Sociology Study Guide PDF

Ch. 5 (Socialization) Characteristics of socialization ​ Learning: Socialization is a process of learning and internalizing cultural norms. ​ ​ Role identification: Socialization involves learning to identify and perform social roles. ​ Developing a conscience: Socializatio...

Ch. 5 (Socialization) Characteristics of socialization ​ Learning: Socialization is a process of learning and internalizing cultural norms. ​ ​ Role identification: Socialization involves learning to identify and perform social roles. ​ Developing a conscience: Socialization helps people develop a conscience and learn impulse control. ​ ​ Sharing values: Socialization helps people cultivate shared values and sources of meaning. ​ Context: Socialization is influenced by context, which includes culture, language, social structures, and one's rank within them. ​ Interpersonal relations: Socialization involves interpersonal relations and social structure Agents of socialization (most important?) The family is generally considered the primary agent of socialization The first socializing influence that young children encounter Families give children their geographical location, as easterners or westerners, urban or rural background, etc. The family also determines the child’s social class, race, religious background, and ethnic group Each of these factors can have a profound influence on children They may learn to speak a particular dialect, to prefer certain foods, and to pursue some types of leisure activities (e.g., sailing, hunting, etc Schools are also influential agents of socialization for young people In addition to teaching arithmetic, reading, history, etc., schools also teach students to develop themselves  Teach students to strive for achievements through competition, develop self-discipline, cooperate with others, and follow rules These traits are necessary if a young person is to achieve success in a society dominated by large organizations Schools help young people identify and hone certain unique skills and traits that may provide the foundation for later work or achievements Career paths and good citizenship Another important agent of socialization is the peer group (an informal primary group of people who share a similar status and who are usually of similar age) Peer-group socialization has been found to have an impact on many values, attitudes, and behaviors Ex: dating, LGBTQ+ views, ethnic or racial interactions, delinquency, risk taking, overall adjustment, and many other issues of central importance in the lives of young people Although some jobs are performed in solitude, most jobs take place amongst other people Occupational socialization refers to the socialization process that occurs in the workplace (or on the job) To excel in a given position, you need to learn certain skills, values, and/or norms; this will vary from position to position Ex: The occupational socialization for a soldier and a cashier are very different processes and will produce different outcomes Occupational socialization may have impacts that extend beyond the workplace For instance, research has shown that the values parents teach their children is often a result of the parents’ occupational socialization The mass media also teach values and needs  Ex: advertisement may teach you that thoughtful, sensitive children send their parents Hallmark cards on special occasions Ex: If you want to be cool like the celebrities on TV you need those new Nike shoes… you don’t want to be uncool, do you? Ex: Sitcoms & movies that emphasize the importance of saying “I love you” in a relationship Ex: Increased acceptance of homosexuality may be related to increased depictions of LGBTQ persons in popular media The mass media also teach viewers something about what life is like, although the view presented may be an idealized one Because of these depictions, viewers may develop unrealistic expectations about the quality of their own lives, becoming unnecessarily frustrated and discontent Presentation of self Erving Goffman The presentation of self is the way we present ourselves to others and how our presentation influences others Goffman believed that every interaction begins, and is shaped by, the presentation of self Goffman believed that all behavior, even the most routine, is neither instinctual nor habitual—it is a presentation Looking-glass self (1) how we think our behavior appears to others, (2) how we think others judge our behavior, and (3) how we feel about their judgments the idea of the looking-glass self suggests that the way we see ourselves is based on how we perceive others seeing us Charles Horton Cooley We usually refer to our opinions, desires, ideas, or feelings (I think, I feel, I want) or we associate the idea of the self with statuses and roles (I am a student, an athlete, a friend) Generalized other The generalized other is literally “other people in general,” and its attitude represents that of the whole community (norms, values, and attitudes of other people) George Herbert Mead Total institutions A total institution is a closed social system where the totality of daily life is organized by strict rules, expectations, and schedules and order is enforced by a single authority -jail/prison Ch. 6 (Groups & Organization) Peer groups and reference groups A peer group is an informal group of people who share a similar or equal status and who usually are of a similar age Often composed of primary group members peer group is an important concept in sociology because we constantly feel peer pressure (a direct influence from one’s peers to change or follow their attitudes, values, or behaviors to conform to their norms)  A reference group is a group with which people identify psychologically and to which they refer in evaluating themselves and their behavior Our reference group can be a peer group, but not necessarily so Ex (PG): How you performed on a test relative to your friends Ex (nonPG): Aspiring professional athlete may have reference group of pro players People can have more than one reference group depending on context Johnny the basketball player at Collegiate U. has a reference group for academic performance (other students) and a reference group for basketball performance (other ballers) A reference group is who you compare yourself to within a given context Primary and secondary groups Primary groups are small, informal groups of people who interact in a personal, direct, and intimate way Examples may include your family, close friends, some neighbors and work associates, church congregation members Secondary groups are groups in which the members interact impersonally, have few emotional ties, and come together for a specific, practical purpose Examples may include professional or workplace groups, sales-related groups, classroom groups, or neighborhood groups The key difference between primary and secondary groups is in the quality of the relationships and the extent of personal intimacy and involvement Aggregate groups Aggregate groups are any collection of people together in one place at one time that may interact briefly and sporadically -crowd at a baseball game or people on a plane Group size and complexity Since the complexity of group interactions increases as group size increases, who makes decisions, and the decision-making process becomes more formalized in larger groups One important thing to remember is that as groups increase in size they increase in complexity The complexity of group relations increases much more rapidly than the number of members McDonaldization Sociologists are interested in McDonaldization for a variety of reasons Rural or urban sociologists may take interest in the impact of global corporations on local communities (e.g., Dollar General in rural U.S.) McDonaldization and corporatization may socialize people to shape their behaviors in the manner of McDonald’s McDonaldization of Society refers to George Ritzer’s (1993) idea that the notion of rationality and quest for efficiency spread from a corporate way of running business to our everyday life; fast food chains are the best representation of this idea Social networks Social networks are patterns or webs of social relationships between individuals or organizations Social networks link people to one another Your own social network probably includes your family, friends, boyfriends/girlfriends, neighbors, classmates, fellow members of social clubs, coworkers, and others  College campus context example: sororities and fraternities The Strength of Weak Ties In one of the most important sociological findings in the last 50 years, Mark Granovetter found that when finding a job, weak ties are more important than strong ties Strong ties (e.g., family, close friends, etc.) occupy a world that is very similar to yours and may not have extensive social networks that vary substantially from yours In other words, you and the people you are close with know a lot of the same people! Weaker ties may have access to other networks Ch. 7 (Deviance & Crime) Moral/absolutist view of deviance Absolutist and moral views of deviance is the view that there is wide agreement about social norms and that certain behaviors are deviant regardless of the social context in which they occur Theories of deviance (e.g., strain theory, labelling theory, cultural transmission theory, etc.) Strain theories are theories of deviance suggesting that the experience of socially induced strain, such as anomie, forces people to engage in deviant activities Can help explain people who drink or use drugs to cope with life’s problems Ex: Gerald lost his job and now drinks all day  Ex: Lisa smokes weed to escape the reality of her unpleasant life​ circumstances Robert Merton (1957) listed five ways in which people adapt to the​ goals of a culture and the lack of the institutionalized means of achieving them (i.e., strain) Conflict theories suggest that most societies contain many groups that have different, often conflicting, values and that the strongest groups in a society have the power to define the values of weaker groups as “deviant” Cultural transmission theory is the view that a community’s deviance may be transmitted to newcomers through learning and socialization A.K.A. “subculture theory,” the view stems from the Chicago School of sociology Suggests that when deviance is part of a subculture’s cultural pattern, it is transmitted to newcomers through socialization Remember importance of symbols, including language Ex: A person could learn deviant attitudes by observing that people throw away parking tickets, keep incorrect change from a supermarket, or find ways to avoid paying taxes Differential association theory is the theory that deviance results when individuals have more contact with groups that define deviance favorably than with groups that define it unfavorably Labeling theory is a theory that emphasizes how certain behaviors are labeled “deviant” and how being given such a label influences a person’s behavior jail Social control theory is the theory stating that one’s connections to others within a society affect his desire to conform to the social norms rather than to involve in deviant behaviors Status offenses Status offenses are behaviors that are only prohibited due to the status or class (e.g., being under 18) of the offender Ex: Underage drinking, truancy, etc. Jails vs. Prisons Prisons are large state or federal institutions Prisons typically hold those who have been convicted of serious offenses (i.e., felonies) and have been sentenced to terms exceeding one year Jails are usually local facilities under the jurisdiction of a city or parish/county Parts of the criminal justice system (Police, Courts, Corrections) Police- regulating and enforcing laws Courts- system that has the authority to make decisions based on law Corrections- supervising individuals Ch. 9 (Stratification) Structural functionalist view on stratification Structural functionalists suggest that positions in the social hierarchy are shaped by the importance of the position, and the ease with which it can be replaced  Leadership positions require dedication and responsibility; for people to want to assume these positions, they must be rewarded for taking on such responsibilities These rewards can be power, wealth, prestige, income, etc. Structural functionalists argue that our pay is determined by two factors: importance and difficulty of our job Feminization of poverty The feminization of poverty refers to the increase in the number of persons who are below the level of poverty being predominantly women, particularly as found in female headed families Ch. 11 (Race & Ethnicity) What was the Supreme Court decision that found racial segregation in schools unconstitutional? Brown v. Board Redlining Redlining is a discriminatory practice that involves denying financial services to neighborhoods with large racial and ethnic minority populations. Genocide the deliberate killing of a large number of people from a particular nation or ethnic group with the aim of destroying that nation or group. Stereotyping In sociology, a stereotype is a generalized belief about a group of people that is based on prejudice and shared by many. Types of discrimination, specifically de jure vs. de facto Direct discrimination​ When someone is treated less favorably than others due to a protected characteristic, such as race, color, religion, sex, national origin, age, disability, or genetic information Indirect discrimination​ When discrimination is carried out through another person or organization Systemic discrimination​ When policies, practices, or patterns of behavior create or perpetuate a position of disadvantage for people Harassment​ When someone engages in unwelcome verbal comments, gestures, or physical contact of a sexual nature Poisoned environment​ When the atmosphere of a workplace is a condition of employment that is discriminatory De jure: Based on law, by right. De facto: In practice, in reality.  Example: If a country has a law stating that everyone has equal rights, but certain groups are still discriminated against in practice, then the country has "de jure" equality but "de facto" discrimination Ch. 12 (Sex, Gender, & Sexuality) Sex vs. gender Sex refers to biological characteristics—the genetic, hormonal, and anatomical differences between males and females Gender is the social status that refers to differences between the sexes, specifically to differences in masculinity and femininity Matthew Shepard case Matthew Shepard was murdered by Aaron McKinney and Russell Henderson on the outskirts of Laramie, WY on the night of Oct. 6, 1998 Shepard was a gay student at the University of Wyoming The killers pretended to be gay to lure Shepard into their truck; they then robbed Shepard and beat him severely, leaving him to die tied to a barbed-wire fence outside Laramie Glass ceiling Pink tax,” “glass ceiling,” etc., are framed as examples of the power men have had over women in our society Sex ed in the U.S. (e.g., comprehensive vs. abstinence-only sex ed) Abstinence-only sex education focus on avoiding sex until marriage and/or delaying it as long as possible  Comprehensive sex education focuses on other types of prevention of unwanted pregnancies and sexually transmitted infections Supreme Court case that recognized federal right to gay marriage in the U.S. In 2015, the Supreme Court ruled in the case of Obergefell vs. Hodges that the right to civil marriage was guaranteed to same-sex couples Ch. 14 (Families) Divorce trends and characteristics of divorce in U.S. (i.e., divorce rates, etc.) According to the CDC, almost 750,000 divorces take place in the United States each year, involving about the same number of children The divorce rate per 1,000 persons per year in the United States in 2019 was 2.7 This number shows a decrease from the 1979 figure of 5.3 per 1,000, the highest ever Divorce rates vary by geographic and social characteristics Divorce is more prevalent among lower socioeconomic levels Whether education, occupation, or income is used as an index of socioeconomic level, the divorce rate goes up as the socioeconomic level goes down Money problems, lack of education, and working in a low-status job may account for the rates found in the lower socioeconomic levels Corollary victims (IPV) Intimate partner violence may result in the killings of corollary victims  Corollary victims are persons killed within the course of a domestic violence incident other than the partners involved New intimate partners Intervening friends, family, neighbors, or strangers Responding law enforcement officers Ch. 17 (Political Systems & Government) PACs & Lobbies Political action committees (PACs) are organizations formed to raise money for a political campaign Lobbies are organizations of people who wish to influence the political process on specific issues Unlike political parties, lobbies do not nominate candidates or hope to manage the government The goal of lobbies is to persuade elected and appointed officials to vote for or against a particular regulation or piece of legislation Political decision-making in the U.S. A variety of explanations for the lack of voter participation have been proposed Psychological Structural lowest voting rate Overly complex, and too frequent, elections Democracies vs. totalitarian states (similarities and differences)  Totalitarianism is a power structure in which the government has total power to dictate the values, rules, ideology, and economic development of a society Democracy is a power structure in which people govern themselves, either directly or through elected representatives Oligarchies An oligarchy is government by a small elite group The development of oligarchies presents a problem for democracies Instead of all people sharing in their own governance, a few people have a monopoly of power and rule for everyone