Study Guides for Lesson 1-5 (Midterm Coverage) PDF

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY Urdaneta City, Pangasinan GEE 2 – GENDER AND SOCIETY STUDY GUIDE FOR LESSON NO. 1 LESSON OVERVIEW Society i...

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY Urdaneta City, Pangasinan GEE 2 – GENDER AND SOCIETY STUDY GUIDE FOR LESSON NO. 1 LESSON OVERVIEW Society is a complex and dynamic entity that shapes the way we live, interact, and perceive the world. It consists of structures, cultural practices, and patterns of behavior that influence our daily lives and social experiences. To better understand how society operates, sociologists have developed various perspectives to analyze social behavior and institutions. In this lesson, the students will explore the fundamental characteristics that define a society. We will also delve into the three major sociological perspectives—structural functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism—which provide different lenses through which to view and understand society. These perspectives offer unique insights into social life, from large-scale institutions and systems to everyday interactions. By examining society through these different viewpoints, we can better appreciate the complexity of social phenomena and the factors that drive social stability, conflict, and change. Through this lesson, students will gain the tools to analyze social issues critically, understand the diverse nature of social experiences, and recognize how different perspectives can lead to different interpretations of the same social reality. LESSON LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this lesson, students should be able to: 1. Identify and explain the main features of society. 2. Explain the basic concepts of structural functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism, and how each perspective views society and social behavior. 3. Recognize the value of viewing social phenomena through different sociological lenses and appreciate how each perspective offers unique insights. 4. Use the sociological perspectives to analyze real-world social issues, demonstrating an ability to translate theoretical concepts into practical analysis.. LEARNING CONTENTS REFLECT: Think about a social issue that affects your community, such as education, crime, or inequality. How might different people in society view this issue differently, and why do you think these differences in perspective exist?? I. Characteristics of Society A society is a group of people who share a common culture, territory, and social structure. It is characterized by a system of relationships, norms, and values that shape social interactions and behavior. Any group of people who have lived and worked together long enough to get themselves organized and to think of themselves as a social unit with well-defined limits. Society GEE2 – GENDER AND SOCIETY PREPARED BY: LESSON 1: INTERPRETING SOCIETIES JOAN ELIZABETH G. IBAY-PILLORA  refers to people who interact in a defined territory and share a culture. Society is the web of social relationships which is ever changing. The key characteristics of society are as follow: a. Population. Population is one of the basic characteristics of society as society is considered to be the largest social group of people living together. The demographic properties of a population (size, composition (how it is divided), and density) have direct, demonstrable, and far-reaching consequences for human societies. These factors influence economic development, social structures, resource allocation, and even cultural dynamics. The size refers to the total number of individuals in a population. And it has different socio-economic impacts on society. For example, countries with large populations, such as China and India, have significant labor forces that can drive economic growth and industrial development. However, they also face challenges in providing adequate resources, such as food, water, and healthcare, to their vast populations. China's former "one-child policy" was implemented to control population growth and reduce strain on resources. Although it slowed population growth, it led to an aging population and a shrinking workforce, creating economic and social challenges. Another example, Japan is experiencing population decline due to low birth rates and high life expectancy. This has led to a shrinking workforce, increasing the burden on the younger generation to support a growing elderly population. As a result, the country faces economic challenges, such as labor shortages and increased healthcare costs. The composition of a population refers to how it is divided according to certain groups or standards. An imbalance composition can make or break a society’s growth and development. For example, many European countries, like Italy and Germany, have aging populations, with a higher proportion of elderly people compared to younger age groups. This affects social services and pension systems, requiring more funds to support retirees while potentially slowing economic growth due to a smaller workforce. To address these issues, some countries are encouraging policies to increase birth rates or integrate immigrants to maintain a stable working-age population. Moreover, in regards to gender, in some parts of India, China, and South Korea, cultural preferences for male children have led to gender imbalances. This demographic composition affects marriage patterns, leading to a surplus of single men and social issues such as trafficking and exploitation of women. Governments in these countries are promoting gender equality and discouraging practices like sex-selective abortions to address these imbalances. The last demographic property of population, density, refers to the number of individuals living per unit of area, often expressed as people per square kilometer or mile. High population density typically leads to urbanization, where more people live in cities. While this can drive economic growth and innovation (as seen in cities like San Francisco and London), it can also result in challenges like traffic congestion, pollution, and inadequate infrastructure. Densely populated areas may have greater access to services like healthcare, education, and public transportation due to economies of scale. However, they may also experience strain on these services. For instance, New York City provides extensive public transport, but its high density leads to overcrowding and service delays. High population density can lead to environmental degradation. Urban areas often face challenges related to waste management, air and water pollution, and loss GEE2 – GENDER AND SOCIETY PREPARED BY: LESSON 1: INTERPRETING SOCIETIES JOAN ELIZABETH G. IBAY-PILLORA  of green spaces. Cities like Beijing struggle with severe air pollution partly due to high population density and industrial activities. Previous research suggests that gender equality in education, labor market participation, and a more balanced sharing of unpaid work between women and men is linked to higher fertility rates, which would lead to a larger population and an increase in long-term labor supply. All the women are the main key of population management because if women are educated then the population can be managed as they are well known about the demerits of rapid population growth. If a woman is educated then she may have knowledge about methods of family planning which will help in population management. However, there's a bigger issue when it comes to family planning and gender equality. b. Culture. Culture is a very broad term that includes in itself all walks of life, modes of behavior, philosophies, ethics, morals, manners, religion, political, economic, and other types of activities. Culture is fundamental for the survival of societies. Culture can be said to include all the human phenomena in society and all learned behavior. Culture and gender equality have a very complicated relationship. The success, delay, and/or failure of gender equality heavily depends on the culture of the society. Cultural norms dictate what is considered acceptable behavior for different genders in a society. These norms can promote traditional gender roles, which may hinder gender equality. In many traditional societies, women are expected to fulfill domestic roles, prioritizing family care over education or professional pursuits. In countries like Afghanistan, cultural norms have historically restricted women's access to education and employment, leading to significant gender disparities. In contrast, societies that value gender equality, such as those in Scandinavia, have policies that promote women's participation in the workforce and leadership roles. Religion often plays a crucial role in shaping cultural attitudes toward gender. Interpretations of religious texts can either promote gender equality or reinforce patriarchal structures. In some interpretations of Islam, cultural practices may limit women's rights, such as restrictions on driving or traveling without a male guardian in certain countries. However, there are also movements within Muslim communities advocating for gender equality, emphasizing interpretations of religious texts that support women's rights. In contrast, some Christian denominations have more progressive views on gender roles, allowing women to serve as clergy and leaders in their communities. The legal rights of women often reflect cultural attitudes toward gender. Societies that prioritize gender equality typically have legal frameworks that support women's rights. In many Western countries, laws promoting gender equality (such as anti- discrimination laws, equal pay acts, and family leave policies) have been established to support women's participation in all aspects of society. Conversely, in some cultures, legal frameworks may lag behind cultural attitudes. For instance, in certain regions of sub-Saharan Africa, customary laws may contradict national laws promoting gender equality, leading to challenges in enforcing women's rights regarding inheritance or land ownership. In the Philippines, policies such as same sex marriage and divorce are extremely opposed by people who hold traditional beliefs and values. Cultural inertia can lead to resistance against gender equality initiatives, particularly if they are perceived as threatening traditional values. In some societies, efforts to promote gender equality, such as campaigns against gender-based violence, may face pushback from those who view them as Western impositions. In countries like Saudi GEE2 – GENDER AND SOCIETY PREPARED BY: LESSON 1: INTERPRETING SOCIETIES JOAN ELIZABETH G. IBAY-PILLORA  Arabia, while recent reforms have allowed women to drive and participate in public life, there remains a cultural resistance rooted in long-standing traditions that emphasize male authority. The relationship between culture and gender equality is complex and multifaceted. Cultural norms, religious beliefs, legal frameworks, and resistance to change all play critical roles in shaping the success or failure of gender equality initiatives. Addressing gender inequality requires a nuanced understanding of the cultural context and a commitment to promoting changes that respect and uplift women's rights within their cultural frameworks. Ultimately, fostering dialogue and education can help shift cultural attitudes toward greater gender equality, paving the way for more inclusive societies. c. Interdependence. The survival and well-being of each member are very much dependent on this interdependence. No individual is self-sufficient. He has to depend on others for food, shelter, and security and for the fulfillment of many of his needs and necessities. The issue of gender inequality has something to do with interdependence also. Genders do not have equal access to resources. The level of dependency varies for each gender. Some genders are expected to depend more than others, depending on the culture of the society. But, usually, it is the women who are expected and, sometimes, forced to depend on men. d. Institutions. A social institution is a complex, integrated set of social norms organized around the preservation of a basic societal value. Social institutions are the main organs of society. Family, church, school, market, and the government are the major social institutions of society. The interrelationship among institutions creates the structure for the society. Social institutions play a crucial role in shaping gender inequality, either enabling or disabling it through their structures, practices, and norms. Institutions like family, religion, and education can reinforce patriarchal values that prioritize male authority and decision-making. This can limit women's roles and opportunities. Workplace policies and practices, including hiring, promotion, and pay, can perpetuate gender disparities. For instance, industries that undervalue work typically done by women or have biased hiring practices can sustain inequality. Laws and legal frameworks can either protect or undermine gender equality. In some places, laws may not adequately address issues like domestic violence, sexual harassment, or workplace discrimination, leaving women vulnerable. Media, literature, and cultural representations can perpetuate stereotypes that define gender roles, often depicting women in subordinate positions, which reinforces societal norms. Curricula that emphasize traditional gender roles can limit aspirations and educational achievements, particularly for girls. Additionally, schools may have implicit biases that affect how students are treated based on their gender. However, social institutions can help promote and enforce equal rights as well to reduce gender inequality. Laws that promote equal pay, maternity leave, and anti- discrimination policies are critical. Access to education empowers individuals, especially women, to challenge societal norms and pursue careers that were traditionally male-dominated. Education can also promote gender equality through awareness and advocacy. Families that encourage egalitarian roles and shared responsibilities can model gender equality, fostering an environment where both genders are equally valued. NGOs and community groups can mobilize resources, provide education, and advocate for women's rights, helping to shift societal norms GEE2 – GENDER AND SOCIETY PREPARED BY: LESSON 1: INTERPRETING SOCIETIES JOAN ELIZABETH G. IBAY-PILLORA  and challenge discrimination. Positive portrayals of women and men in non-traditional roles can challenge stereotypes and inspire societal change. Media can also raise awareness of gender issues, encouraging public discourse. The impact of social institutions on gender inequality is complex and multifaceted. While they can perpetuate inequality through entrenched norms and practices, they can also serve as powerful agents of change, promoting equality and challenging discriminatory structures. Efforts to transform these institutions toward greater inclusivity and equality are essential for reducing gender disparities in society. e. Socialization. Socialization is a life-long process which enables the individual to learn the content of her/his culture and the many behavioral patterns of the group to which s/he belongs. The individual learns to become a functioning and participating member of the society or group through socialization. One's gender identity is developed mainly through socialization. Through socialization is which children learn about the social expectations, attitudes, and behaviors typically associated with boys and girls. f. Dynamism. No society is static. Old customs, traditions, folkways, mores, values, and institutions got changed and new customs and values takes place. Every society changes and changes continuously. In human societies, we find the evidence of both continuity and change. Human societies are essentially adaptive mechanisms. One change that we witness and continuously witness is how gender expectations develop through time. II. Auguste Comte’s Law of Three Stages Auguste Comte, a French philosopher, is known for his contributions to sociology and his formulation of the "Law of Three Stages," which outlines the progression of human thought and society. According to Comte, human societies moved historically from three different stages to which he explained the different sources of explanation that humans used to explain the things that are happening around them. a. Theological Stage. In this initial stage, human understanding is based on religious beliefs and supernatural explanations. The world and the place of humans within it were explained in terms of gods, spirits, and magic. It matters not whether the religion is polytheistic or monotheistic; in either case, miraculous powers or wills are believed to produce the observed events. In here, society is often organized around religious institutions. Knowledge is derived from religious texts and traditions. Events are explained through the intervention of gods or spirits. b. Metaphysical Stage. The second stage shifts from religious explanations to abstract principles. People begin to seek more rational and philosophical explanations for the world around them. Emphasis on abstract concepts and ideas, such as nature and essence. A focus on rational thought and philosophical reasoning rather than purely religious beliefs. This stage often involves questioning the validity of religious explanations, leading to debates about existence and nature. This second phase is in some cases merely a depersonalized theology: the observable processes of nature are assumed to arise from impersonal powers, occult qualities, vital forces, or entelechies (internal perfecting principles). The metaphysical quest can GEE2 – GENDER AND SOCIETY PREPARED BY: LESSON 1: INTERPRETING SOCIETIES JOAN ELIZABETH G. IBAY-PILLORA  lead only to the conclusion. However, Comte said that no genuine explanations result: questions concerning ultimate reality, first causes, or absolute beginnings are unanswerable. c. Positive Stage. Explanations are based on scientific knowledge. The sort of fruitfulness lacking in the second phase can be achieved only in the third phase, which is scientific, or “positive”. It is called positive because it claims to be concerned only with positive facts. The task of the sciences, and of knowledge in general, is to study the facts and regularities of nature and society and to formulate the regularities as (descriptive) laws; explanations of phenomena can consist in no more than the subsuming of special cases under general laws. Comte argued that there is a parallel or similarity between the evolution of thought patterns/society in the entire history of mankind and in the development of an individual from infancy to adulthood. Thus, our knowledge and thought processes change as we grow up. Along with these, is how we view certain things, including sex and gender identity. The Law of Three Stages illustrates Comte's belief in the progress of human thought and society. By emphasizing the transition from religious to scientific reasoning, Comte sought to establish sociology as a distinct and empirical field of study that could contribute to the betterment of society. III. Theoretical Approaches in Studying Society Theories in sociology provide us with different perspectives with which to view our social world. A perspective is simply a way of looking at the world. A theory is a set of interrelated propositions or principles designed to answer a question or explain a particular phenomenon; it provides us with a perspective. Sociological theories help us to explain and predict the social world in which we live. There are two levels of analysis in studying society: macrosociology and microsology. Macrosociology directs attention to large-scale phenomena. It deals with the analysis of social systems and populations on a large scale. For example, it can examine certain issues at an institutional level looking through the lens of the labor force, education, and/or political trends. Microsociology directs attention to small groups and the details of interactions that occur with a society. This perspective is mostly contextual. For example, it discusses issues based on the interaction of a few people or small groups such as couples, family, or peers. The study of society includes many theoretical perspectives that fall to either one of these two levels of analysis. And in this part of the lesson, the three major theoretical approaches will be discussed: a. Structural-functionalist Perspective. The functionalist perspective is based largely on the works of Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim, Talcott Parsons, and Robert Merton. Functionalism, also known as “structural functionalism,” is a macro-sociological perspective. Functionalists seek to identify the basic elements or parts of society and determine the functions these parts play in meeting basic social needs in predictable ways. Functionalists ask how any given element of social structure contributes to overall social stability, balance, and equilibrium. GEE2 – GENDER AND SOCIETY PREPARED BY: LESSON 1: INTERPRETING SOCIETIES JOAN ELIZABETH G. IBAY-PILLORA  The structural-functionalist theory states that a society is a system of interconnected parts that work together in harmony to maintain a state of balance (control and stability) for the whole society. Social control and stability are enhanced when people share beliefs and values in common. They assert that in the face of disruptive social change, society can be restored to equilibrium as long as built-in mechanisms of social control operate effectively and efficiently. Functionalist emphasis on this value agreement is a major ingredient or tool in virtually all of their interpretations related to social change. Values surrounding gender roles, marriage, and the family are central to functionalist assertions regarding social equilibrium. Among the important concepts in structural-functionalism are social institutions, social functions, social dysfunctions, manifest functions, and latent functions. i. Social Institutions. Social institutions create a set of social norms or social expectations organized around the preservation of a basic societal value. Social institutions are like the parts of the body. They function together with the larger system. With this explanation, we can conclude that any institution is considered as having a function in fitting together with some other institutions. Everything is therefore, functional. ii. Social Functions and Dysfunctions. These social institutions have social functions and dysfunctions. Both have manifest and latent functions or dysfunctions. Social functions are positive results or effects of operations and interactions of society in general. Social dysfunction, on the other hand, is expected disruption of social life. Manifest Functions/Dysfunctions are intended or obvious functions of social institutions and interactions. Latent functions/ dysfunctions, on the other hand, are unintended or not obvious functions of social institutions and interactions. For example, the manifest function of pre-schools is to provide education and socialization to children. Its latent function, on the other hand, is that it serves as baby-sitters for working parents. For college students, the manifest function of universities is to prepare them for career prospects. The latent function is that it serve as a place where someone can find a potential partner in life. We can call it manifest/latent function because it contributes to order and stability. However, we also have what we call manifest dysfunction and latent dysfunction. For example, migration. The manifest dysfunction of migration includes overpopulation and increase of unemployment rates. That is obvious, right? The latent dysfunction include rise in crime rate due to massive unemployment generated by said migration. iii. Social Equilibrium. In the middle of these social functions and dysfunctions is what we call social equilibrium. According to Herbert Spencer, there is an inclination in society towards equilibrium. This social equilibrium is achieved when conditions of society are modified. These consequential changes to social structures will maintain the balance and return society to stability. For example, after the robbery of a jewelry shop inside a big shopping mall by a group called "martilyo gang," the government was quick to implement a policy banning people from bringing hammers upon entering the mall to avoid such GEE2 – GENDER AND SOCIETY PREPARED BY: LESSON 1: INTERPRETING SOCIETIES JOAN ELIZABETH G. IBAY-PILLORA  incidents. This kind of reaction by the government somehow gives the people a sense of protection from bad elements of society, restoring equilibrium or balance after an unfortunate event. In conclusion, the structural-functionalist perspective offers a valuable framework for understanding society as a complex system composed of interrelated parts, each with its own function that contributes to the stability and continuity of the whole. By focusing on the roles that institutions, norms, and social structures play in maintaining social order, this perspective highlights the importance of cohesion and collective behavior in promoting societal harmony. While it has faced criticism for its tendency to overlook issues of power, inequality, and social change, the structural-functionalist approach remains essential for analyzing how various elements of society interact to support the overall functioning of the social system. By appreciating the interconnectedness of social structures, we can better understand the dynamics of societal stability and the mechanisms that facilitate social integration. b. Conflict Perspective. The main proponents of this perspective were Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Conflict theory, as a macro-sociological perspective, is based on the assumption that society is divided into social classes which are always in conflict with one another. With its assumptions about social order and social change is in many ways a mirror image of functionalism. However, unlike functionalists, conflict theorists assert that social order is preserved involuntarily through the exercise of power that one social class holds over another. It analyzes how society functions to serve the powerful class and disadvantage the others, thereby causing conflict. The interest of the powerful or dominant class is to maintain its position of power over the subordinate class by extracting as much profit as possible from their work. For the conflict perspective, the key concepts are centered on the issues that surround the dominant group and subordinate group. i. Class Struggles. For conflict perspective, society is a stage on which struggles for power and dominance are acted out. The struggles are largely between social classes (bourgeoisie and proletariat) competing for scarce and valued resources, such as control over the means of production (land, factories, natural resources) and for a better distribution of all resources (money, food, material goods). The interest of the dominant class is to maintain its position of power over the subordinate class by extracting as much profit as possible from their work. Only when the workers recognize their common oppression and form a class consciousness can they unite and amass the resources necessary to seriously challenge the inequitable system in which they find themselves. For example, Capitalism thrives on a class-based system that consolidates power in the hands of a few men of the ruling class (bourgeoisie) who own the farms and factories that workers (proletariat) depend on for their survival. ii. Historical Materialism. This states that all objects, whether living or inanimate are subject to continuous change. According to Karl Marx, there are four stages of society:  Primitive Communism. Primitive communism refers to the early hunter-gatherer societies, where there was no concept of ownership and everything was communal. The conflict here was determined by survival or material scarcity. GEE2 – GENDER AND SOCIETY PREPARED BY: LESSON 1: INTERPRETING SOCIETIES JOAN ELIZABETH G. IBAY-PILLORA   Slavery. The main source of conflict was between the master and slaves.  Feudalism. The source of conflict was between landowners and serfs.  Capitalism. The main source of conflict is between the bourgeoisie (capitalist) and the proletariat (laborer). In these societies, you can see that struggles or conflicts come along with materialism, ownership, or possession of something. If you also notice, in every era or system, the dominant groups just always create a new way of exploiting the subordinate groups. iii. Classless Society and Communism. For Marx, the emergence of a classless society would signal the eventual end of history because it is the ideal state where wealth would be owned collectively by the people. This collective ownership in a classless society is what we call communism. However, according to Karl Marx, the only way to achieve communism, social revolution shall take place. In this social revolution, a drastic change in the mode of production and the system of ownership must happen. And this change must be governed by a proletariat dictatorship. That is why in communist countries, they are headed by communist dictators. This is also one reason why communism is considered a radical ideology. In fact, to many highly democratic countries such as the Philippines, communists are seen as enemies of the government. Only through these ways that, according to Karl Marx, a complete transition from capitalism to communism will be achieved. iv. False Consciousness. According to Conflict Perspective, it is undeniable that it is a challenge to create a classless society. Through capitalism, the bourgeoisie or the capitalists was able to exploit the proletariat by paying them less than the value of their labor in order to amass a huge amount of profit. Now, in order to hide the true nature of the worker's oppression, the capitalist propagates false consciousness. This false consciousness is said to cause workers to disregard the true nature of their oppression. For example, many people believe that rich people especially the extremely rich people (billionaires for example) deserve their money because they, for sure, worked hard for it. What these people failed to realize, according to Karl Marx, is that no single person can amass or produce that kind of wealth alone. These extremely rich people exploited many laborers for profit. For example, did you know that Microsoft was fined $1billion for illegal practices? But for other people, that is fine because the owner of the company does a lot of charities. Also, false consciousness happens because of the belief in the possibility of upward mobility. In which people put in their minds that "If I work hard enough, I will be just like them." Those people who think like this tend to forget that they have an extremely low chance to be that rich, that extremely rich, only through hard work. Many of these rich people were given opportunities and privileges at a very young age to get wherever they are now. It is only seen that remarks such as "Magsipag kasi kayo para umasenso kayo" are extremely privileged and insensitive. Most of the time, it is not only through hard work. In conclusion, the conflict perspective provides a critical lens through which to examine the underlying power dynamics and inequalities present in society. By emphasizing the GEE2 – GENDER AND SOCIETY PREPARED BY: LESSON 1: INTERPRETING SOCIETIES JOAN ELIZABETH G. IBAY-PILLORA  struggle between different social groups for resources, power, and status, this perspective highlights how conflict and competition shape social relationships and institutions. Rather than viewing social structures as inherently stabilizing, the conflict perspective challenges us to recognize the ways in which they can perpetuate inequality and oppression. It encourages a deeper understanding of social change as a product of these conflicts, ultimately revealing the potential for transformation and empowerment among marginalized groups. While it may not account for social cohesion and consensus, the conflict perspective remains vital for uncovering the complexities of societal interactions and advocating for a more equitable social order. c. Symbolic-interactionism. Symbolic interaction, also called “the interactionist perspective,” is at the heart of the sociological view of social interaction at the micro level. It espouses a micro-level type of analysis because it focuses on individuals and their interactions. This perspective depends on the symbolic or shared meaning developed by people in the process of interaction. Through the lens of symbolic interactions, society is examined by focusing on the subjective meanings that people impose on things, incidents, and actions. This perspective believes that people behave based on what they perceived to be true and not on what is objectively true. Hence, society is seen as socially constructed based on human interpretations. For example, in the Philippines, there is a high incidence of marijuana use among the youth. Now, the question is why would young people engage in marijuana smoking when it is common knowledge that it is illegal in the Philippines? Plus, there is also medical evidence points that there is danger in smoking marijuana, as well as the fact that it contributes to the increase of crime rate. In symbolic-interactionism, the answer why people still use dangerous substances such as the marijuana lies in the "shared meaning of the interaction." Studies would show that even though the youth are aware that marijuana is illegal in the country and that its use may lead to negative effects not only to the user but to society in general, they still use it because of peer pressure. They believe that smoking marijuana is cool. Hence, marijuana smoking becomes a symbol of acceptance among groups. Many young people also believe that it is safe and it casts a positive impression on their friends. Therefore, the subjective symbolic meaning of marijuana use overrules the objective and tangible facts and threats that come along with it. Symbolic-interactionism emphasizes these three concepts in studying social phenomena: i. Symbols. Symbols refer to the means by which people extensively and creatively communicate and interact. Symbols are culturally derived social objects having shared meanings that are created and maintained in social interaction. It is through symbols that the history, culture, and forms of communications of people are expressed and it is also the means by which people associate meaning with interpretation, action, and interaction. ii. Social Interaction (shared meanings). Symbolic interactions are not only concerned with the individual or with society, but with interaction, or the cooperative acts through which lives are systematized and societies are brought together. iii. Self. Through these interactions that the self is made. The self refers to the conscious, contemplative personality of the individual. The self is the being or GEE2 – GENDER AND SOCIETY PREPARED BY: LESSON 1: INTERPRETING SOCIETIES JOAN ELIZABETH G. IBAY-PILLORA  nature of a person one imagines when he or she thinks about who he or she is. In summary, symbolic interactionism provides a nuanced understanding of how symbols, social interaction, and the self-interconnect to shape human behavior and social reality. By focusing on the micro-level of social life, this perspective illuminates the dynamic processes through which individuals construct meaning, develop identities, and engage with their social worlds. It underscores the importance of everyday interactions and the shared meanings that influence how we perceive ourselves and others, ultimately revealing the complex tapestry of human social life. The three major sociological perspectives—structural functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism—offer distinct yet complementary frameworks for understanding the complexities of social life. Structural functionalism highlights the interdependence of societal components and their roles in maintaining social order, while conflict theory emphasizes the struggles for power and resources that shape inequalities and drive social change. Meanwhile, symbolic interactionism focuses on the intricate processes of meaning-making and identity formation through social interactions and symbols. Together, these perspectives enrich our comprehension of society, providing insights into the mechanisms that sustain social structures, the dynamics of power relations, and the everyday experiences that shape individual lives. By integrating these viewpoints, we can develop a more holistic understanding of social phenomena, acknowledging the multifaceted nature of human behavior and the diverse factors that influence our social realities. REFERENCES  Macionis, J.J. (2012). Sociology, 14th ed. Upper Saddle River: Pearson Education, Inc.  Lindsey, L.L. (2015). Gender roles: a sociological perspective. New York: Taylor & Francis Group.  Society. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.uop.edu.pk/ocontents/SOCIETY.pdf  The Law of Three Stages. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/topic/law-of- three-stages GEE2 – GENDER AND SOCIETY PREPARED BY: LESSON 1: INTERPRETING SOCIETIES JOAN ELIZABETH G. IBAY-PILLORA  PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY Urdaneta City, Pangasinan GEE 2 – GENDER AND SOCIETY STUDY GUIDE FOR LESSON NO. 2 (PART 1) LESSON OVERVIEW Throughout history, societies have evolved in various ways, including cultural, economic, political, and social transformations. These changes have significantly impacted gender roles and relationships between men and women. However, despite progress in many areas, gender inequality remains a persistent issue worldwide. Today, gender inequality is still evident in many forms, such as wage gaps, underrepresentation in leadership roles, and unequal access to education and healthcare. The ongoing struggle for gender equality seeks to dismantle the deep-rooted cultural and institutional barriers that have evolved over centuries. Understanding the historical evolution of society and gender roles helps us recognize the forces that shape current inequalities and highlights the need for continued efforts toward a more just and equitable world. In this lesson, students will explore the historical development of society and how it has influenced gender roles and inequalities. By examining the evolution of social structures, students will gain insights into the origins and persistence of gender disparities. LESSON LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this lesson, students should be able to: 1. Describe key historical periods that influenced the development of gender roles and inequalities. 2. Articulate the value of gender inclusivity and equal opportunities, and discuss why addressing gender inequality is crucial for social progress. 3. Create arguments or presentations that critically analyze a specific issue related to gender inequality, using historical evidence to support their viewpoints.. LEARNING CONTENTS REFLECT: How have the historical roles and expectations placed on different genders shaped the way you perceive your own opportunities and challenges in society today? I. Evolution of Society by Gerhard Lenski Gerhard Lenski, a sociologist known for his work on social evolution, presented a theory that explains the development of human societies through changes in technology, which he considered the driving force behind societal evolution. Lenski's theory focuses on how technological advancements influence social structures, cultural beliefs, and inequality. Lenski argued that technology is the primary factor influencing social evolution. As technology advances, societies can produce more resources, which leads to changes in social organization and cultural practices. The level of technological development determines a society's subsistence strategy, which in turn influences social complexity and cultural diversity. GEE2 – GENDER AND SOCIETY PREPARED BY: LESSON 2 (PART 1): THE BIRTH OF GENDER-RELATED ISSUES JOAN ELIZABETH G. IBAY-PILLORA LESSON  According to Lenski, there are different types of societies according to technological advancement namely: a. Hunting and Gathering Societies. These societies have been here since the beginning of human life. Primarily, this society depends on the hunting of animals and gathering wild plants. The earliest known division of labor between women and men is in hunting and gathering societies. Hunting was conducted by men and gathering by women. They are nomadic and rely on readily available food and fiber from nature. Population size is limited by the availability of food. These are groups of about 25 to 50 women, men, and children who cooperate with each other in the quest for sources. Hunters and gatherers do not appear to work hard or long. They generally work less than the members of more technologically advanced societies. This society is relatively egalitarian. This means equal access to resources. No social stratification. No individual ownership of resources. If you remember, I told earlier that gender roles exist already, however, gender expectations are more fluid or more flexible than what the other types of societies have. b. Pastoral Societies. In here, people rely on the domestication and breeding of animals for food. These societies have hundreds or even thousands of people. They are also nomadic. People live in portable tents or temporary structures and move only when the grazing land ceases to be usable. Warfare is more frequent than in Hunting and Gathering societies. Most fights are over grazing areas. Some individuals can become more powerful than others on the basis of their wealth. Besides family, religious, economic, and political institutions began to develop. And since other institutions and wealth started to develop, so are gender roles. Stratification and social status are based on the size of one's herd. In pastoral societies, herding primarily is done by men; women contribute relatively little to subsistence production and thus have relatively low status. Women’s value is to produce male offspring so that family lineage can be preserved and enough males will exist to protect the group against attack. Also, polygyny was widely practiced. The marriage of one man to multiple wives. The reason behind this is to produce more offspring. More offspring, more power. Men with many wives can produce many children who will enhance his resources, take care of him in his old age, and become heirs to his property. This practice contributes to power differences between women and men. c. Horticultural Societies. People rely on the cultivation of domesticated plants. They used hand tools to raise crops. They also used slash & burn technology. Slash and burn agriculture is a widely used method of growing food in which wild or forested land is clear cut and any remaining vegetation burned. The resulting layer of ash provides the newly-cleared land with a nutrient-rich layer to help fertilize crops. The population usually consists of thousands of people. Settlements became longer or more permanent. They raise crops for two to three years and then prefer to move when the soil is exhausted. Specialized new roles and statuses appear. However, still in these societies, gender inequality is still not that evident. There are in some cases but not widespread. Women make an important contribution to food production because hoe cultivation is compatible with child care; a fairly high degree of gender equality exists because neither sex controls the food supply. GEE2 – GENDER AND SOCIETY PREPARED BY: LESSON 2 (PART 1): THE BIRTH OF GENDER-RELATED ISSUES JOAN ELIZABETH G. IBAY-PILLORA LESSON  In horticultural societies, women make an important contribution to food production because hoe cultivation is compatible with child care; a fairly high degree of gender equality exists because neither sex controls the food supply. d. Agricultural Societies. This society first developed about eight to ten thousand years ago. In agricultural societies, gender inequality and male dominance become institutionalized. The most extreme form of gender inequality developed about five thousand years ago in societies in the Fertile Crescent around the Mediterranean Sea. People rely on agriculture—farming done by animal-drawn or mechanically powered plows and equipment. This requires more labor and greater physical strength than horticultural ones, men become more involved in food production. Women are excluded from these tasks because they are viewed as too weak for the work and because child-care responsibilities are considered incompatible with the full-time labor that the tasks require. Men gain control over the disposition of the surplus and the kinship system, and this control serves men's interests. The importance of producing "legitimate" heirs to inherit the surplus increases significantly, and women's lives become more secluded and restricted as men attempt to ensure the legitimacy of their children. Premarital virginity and marital fidelity are required; indiscretions are punished. e. Industrial Societies. In industrial societies, people and goods pass through much longer distances because of innovations in transportation, such as the train and the steamship. Fewer people were needed in agriculture and societies became urbanized. Rural areas lost population because more and more people were engaged in factory work and had to move to the cities. In industrial societies, the status of women and other genders declines further. The world became more patriarchal. Women were expected to stay at home and take care of the children while men work. Women, relatively, do not have access to education as men, same as with the positions in politics. The LGBTQIA+ is highly condemned. Hitler even killed many of them because he sees them as cursed. f. Post-industrial Societies. Post-industrialism refers to the production of information using computer technology. Production in industrial societies centers on factories and machinery generating material goods; postindustrial production relies on computers and other electronic devices that create, process, store, and apply information. Tangible goods no longer drive the economy. Because ideas are now the focus. Formal education is crucial for economic and social success. Education became more accessible to women and other genders. Thus, vocalization of their rights became widespread. They started to fight for their rights. Many men even fight beside them. There is a shift in the workplace from cities to homes. New communications technology allows work to be performed from a variety of locations. Thus, women can work and men became more involved in family affairs. However, the disparity between genders is still evident. Glass ceiling is an example. According to Lenski, technological progress can both alleviate and exacerbate social inequality. In early societies with little surplus, resources were shared more equally. As societies advanced, wealth accumulation became possible, leading to greater social stratification. In modern societies, technological advancements continue to influence the distribution of resources, with those who control technology or possess advanced skills often gaining a disproportionate share of wealth and power. GEE2 – GENDER AND SOCIETY PREPARED BY: LESSON 2 (PART 1): THE BIRTH OF GENDER-RELATED ISSUES JOAN ELIZABETH G. IBAY-PILLORA LESSON  REFERENCES  Macionis, J.J. (2012). Sociology, 14th ed. Upper Saddle River: Pearson Education, Inc.  Lindsey, L.L. (2015). Gender roles: a sociological perspective. New York: Taylor & Francis Group.  Society. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.uop.edu.pk/ocontents/SOCIETY.pdf GEE2 – GENDER AND SOCIETY PREPARED BY: LESSON 2 (PART 1): THE BIRTH OF GENDER-RELATED ISSUES JOAN ELIZABETH G. IBAY-PILLORA LESSON  PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY Urdaneta City, Pangasinan GEE 2 – GENDER AND SOCIETY STUDY GUIDE FOR LESSON NO. 2 (PART 2) LESSON OVERVIEW Gender shapes not only individual identity but also societal roles, expectations, and opportunities. It affects how people interact, the power they hold, and the challenges they face. Understanding why gender matters is key to addressing inequalities that persist in areas like work, education, and politics. By recognizing how gender impacts our lives, we can work towards creating a more inclusive and fair society. Gender inequalities are embedded in society through institutions like laws, workplaces, and schools. These inequalities are often seen as "natural" due to cultural beliefs that legitimize them. Institutionalized practices—like unequal pay or legal bias—reinforce gender-based disparities, making them harder to challenge. Understanding this process helps in recognizing and addressing the root causes of inequality. In this lesson, students will explore why gender plays a critical role in shaping society. They will examine how gender influences individual identity, social roles, and power dynamics. Understanding these concepts will serve as a foundation for analyzing the ongoing inequalities in areas like employment, education, and leadership. LESSON LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this lesson, students should be able to: 1. Explain how gender influences identity, roles, and power structures in society, and critically assess how institutions contribute to gender inequalities. 2. Reflect on their own attitudes and beliefs regarding gender, demonstrating a deeper empathy and understanding of the experiences of marginalized genders, and commit to challenging harmful gender norms. 3. Identify examples of institutionalized and legitimized gender inequalities in real-world settings.. LEARNING CONTENTS REFLECT: How have societal expectations about gender influenced your own experiences, opportunities, or challenges? I. Why Study Gender Gender matters in social life. It organizes our identities and self-concepts, structures our interactions, and is one basis upon which power and resources are allocated. Moreover, gender is a tenacious and pervasive force, its existence extends across space and time. Understanding how and, to some extent, why gender matters are issues to be taken up in the following discussions. a. Gender matters because it shapes the identities and behavioral dispositions of individuals. Researchers disagree over the means by which these gendered GEE3 – READING VISUAL ARTS PREPARED BY: LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO VISUAL ARTS JOAN ELIZABETH G. IBAY-PILLORA  characteristics are acquired and precisely how they become a part of the person, but they agree that gender enters into how people see themselves, the ways they behave, and how they view others. While modern life enables people to have many identities, gender identity may be among the most influential in shaping the standards people hold for themselves. For example, from an early age, individuals are often socialized into specific gender roles that influence their identities and behaviors. For example, boys are typically encouraged to be assertive, independent, and strong, which can lead them to adopt behaviors that align with traditional masculinity, such as taking leadership roles or avoiding vulnerability. On the other hand, girls may be socialized to be nurturing, cooperative, and empathetic, which often shapes their identity toward being caregivers or supporters, sometimes leading them to be more passive or accommodating in social situations. These gendered expectations can affect career choices, emotional expression, and interpersonal relationships. A boy who grows up with these expectations might pursue competitive fields or suppress emotional vulnerability, while a girl might gravitate toward caretaking roles or prioritize relationships over personal ambition. b. Gender matters in the ways that it shapes social interaction. Identities, of course, are products of and sustained through interactions with others. Social interaction is an important setting in which gender emerges and is enacted. Social interaction also seems to require sex categorization. “It is striking that people are nearly incapable of interacting with one another when they cannot guess the other’s sex.” That the identification of someone as female or male facilitates social interaction testifies to this category’s power in social life. For example, in many cultures, gender norms influence how individuals communicate and interact with one another. For instance, in a professional setting, men might be encouraged to assert themselves more during meetings, often dominating discussions and expressing their opinions confidently. This behavior can lead to a perception of authority and expertise, reinforcing traditional power dynamics. Conversely, women in the same setting might be socialized to adopt a more collaborative communication style, often seeking consensus and building relationships. This can result in women being perceived as less authoritative or decisive, even if their contributions are valuable. Additionally, in social gatherings, gender can dictate the nature of interactions. For example, men may engage in banter or competitive conversation, while women might focus on nurturing relationships through sharing personal stories. These dynamics can create barriers to open communication and understanding, as individuals may feel pressured to conform to these gendered expectations rather than expressing their authentic selves. c. Gender also organizes social institutions. By “social institution,” I mean the “rules” that constitute some area of social life. Social institutions thus include large, formally organized, public sectors of society, such as education, religion, sports, the legal system, and work, and they include the more personal, less formally organized areas of life such as marriage, parenthood, and family. While social institutions may vary in the degree to which they are “gendered,” many institutions cannot be understood without attention to the ways they embody and hence reinforce gender meanings. GEE3 – READING VISUAL ARTS PREPARED BY: LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO VISUAL ARTS JOAN ELIZABETH G. IBAY-PILLORA  For example, gender significantly influences the structure and functioning of various social institutions, such as the family, education, and the workplace. For instance, in many societies, the family is often organized around traditional gender roles, where women are primarily responsible for caregiving and household duties, while men are seen as the breadwinners. This division of labor shapes expectations about parenting, domestic responsibilities, and economic contributions. In education, gender can affect both curriculum and student interactions. Subjects like math and science may be perceived as more suitable for boys, while girls might be steered toward humanities or arts. This can lead to disparities in confidence, interest, and performance in different academic fields, perpetuating stereotypes and influencing career paths later in life. In the workplace, gender can manifest in hiring practices, promotion opportunities, and workplace culture. For example, women might face barriers to advancement due to unconscious biases that favor male leadership styles, leading to fewer women in executive positions. Additionally, workplace policies around parental leave and flexibility often reflect traditional gender norms, disadvantaging those who take on caregiving roles, which disproportionately affects women. II. Who’s to Blame One common misconception about gender is that women and men are often portrayed as either villains or victims – oppressing, exploiting, or defending against each other. While inequality does not just happen, how it happens is more complex than this. Gender inequality must be understood as the product of a more complex set of social forces. These include: a. Actions of individuals Individuals contribute to gender inequality through their actions, often without being fully aware of it. Individuals may unconsciously reinforce gender stereotypes in their everyday interactions. For example, a teacher might call on boys more frequently in math and science classes, reinforcing the idea that these subjects are more suited for males. This can discourage girls from pursuing interests or careers in these fields. The way individuals communicate can also contribute to gender inequality. For instance, interrupting or dismissing women in conversations can undermine their contributions and assertiveness. When such behaviors go unchallenged, they perpetuate a culture that values male voices over female ones. Individuals may also passively accept or overlook gender inequalities in their environments, such as unequal pay or harassment, believing that these issues are too complex to change or not directly related to them. This passive acceptance allows systemic inequalities to persist. Another example is victim blaming. Victim blaming contributes to gender inequality by perpetuating harmful stereotypes, discouraging victims from seeking help, and maintaining societal norms that excuse or minimize violence and discrimination. It shifts the responsibility for violence or discrimination away from the perpetrator and onto the victim. For instance, when individuals suggest that a woman was assaulted because of her clothing or behavior, it implies that her actions were at fault, rather than holding the perpetrator accountable. This diminishes the responsibility of those who commit acts of violence or discrimination. GEE3 – READING VISUAL ARTS PREPARED BY: LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO VISUAL ARTS JOAN ELIZABETH G. IBAY-PILLORA  In summary, individual actions, whether intentional or unintentional, contribute to the reinforcement and perpetuation of gender inequality. By recognizing and addressing these behaviors, individuals can play a crucial role in challenging and changing the systems that sustain gender inequities. b. Expectations that Guide our Interactions Gender expectations play a crucial role in guiding our interactions in various contexts. Social norms often influence how individuals express themselves nonverbally. Men might be expected to maintain strong eye contact and take up more physical space to convey authority, while women may be encouraged to adopt more submissive body language, such as crossing their arms or smiling more. These behaviors can affect perceptions of confidence, competence, and approachability. In group settings, gender expectations can dictate who takes on leadership roles and how responsibilities are distributed. For instance, men may be assumed to lead discussions or make decisions, while women might be expected to support or facilitate. This can limit opportunities for women to assert themselves and contribute equally. However, there are also instances, especially in social settings where men may feel pressure to initiate conversations or assert dominance, while women may be socialized to be more accommodating and nurturing. This dynamic can affect the balance of power in relationships and contribute to unequal treatment. Different cultures may have varying gender expectations that influence interactions. For instance, in some cultures, traditional gender roles are more rigid, leading to limited opportunities for women in public life, while others may promote more egalitarian interactions. Understanding these cultural nuances is essential for fostering respectful and inclusive interactions. In summary, gender expectations significantly shape our interactions by influencing communication styles, nonverbal cues, roles in group dynamics, and perceptions in professional settings. By recognizing and challenging these expectations, individuals can work towards more equitable and respectful interactions across genders. c. Composition of our Social Groups The composition of our social groups can perpetuate gender inequality in several ways. Homogeneity in group membership is widely accepted. When social groups are predominantly composed of one gender, it can reinforce existing norms and expectations that favor that gender. For example, male-dominated groups in professional settings may prioritize traditional masculine behaviors, such as assertiveness or competitiveness, while undervaluing the contributions of women or gender minorities. This can lead to a culture where certain voices are amplified while others are marginalized. A lack of gender diversity within social groups can result in a narrow range of perspectives and experiences. This homogeneity can perpetuate stereotypes and biases, as group members may not challenge each other’s assumptions or consider alternative viewpoints. For instance, if a group discussing workplace policies consists mainly of men, policies may inadvertently overlook the needs and experiences of women and the LGBTQ+, perpetuating inequities. GEE3 – READING VISUAL ARTS PREPARED BY: LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO VISUAL ARTS JOAN ELIZABETH G. IBAY-PILLORA  The composition of groups can reinforce traditional gender roles. For instance, if women are predominantly grouped in caregiving roles (like in family or community organizations), it can perpetuate the expectation that women should take on these responsibilities, while men are expected to focus on leadership or economic contributions. This can limit opportunities for both genders to explore diverse roles. In summary, the composition of social groups can perpetuate gender inequality by reinforcing traditional roles, limiting diverse perspectives, and creating power dynamics that favor one gender over others. Recognizing and addressing these dynamics is essential for fostering more inclusive and equitable social environments. d. Structures and Practices of the Institutions Gender inequality is not just a matter of individual attitudes; it is deeply embedded in the structures and practices of various institutions. From education to healthcare, and from legal systems to media representation, these institutions play a significant role in reinforcing traditional gender roles and perpetuating disparities. For example, schools often reinforce gender stereotypes through curricula and teacher expectations, leading to girls being steered away from STEM subjects and boys discouraged from pursuing the arts. This can limit career opportunities for both genders. Another, gender biases in medical research and treatment can lead to inadequate care for women, who may be underrepresented in clinical trials or have their symptoms dismissed as psychological rather than physical. This affects diagnosis and treatment. The legal system can also perpetuate gender inequality through laws and practices that fail to protect against gender-based violence or discrimination. For example, lenient sentencing for perpetrators of domestic violence reinforces the idea that such acts are less serious. Moreover, many religious organizations uphold traditional gender roles, limiting women's leadership and participation in spiritual matters. This can influence followers’ beliefs about gender equality in broader society. These forces are subject to human intervention and change, but are not always visible, known, or understood. Their invisibility is one source of their power over us. They are subtle, may be unconscious, and are reproduced often without conscious intent or design. REFLECT: In what ways have you observed or experienced gender inequality within different institutions, such as education, healthcare, or the workplace? III. Institutionalization and Legitimation Gender inequality is reproduced through two interrelated processes: institutionalization and legitimation. This is the reason why gender inequality has been so difficult to dislodge, and it reveals some of the unique features of gender relations relative to other forms of inequality. a. Institutionalization of Gender Inequality Recall that institutions are comprised of social structures and practices, and they include symbols and beliefs. They are features of social life that seem so regular, so ongoing, and so permanent that they are often accepted as “the way things are.” Now, GEE3 – READING VISUAL ARTS PREPARED BY: LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO VISUAL ARTS JOAN ELIZABETH G. IBAY-PILLORA  I want to extend this idea by thinking about institutionalization as a process that could affect virtually any social relationship or area of social life. Institutionalization refers to the processes through which social relationships take on the qualities of an institution. From this perspective, we can see that some social relationships are more institutionalized than others. Marriage is an example of a highly institutionalized social relationship (though some would argue that this is less true today than in the past). Though marriage is sometimes referred to as just “a piece of paper” or as a strictly private matter, it is much more powerful than that. Almost everyone expects to marry, and there are widely shared beliefs about the meaning and significance of this social arrangement. In addition, marriage is a legal contract that is recognized by many other important institutions, such as employers, religion, and the government. Relationships that are highly institutionalized seem to almost reproduce themselves. They persist without conscious intervention and effort. This means that it is much more difficult to alter something that is highly institutionalized than it is to perpetuate it. As a result, highly institutionalized arrangements do not require coercion to sustain them, making participation appear voluntary and easily justifiable. We can again use the example of marriage to illustrate these qualities: Most people get married and, if their marriage fails, they are likely to get married again. While people may have to justify their choice of a particular marriage partner, adults rarely find themselves having to explain why they are married. Never married adults, however, may face questions about their status and have to account for their circumstances. Social inequalities can also be institutionalized to a greater or lesser degree. Slavery, for example, was a highly institutionalized form of inequality in the United States, enshrined in law and enforced by the state. While slavery has disappeared, this has not meant the end of institutionalized inequalities. Though very different from slavery, gender inequality, along with inequalities based on social class and race, are also highly institutionalized. They are long-term, entrenched, and “durable” (Tilly 1998). Long-term, institutionalized inequalities – like those based on gender, race, and social class – are significantly different from other kinds of unequal social relations in the ways they are experienced and understood. These differences affect members of both the dominant and the subordinate groups. Most important, institutionalized inequalities are invisible and “depersonalized” to some extent. This may be true both for the subordinate group and for those who benefit from the inequality. Dominant group members not only may fail to acknowledge that inequality exists, but are also unlikely to feel personally responsible or guilty. Subordinate group members may also experience institutionalized inequalities as “just the way things are.” Institutionalized inequalities thus are much more likely to endure than those that are not so stable and routine. This long-term stability provides dominant groups with a strong vested interest in maintaining unequal arrangements. In addition, it has the effect of “stacking the deck” in such a way that subordinate groups feel relatively powerless to challenge their position. The dominant group’s vested interest in perpetuating inequality, together with the subordinate group’s lack of alternatives, shape the ways both groups make sense of their relationship. The institutionalization of gender inequality refers to how gender disparities become entrenched within the structures and practices of various institutions. This occurs through formal policies, such as unequal pay laws, and cultural norms that uphold traditional gender roles, influencing hiring and promotion practices. Institutions like GEE3 – READING VISUAL ARTS PREPARED BY: LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO VISUAL ARTS JOAN ELIZABETH G. IBAY-PILLORA  schools and families socialize individuals into specific gender expectations, limiting opportunities based on societal views. Unequal resource allocation, such as funding gaps between men’s and women’s programs, reinforces these disparities. Additionally, the lack of gender diversity in leadership means decisions often fail to address diverse perspectives, further entrenching inequality. Institutionalized gender inequality also intersects with other forms of discrimination, making it harder to address. Lastly, institutional resistance to change preserves these inequities, making reform essential for achieving gender equity. b. Legitimation of Gender Inequality Inequalities of all kinds persist in part because people view them (and the processes that generate unequal outcomes) as “legitimate.” Legitimation refers to the processes through which inequalities are justified – that is, they are understood in ways that make them fair and reasonable. Inequalities may be taken for granted, seen as acceptable, embraced as desirable, or perhaps merely tolerated. They may be invisible or unrecognized. For example, consider the unequal distribution of wealth in the Philippines. It is well documented that a small minority owns most of the wealth generated in the country and that this distribution has grown more unequal in recent years. Nevertheless, because most people in the Philippines believe that everyone – including themselves – has the opportunity to get ahead and achieve success, they do not view wealth inequality as unfair or unacceptable. Filipinos’ views about the availability of economic opportunity and the prospects for achieving success through hard work are part of a powerful ideology commonly understood as “rags to riches.” Although not every group in society equally embraces all tenets of this idea, studies show that all segments of society – including the most poor and vulnerable – believe in it to some degree. Belief in the "Rags to Riches" thus helps to legitimate social inequality; wealth disparities are seen as the outcome of a system that provides equal opportunities for all to succeed. This legitimation is seen in existing ideologies. Ideology refers to a dominant, widely shared worldview that reflects people’s understanding of the world around them. The belief in "rags to riches" is an example of an ideology. Ideologies may contain elements of truth or be entirely false. Their role in reproducing inequality depends less on whether they are true and more on how strongly they are embraced. Gender inequality is reproduced through the twin ideologies of paternalism and deference. i. Paternalism - Paternalism referred originally to a traditional father–child relationship, whereby the father cared for and exercised control over his children. In this view, fathers were assumed to love their children, understand their needs, and act in their best interests. Children were seen as less capable and competent than adults and thus were expected to defer to their father’s authority and guidance. As Jackman notes, “No arrangement could be more desirable for a group that dominates another”. Paternalism is a powerful ideology because it combines positive feelings for the subordinate group with the exercise of social control. When applied to gender relations, paternalism is an ideology that views women as needing the care, protection, and guidance of men. Deference implies women’s acceptance of this relationship. In so far as gender relations are interpreted through GEE3 – READING VISUAL ARTS PREPARED BY: LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO VISUAL ARTS JOAN ELIZABETH G. IBAY-PILLORA  the lenses of paternalism (on the part of men), and deference (on the part of women), inequalities will be obscured. Not all men or women embrace these ideologies. Nevertheless, researches on gender-related beliefs reveals that a majority of women and men adhere to at least some aspects of these belief systems. ii. Deference - Deference implies that these positive feelings are reciprocated by the subordinate group, who see no reason to challenge the dominant group’s control over them. Gender inequality is reproduced through the processes of institutionalization and legitimation. As gender inequality becomes institutionalized, it is built into social structures and the everyday routines that sustain them. One consequence of institutionalization is that gender inequality is depersonalized. This depersonalization extends to both women and men. Gender inequality is legitimated through ideological accounts that emphasize women’s and men’s differences, but downplay the ways in which those differences generate inequalities. Together, these processes make it difficult to reduce gender inequality. REFLECT: In what ways have you observed the processes of institutionalization and legitimation reinforcing gender inequality in your own experiences or in society at large? How can understanding these processes empower you to challenge and change these systemic inequities? REFERENCES  Holmes, M. (2007). What is gender? Sociological approaches. Singapore: SAGE Publications Asia-Pacific Pte Ltd.  Macionis, J.J. (2012). Sociology, 14th ed. Upper Saddle River: Pearson Education, Inc. GEE3 – READING VISUAL ARTS PREPARED BY: LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO VISUAL ARTS JOAN ELIZABETH G. IBAY-PILLORA  PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY Urdaneta City, Pangasinan GEE 2 – GENDER AND SOCIETY STUDY GUIDE FOR LESSON NO. 3 LESSON OVERVIEW In this lesson, students will explore the major theories of gender development, which help explain how individuals come to understand and express their gender identity. By examining various psychological, social, and biological perspectives, students will gain insights into how gender roles and behaviors are shaped by both internal and external factors. Understanding these theories is essential for analyzing how gender identity evolves across the lifespan and how societal norms influence the development of gendered behavior. These foundational concepts will guide students in critically engaging with broader discussions on gender in society. Gender development refers to the process through which individuals come to understand and express their gender identity, typically shaped by a combination of biological, psychological, and social influences. From early childhood, children begin to form a sense of their gender based on cues from their environment, including family, peers, media, and cultural norms. As they grow, their understanding of gender roles and behaviors becomes more complex, shaped by societal expectations and personal experiences. LESSON LEARNING OBJ