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BIOLOGY IPO3NAL CH. 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 15 , 16 , 27 , 31  CHAPTER 10 : MELOSIS ↳ a process that contributes...

BIOLOGY IPO3NAL CH. 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 15 , 16 , 27 , 31  CHAPTER 10 : MELOSIS ↳ a process that contributes to genetic variety ↳ cell > does not make body makes sperm and egg cells known as gametes -- ; I humans have 46 chromosomes ↳ There are some human cells that don't have 46 chromosomes. u humans sperm and egg cells have 23 chromosomes. ↳ add up it allows newly formed fertilized develop when these , a egg to into a human ↳ meiosis is called a reduction division primary spermatocyte (in males) ↳ there is a starter cell could be or primary oocyte (in females I# because you go from meiosis is a reduction divison 46 chromosomes to 23. > - divide twice BEFORE MELOSIS STARTS : INTERPHASE ↳ ⑬ PMAT X 2 ↓ X PMATX 1 (MELOSIS x ROWS cell ⑪ - When the (MITOSIS) X ↳ DNA replication XX ↓ ↳ ⑮ ⑪ cell functions ↳ cell 46 chromosomes and it duplicates in the Interphase before starting has , meiosis starts (duplicating DNA) ↳ chromosomes made out of DNA are and proteins , ↳ mitosis stages : PMAT What does MELOTIC CELL DIVISON produce ? P : Prophase ↳ haploid cells m : Metaphase ↳ gametes (sperm ova/egg) A : ↳ anaphase , T: telophase I Feature Mitotic cell divison Meiotic cell divison cells in which it occurs body cells Copies of each Gamete-producing cells of each Diploid-Ini two Haploid - In ; one member Final chromosome # type of chromosome (nomologous pairs) homologous pair. Two , identical to the parent cell four , containing recombined chromosomes number of daughter cells due and to each other. to crossing over. number of cell divisons per o ne Two DNA replication. development , growth , repair , and Gamete production for Function in animals maintance of tissues ; a sexual reproduction. Sexual reproduction.  ! spindle fibers Fe Prophase ↓ "Before" E f METAPHASE for ↳ "middle" Wheres are to condense and thicken going ↳ ↳ line Chromosomes up with their homologous pairs are lined in the middle of the cell. ↳ HOMOLOGOUS chromosomes are approximately not in a single line ; they are in pairs = G the size and thatais # same contain the same types of genes in the same locations. ANAPHASE I : & for crossing over "AWAY" up and transfer their genetic information ↳ lines ↳ chromosomes are going to be pulled away and between each other. spindle exchange it by the fibers. - MELOSIS prophase Il Il : METAPHASE II IY ↳ chromosomes : TELOPHASE ↓ for I : # ⑳ ⑭mosome m are goingto "TWO" in the - Midd sending of meiosis - X2 ↳isengi two newly found nuclei & ANAPHASE 11 : Er X2 4 cytokinesis follows with splitting the ⑭ "AWAY" cytoplasm ⑳ ↳ the chromatids are getting pulled away by the spindle fibers. ⑫ x2 & Telophase II : ↳ nuclei reform and the 2 cells ⑳ are each to going going to be formed. cytokinesis will follow to completely split the cytoplasm. ↳ Sometimes chromosomes do not separate correctly--called nondisjunction when a cell can receive too many or too few chromosomes in the separation. ↳ contributes to genetic disorders.  * diploid Meiotic cell division is throughout the meiosis I phase ; - > ↳ - START Interphase erphase : ↓ · dio a ↳ gob > - Cu telophase A - > -after ↳ meiosis I haploid > - after meiosis II co. haploid ↳ cal duplicated homologues (b) After meiosis 1 (C) After meiosis [I prior to meiosis Chaploid) Chaploid) (oliploid) In notentiation Ei Haploid (n) = one set of chromosomes Diploid (2n) = two sets of chromosomes. 2n Eggs and sperm (gametes) are naploid In F N diploid Diploid set for humans : 2n = 46 Fertilized diploid naploid egg. parental gametes cells TERMS : ↳ CROSSING OVER karyotes : and a preparation showing the number , sizes , shapes of all the chromosomes within the cell n. ↳ diploid : a cell with pairs of homologus chromosomes ↳ haploid : A well that only one member of each chromosomes. pair of homologus peeing hasmataover Partsofseen of two Sister exchanged chromatids. between homologues.  ERRORS IN MELOSIS : ↳ nondisjunction : an error in meiosis in which chromosomes fail to segregate properly into the daughter cell. of sex · chromosomes nondisjuction produce abnormal gametes with either two sex chromosomes or no sex chromosomes * nondisjunction happens when the chromosomes aren't going to the proper poles a re missing chromosomes. ↳ some times errors can occur during meiosis one/two > - Cn+ 1 ; have extra chromosomes , and n-1 ; missing achromosome MAIN DIFFERENCE BETWEEN NONDISJUNCTION IN METOSIS I' It is what separates Incorrectly. ↳ meiosis I : homologous chromosomes fail to Separate. ↳ meiosis :Sisterchromosfailtoseparatin 11 chromosomes separated properly in meiosis I. nondisjunctions can lead to turner syndrome (xo), trisomy x (xXX) , Klinefelter syndrome (xXy) , Jacob Syndrome (XYY) , trisomy 21 (down syndrome) male) o (no · only one x is called condition ↳ something happened where a chromosome is missing and that condition is called turner Syndrome [XO) EFFECTS OF NONDISJUNCTION OF SEX CHROMOSOMES DURING MELOSISS. · TURNER SYNDROME (XO) Jacob (xYy) · syndrome ↳ girldoes notundergopubertaaries/produce ↳ male born with two y chromosomes and 1X. X ; X eggs , ↳ monosomy one chromosome. ~ appearancedoesntchange much ; potentially taller and higher can a · Trisomy x(xXX) ↳ women ↳ tends with three x chromosomes instead of normal two X and have. incidence of trisomy 21 (down syndrome) to be taller higher learning ageneticdisorder disabilites. caused by the presence of three copies a ↳ most women with (XXX) are fertile. ↳ e common characteristics - lowresistancetoinfecti a eyesSmallmouthdiseases ↳ learning disabilites Klinefelter syndrome · (xxy) 3 distinctively shaped. ↳ male born with twox and one Y. of fetal ↳ can be diagnosed before birth by examing chromosomes ↳ usually small testes that does not produce much biochemical test and ultrasound examination of the fetus. as cells w/ testosterone a normal male (xy) does.  CHAPTER 11 : PATTERNS OF IN HERITANCE O GROWTH LELL Physical basis of Inheritance : GI Checkpoint end of GI : checks for 3 Re (singular locus) : located of F Genes are the # ↳ cell size chromosome. CEL on - Nutrients n Growth factors / I ↳ DNA damage. position of allele gene : MOLOGOUS CHROMOSOME : M/ spindle checkpoint : checks for : a chromosome attached ↳ one chromosome is inherited from parental sources tothespindle a b ↳ one chromosome is inherited from maternal sources. S in - G2 Checkpoint : located & the end of the G2 phase , just before the cell enters mitosis. ↳ Confirms DNA replication is completed hybrid : an organism that is the ↳ checks for abnormal/damaged DNA offspring of parents differing in at least one genetically determined characteristic homozygous isn same ave ↳ individual either with two dominant (e. At) g. identical or alleles recessive for (e g a. aa). specific a I heterozygous different alleles for specific gene ↳ two a. necessive (e g a) g A) ↳ one allele is dominant (e and the other is typically.... one mi S self-fertilization organism fertilizes its own eggs. : YY Seterozygous Cross-fertilization Sperm from an individual fertilizes : of another individual. the egg chromosome fromtheher mother Chromosom. a ↳ all purple flowers after cross-fertilizing is called complete dominance ) mass masking) ; purple flowers masks 2 over : the white colour plant. Inheritance for 3 sexual generation : True breeding : Offspring with the same traits over multiple generations. p = parental generation F1 = 1st filial generation F2 = 2nd filial generation. O when Mendel grew hybrid seed , he found that the Fe gen (frist filial) only produced white the purple flower. flower disappeared. ↳ approx. 3/4 had purple flowers and " had white flower , ↳ the capacity to produce white flower did not disappear, it was hidden just. TERMS : · Alleles > - variant forms of gene · complete dominance : G an allele t h a t is fully expressed in ↳ dominant alleles capitaliea ↳ thepheotunetezeroz ↳ the 3: 1 ratio describes the expected proportions · dominant alleles > fully expressed neterozygote Monohybrid -. cross maing (or cross) recessive alleles > masked heterozygote. betweenoa ↳a · of - purple to white flowers in a population. · Phenotype > - organism's appearence ↳) punnett square is used to predict the result organism's genetic makeup -> · Genotype ↳ individual Amozygous Homozygous identical terozygosa > for 4 specific easy · - two copies of allele a ↳ same · Heterozygous individual + two different alleles for a specific gene. ↳ Ss The distribution of alleles in gametes. ↳ each gamete receives only one allele of each gene. -> a sperm and a egg. two different alleles are present. 1 dominant W ↳ the expression of the Crecessive true-breeding individuals alleles homozygous = have two copies of the same for that. gere allele is completely masked ↳ hybrid individuals have two different alleles for a given gene heterozygous gene.. 2 Recessive : ↳ an allele that is expressed only in homozygotes and is compeletly masked in heterozygotes. Phenotype : physical characteristics geno = (1 : 2: 1 (3 1) : Genotype = : the genetic composition preno experiment to determine the genotype of an individual TEST CROSS : > - that shows a dominant phenotype.. If the unknown is homozygous Dominant 1 (AA) : least one dominant allele (A) and show the dominant phenotype. ↳ all offspring will have at h example : AAxaa Call offspring = All Aa will exhibit the dominant trait) ↳rou. If the unknown 2 is heterozygous (Aa) : ↳ The offspring will have a 1 : / ratio of the dominant to recessive phenotype. ↳ example cross : ↳ Aa xaa + 50 % Aa (dominant Phenotype) and 50 % an Recessive phenotype ↳ half of the offspring will show the dominant trait and the other half will show , the recessive truit. ↳ Too HOW TO DO PUNNETS SQUARE : Step 1) figure out the geneotype of the parent ↳ Hh = Hetero HH/hn = homo Step 2) place one parent on the top of the punnet square and the other on the other side. Step 3) Cross them. ↳ Capital letters first the results would be the babies 123 -HH Hh hh Phenotype > - physical appearancece · ratio 50 % PUNNETT SQUARE PREDICTIONS geno = Hm 25 % nh 1 : 2 : "probabilities necessarily exactly what = not you are to going get. ↳ "H" as long as there is one = dominant allele. THINGS TO KEEP IN MIND : ③ sex-linked dominant traits also exist ⑤ our example was humans. Sex chromosomes assume a trait is sex-linked can vary in different animal species ①Never ↳ It only takes one dominant allele for the individual to have the trait. placed in pn a land,therefore,might not be ② sex-linked necessive traits tend to be more common in Xy genotypes than XX ① not disorders all that have a genetic component follow a one gene kind of trait. [many involve autosomes , tool Female male nMinnes · DIHYBRID CROSS : mating (or cross) between two parents that are HOW ARE MULTIPLE TRAITS INHERITED ? heterozygous for both genes. ↳ starts with tre breeding parents : P1 ssyy X ssyy Gametes SY sy Fa SsYy "double heterozygotes" "FOIL rule" F2 - use what is the Foll role? ↳ "Frists , outer , inners , lasts" to figure out the gametes to be used in the punnet square. 2 In Mendel's law of segregation , gametes only carry on allele for a gene. ↳ If you have a cat that is Ith there , are four alleles Two genes - one hair gene and one sink-liking gene ↳ this means that each gamete is going to have two alleles. Mendel's Principle of Independent assortment ↳ two alleles at one locus segregate from one another independently of two alleles at a different locus. separately &at ↳ each into relative to other of alleles. pair segregate gametes random every pair a the F2 offspring will display 9 : 3 : 3:1 ratio (9/16 : 3/16 : 3/16 : 1/16) Independent inheritance · of two or more traits is called law of dependent. assortment ↳ with assumes each trait is controlled by single gene a no influence from gene (s) controlling the other trait HOW IT WORKS : 1) paired homologous chromosomes line up during metaphase 2) face the poles of the cell Brandom's one homologous does not influence the orientation of other pairs. pair I 3) When the homologues separate during anaphase , the aeesofgeneondifferentchromosaa of one another. INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE PRODUCES INTERMEDIATE PHENOTYPES exhibits phenotype intermediate ↳ Incomplete dominance : F+ generation a those of the parental generation. ↳ when the dominant completely expressed with thenecessive allele is allele is not around no complete dominant allele (the Colours are mixed/in between. ↳ codominance : both alleles are active associated with two different products (both are fully expressed meterozygous ↳ often two different products and can be identified. ↳ both alleles work together and are equally shown up together. allele have reddish-brown chestnut coats and C2 horses are cremello w/ pale white. coat ↳ , ↳ ((z - neither chestnut/cremello coats due two to homozygous phenotypes. POLYGENIC INHERITANCE OF SKIN COLOUR IN HUMANS ↳ a pattern of inheritance in which the interactions of two or more functionally similar genes determine phenotype polygenic inheritance. : " "many genes coding for one trait. e.. height g and skin colour. EPISTASIS : When one gene depends on another gene for it to be expressed lig GENETIC recombination : of corresponding exchange · Segments of DNA during crossing over (new combinations of alleles on both homologors chromosomes ( sex determination in mammals. > - Female have 2 sex chromosomes (both X chromosome ↓ one X and y ! chromosome T act as during homologues , pairs up anaphase. I during prophase and separate males have ↳ Inheritance of sex-linked trait differs for males and females ↳ vision deficiency is caused colour by certain defects in either of the two located chromosome. genes on the x ↳ how is colour-vision deficiency inherited ? > - men can have the genotype XnY or XNY = color vision allele N or n on the X chromosome , but not the y chromosome. - For women only XnYn genotype , will be color-deficient. ↳ colour-deficient man can pass the n allele to the daughter only ↳ dominant moms are homozygous likely to pass a normal n allele to her children. PARENTAL Phenotypes : ↳ progeny that have the same phenotype as one or the other of the parent. RECOMBINANT Phenotypes : ↳ progeny whose phenotypes are different from either parent.  PEDIGREE ; family tree relationships among parentsa children ↳ shows and inheritance pattern. · MALE-avares · FEMALES --circle · MATING ↳ is horizontal line represented by a connecting males & fem