status of the country o gender o race o age groups of workers o foreign workers o labour legislation o labour market flexibility ▪ These elements are very influential in shaping the current landscape of the South African labour market (p. 234)  Labour market participation by race The Labour market participation rate refers to the proportion of the working-age population (between 15 and 64) that is economically active (employed or unemployed)  Labour legislation ▪ Basic Conditions of Employment Act – hourly cost of labour, overtime, retrenchments, leave, etc. ▪ Skills Development Act – developing and enhancing skills of the labour force ▪ Employment Equity Act – achieving equality in the workforce ▪ Labour Relations Act (1996) – common legislative framework for employees o Right to strike o Freedom of association o To form statutory councils o Promote democracy in workplace Core Concept 14 LABOUR MARKET FLEXIBILITY … refers to the extent to which an enterprise can alter various aspects of its work and workforce to meet the demands of the business, for example, the size of the workforce, the content of jobs, working hours, etc. Generally, the more efficiently the organisation is able to adjust and adapt itself to new external forces and changes, the more competitive it will appear to be  Labour market flexibility ▪ Contracts of employment – non-permanent Women in the workplace – representation Wage flexibility – responsive to economic increased and market conditions ▪ Sexual harassment (unwanted behavior of Working time – overtime, flexitime, shift sexual nature, Employment Equity Act, work, shortened work week 1998) – legislation / policies (yet…) Atypical employment: ▪ Disability and work – barriers to o Part-time (hours less than norm) employment (SA Human Rights Commission o Outsourcing (catering, cleaning) Equality Project, 2012) – o Dependent contractor (on employer) “ignorance…hostility” o Specialised contracting (sub-contractor) o Labour broking (recruits & supplies) ▪ LGBT in the workplace – legislation o Homeworkers (from home) (Section 9, Promotion of Equality and Preven tion of Unfair Discrimination Act, 2002)  Types of labour market flexibility Atypical employment – Advantages: o Reduces cost of labour o Sidestep labour regulations o Promotes greater flexibility ▪ Atypical employment – Disadvantages: o Low wages o Bad conditions of employment o Low of no health and safety standards o Neglected human resource development (training) o No or low employment security o Difficult for unions to organize o Employers – lose the ability to attract, bind and retain skilled workers  Core Concept 15 Types With rapid internal and external changes occurring almost ▪ daily, ▪ nationally and ▪ globally, THE FUTURE OF WORK it is not an easy task to make a clear-cut definition of is the subject of much debate and the future of work discussion as sociologists try to imagine the forms that work and Issues that govern the current workplace make way for organisations will assume in us to imagine the future of work. These include the: decades to come. ▪ increase in flexible forms of employment, ▪ the growth of informal work as well as ▪ the surge of modern technological advances Past transitions in economic growth (or ‘Industrial Revolutions’) Arrival of steam engines, water, mechanical production equipment Electricity, mass production, complex division of labour (2nd half of 19 century) Electronics, information technology, automated production (2nd half of 20th century) ‘Smart’ machines ‘have the potential to substitute human brains and hands’ Past transitions in economic growth (or ‘Industrial Revolutions’)  Key terms Alienation Fordism Apartheid Industrialisation Bureaucracy Labour market flexibility Collective bargaining Post-Fordism Colonialism Trade unions Division of labour Unemployment Employment Work © North-West University (2012)