Stage 3 Communities and Ecosystems PDF

Stage 3 Communities and Ecosystems Dra. Laiju Kuzhuppillymyal Prabhakarankutty 3rd semester August-December 2024 Formative Purpose Applies knowledge about biological phenomena and processes related to the interactions of living beings in ecosystems, to exemplify the effects of human activity...

Stage 3 Communities and Ecosystems Dra. Laiju Kuzhuppillymyal Prabhakarankutty 3rd semester August-December 2024 Formative Purpose Applies knowledge about biological phenomena and processes related to the interactions of living beings in ecosystems, to exemplify the effects of human activity and propose viable actions for their conservation. Basic disciplinary competencies 6. Values personal or common preconceptions about various natural phenomenon based on scientific evidence. 11. Analyze the general laws that govern the functing of the physical environment and values human actions of environmental impact.  Graphical Representation Identifies the previous knowledge about ecosystems and communities. Describes and explain the biotic and abiotic factors to identify them in a regional ecosystem. Distinguishes the conditions that define where and how organisms live and the interaction between them. Explain how energy flows through ecosystems and the alteratons that may occur due to external factors such as human activity. Exemplify the effects of human activities on the ecosystem of Mexico and propose viable actions for their conservation Examine how the cycles of matter recycle nutrients in the biosphere Learning Evidence: Food chain Evaluation D1: Recovery activity (Nexus Quiz)  D2: Comprehension Activity Team Topics Team 1: Desert Team 2: Temperate forest Team 3: Grassland Team 4: Mangrove Team 5: Tundra Instructions: In teams make a 3D image (at least 70 cm long) about a terrestrial ecosystem assigned by your teacher, use it to explain the ecosystem characteristics, you must represent climate characteristics (environmental conditions), and abiotic factors (temperature, humidity, pressure, types of soil etc.), biotic factors (animals and plants), and their main characteristics used for climate adaptation. All the team members must explain without reading (oral exposition is part of the evaluation). Letter size and colors good enough for clear reading.  D3: Analysis activity-Lab Practice Effect of Abiotic Factors on Seed germination and plant growth Laboratory practical will be on the dates 10th and 11th of October 2024. Prelab: Make an investigation and write in your lab diary about how the abiotic factors like humidity and light affect the seed germination and the abiotic factor temperature affect the plant growth. Must be minimum one page and must cite the articles. In your lab diary write down the materials and methods and the tables to record the measurements each day. Bring the individual rubrics on the day of your practical Hypothesis Effect of Humidity: Hypothesis 1 If the amount of moisture is increased, bean seeds will germinate faster. Effect of Temperature: Hypothesis 2 If the temperature is kept within an optimal range (20 to 30 degree Celsius) lentil plant growth will grow more efficiently. Effect of Light: Hypothesis 3 If the bean seeds are exposed to light of different wavelengths, seeds with blue and green lights will help the bean seeds will germinate earlier.  Materials and Methods Materials and Reagents Scissors Rubber bands Marker or Sharpie 1 Package of pleated cotton 8 Sandwich-sized Ziploc bags 1 sheet of cellophane paper in the following colors: blue, green, red, yellow, and transparent. 1 black construction paper 20 Styrofoam or dry ice cups 100 healthy seeds without cracks or holes (can be beans, lentils, melon, watermelon, chickpeas, or sunflower seeds) Germinate lentil seeds a week before the practice in a large tray, provide each team with 6 seedlings per temperature.  Part A: Humidity 1A 2A 1. Identify the Ziploc bags with 2 repetitions per water amount: Low Humidity o Low humidity (cotton almost dry, little water) 1A and 2A o Moderate humidity (cotton completely wet) 1B and 2B o High humidity (cotton soaked with excess water) 1C and 2C 1B 2B 2. Place a strip of cotton at the bottom of each Ziploc bag of the same width as the bag. Moderate Humidity 3. Place 5 seeds in the cotton strip of each bag, ensuring there is enough space between each seed. 4. Remove the air and seal the Ziploc bags. 1C 2C 5. Observe and record the growth in cm each day for 8 days. 6. Remember to check the suggested humidity levels of each bag High Humidity everyday. Result : Measurement of seed germination Low humidity Days Seed Seed Seed Seed Seed Seed Seed Seed Seed Seed 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Make same type of tables for medium humidity and high humidity Compare the recorded results and make a graph.  Part B: Light 1st Repetition 2nd Repetition 1. In 6 Styrofoam cups, place a layer of cotton at the bottom. Cut cellophane paper in the colors red, yellow, blue, green, clear, and black construction paper to cover the top of the cup. Use rubber bands to secure. 2. Place 5 seeds in each cup, ensuring enough space between each seed. 3. Moisten the cotton well with water and cover with the corresponding color. 4. Observe and record the growth in cm each day for 8 days. Remember to maintain moisture in each Styrofoam cup Result : Measurement of seed germination Red light Days Seed Seed Seed Seed Seed Seed Seed Seed Seed Seed 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Make same type of tables for all other color lights Compare the recorded results and make a graph.  Part C: Temperature Refrigerator (4degree Celsius) 1. Cut the bottom off 2 Styrofoam cups to a height of approximately 3 to 4 cm. 1st repetition 2nd repetition 2. Place cotton to cover the bottom of the two Styrofoam cup bases. 3. Place 3 lentil seedlings in each Styrofoam cup base and measure their initial height. 4. Moisten the cotton well with water in each base and place one base at a refrigerated temperature and the other at room temperature. Room temperature 5. Observe and record the growth in cm each day for 8 1st repetition 2nd repetition days. Maintain moisture in the 2 Styrofoam cup bases Result : Measurement of seedling height (Room temperature) Days Seedling Seedling Seedling Seedling Seedling Seedling 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Make same type of tables for refrigerator temperature Compare the recorded results and make a graph. Read carefully the instructions given in the portfolio and follow them to write the lab report. Also read the rubrics to see how the points are divided for each category. Discuss all your results with previously published articles on the parameters. Remember to discuss with both same type of results and opposite results. Don’t forget to cite the articles. In the conclusion, mention whether your hypothesis is accepted or rejected.  D4: Learning Evidence – Food Chain Instructions: Use your 3D model topic to make a food chain and use it to Use a digital presentation for the following: explain the relation of the organisms on it. make a list of 20 living things for your ecosystem (assigned in the first For the food chain animals, explain the following: activity of this portfolio), the list must include animals, plants, fungi Scientific name, position in the food chain, consumer type, and bacteria. Includes pictures and videos for each one. Represent importance in the food chain, clean and understandable, use (digital) your food chain (from the model) and a food web for the same labels in a correct direction (representing the flow of energy). ecosystem. Explain what happens with the food chain if one organism Include primary producers, primary consumers, secondary (the top predator for example) is extinct. Explain the challenges that consumers, tertiary consumers, decomposers, scavengers and occur during problem solving, with an emphasis on strategy, detritivores. Creativity is a must. Explain what happens with the creativity, collaboration, and persistence. food chain if one organism (the top predator) is extinct.  Please revise the portfolio 3 Doubts about any activity must be document for instructions and the cleared in the classroom, during rubrics. the first week starting with the stage 3. Internal Global exams will be on 4th November 2024  Introduction Populations of organisms of each species are related to others that coexists with them. Communities are groups of populations of different species that interact with each other. Ecosystem is a group of communities that exchange matter and energy with the abiotic environment. Ecology: Studies how environment affects and is affected by organisms at their different levels of organization, ranging from individual organisms to ecosystems. https://www.mrgscience.com/ess-topic-22-communities-and-ecosystems.html  3.1 Levels of Ecological Organization Ecology is a branch of Biology that studies relationship between organisms and their environment. https://marketbusinessnews.com/financial-glossary/ecology/  From the point of view of Ecology, the levels of organization of living nature, are: individuals, population, communities and ecosystems. Biological organization levels Ecological organization levels https://www.slideserve.com/vangie/levels-of-ecological-organization#google_vignette https://fms7science.wordpress.com/2019/10/08/biological- hierarchy-organization-introduction/  Biosphere (Earth system) : an open system consisting of all living beings (the biosphere) and the abiotic components (the atmosphere, the hydrosphere and the lithosphere) of the planet which maintain and exchange of matter and energy. https://www.australianenvironmentaleducation.com.au/education-resources/what-is-the-biosphere/  3.1.1 Individual Organisms Any living thing from a bacteria to the higher organisms like human beings. Different traits Morphological traits Physiological traits Behavioral traits Perspiration Food preference of a frog Body size, color and shape. Plant photosynthesis Mechanism of a male spider Organs and parts that it Flight of a dragonfly uses to court a female without compose like flowers, Swimming speed of an being eaten. stomach, leg, antenna etc. octopus Preferred flower color for a hummingbird to pollinate Traits vary from one individual to another, so each particular organism has distinguishing characteristics.  Sometimes it is not easy to distinguish one individual from another, because the boundaries between the individual are not well defined. Grasses : Above ground Coral polyps: Organisms Siamese twins Chang and clumps, but all interconnected composed of multiple Maguey plant and its Eng-Bunker by an underground less visible modules that could be offshoots rhizome considered as individual of their own. https://es.pinterest.com/pin/375628 https://www.backyarddigs.com/lawn-care/how- https://www.steveroper.ca/what-is-a-coral- 425173722967/ deep-do-grass-roots-grow/ polyp/ https://www.britannica.com/biogra phy/Chang-and-Eng Group of similar organisms that can reproduce and produce fertile offspring  3.1.2 The Populations Organisms don’t like alone, they are part of groups called populations, made up of individuals, made up of individuals of the same species living in specific place. https://www.britannica.com/science/population-ecology  Factors that affect the population Gene flow Intraspecific competition The transfer of genetic Individuals of the same species compete for information between individuals limited resources like food, space, water, or through reproduction. This helps sunlight. When one organism uses a maintain the species by passing resource, less of it is available for others. traits from parents to offspring. This competition within the species can affect how well individuals survive and reproduce When individuals in a population are studied collectively, new characteristics emerge that do not exist in isolated organisms. These are known as emerging properties. Two key properties we can measure in populations are abundance and density. Density: Abundance: The population size divided by a unit The number of individuals that makes area (A) of a land or volume of water p a population. It is also known as population size Dens = N/A (N). https://tadthedietcoach.com/blog/?p=1286 https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/population-density  Population Density Calculations Example: In 2015, the human population of Monterrey Metropolitan area registered an abundance of 4,437,643 people (N). If this zone has an area of 635,000 hectares, what is the population density in that year? Density = N/A = 4,437,643 people / 635,000 hectares = 7 people per hectare. Homework: Population density Problem 1: A forest area of 200 square kilometers is home to a population of 800 deer. What is the population density of the deer in this forest? Problem 2: A lake has an area of 50 square kilometers, and it contains 2,500 fish. What is the population density of the fish in the lake?  Sexual ratio: The relationship between the number of males and females. Example: Study done by UANL investigators in General Teran, registered 68 males and 124 females of the bedbug's species Triatoma gerstackeri (transmitter of Chagas disease) Sexual ratio = 68/124= 0.54 =0.54:1. (0.54 males per female). https://bugguide.net/node/view/1579397/bgpage Spatial distribution pattern: Spatial arrangements of individuals in a population. Gives an idea about the type of interactions maintained among individuals of competence or facilitation, as well as of the distribution of resources Aggregate or Uniform or Regular Random Contagious If organisms are distributed If an organism settle in places where If an organisms marks territories resources are concentrated and if or inhibits the establishment of randomly when the location there is tolerance to overcrowding, other organisms in its vicinity. of an individual does not or if an individual facilitates the affect the position of others. establishment of another in their immediate environment.  Uniform or regular spatial distribution pattern examples E.g. Hieraactus fasciatusen E.g. Larrea tridentata Eagle territory, Murcia, Crosote bush, Tamaulipas Spain. https://www.monaconatureencyclopedia.com/hieraaetus- fasciatus/?lang=en https://aneyefortexas.wordpress.com/2011/01/31/the-amazing-creosote-bush/  Random distribution E.g. Quercus crassifolia Mexican oak, Ixtlan, Oaxaca. https://www.treesandshrubsonline.org/articles/quercus/quercus-crassifolia/ Aggregate or contagious distribution E.g. Eutetranychus banksi Texana spier Parasitic mite in the municipality of Guemez, Tamaulipas. Age structure: Proportion of abundance of individuals of different ages in a population. In 2008, Veronica Zepeda and her collaborators studied the age structure of Visnaga, a cactus species vulnerable to human activities, in Cadereyta, Querétaro. They collected 1,027 specimens and categorized them by age. Seeds: 64%, Non-reproductive juveniles: 4%, Reproductive juveniles: 18%, Mature reproductive specimens: 11% This data highlights the species' vulnerability and the significance of its reproductive phases.  Demographic Parameters Emigration rate: no. of individuals Reduces population rate who leave Demographic Immigration : No. of parameters: Mortality: estimates how No. of individuals individuals that enter many organisms are who die added or subtracted from a population. Increases population rate Birth: No. of individuals that are born Population size: Nₜ Number of individuals the following year = Number of individuals in a particular year (Nₜ) + number of birthss per year (n) + Number of individuals entering per year ( i ) – number of deaths per year (m) – number of individuals leaving per year ( e ) Nₜ₊₁ = Nₜ + n + i – m - e Example: In 2018, there was a population of 100 birds on an island off the coast of Tamaulipas (N₂₀₁₈ = 100) Birth rate = 50 eggs per year (n) Mortality = 45 birds (including eggs, chicks and adults) (m) Emigration = 18 (e) Immigration = 24 ( i ) What is the population size of 2019? Nₜ₊₁ = Nₜ + n + i – m - e N₂₀₁₈₊₁ = 100 +50 + 24 – 45 – 18 = 111 birds would inhabit the island in 2019. Population growth rate (λ): Measures the change in the size of a population through time and is determined by demographic parameters. λ = Nₜ₊₁ / Nₜ We can know how the population changes by clearing Nₜ₊₁ Nₜ₊₁ = λ x Nₜ If N₂₀₁₉ = 111 and N₂₀₁₈ = 100, then λ = 111/100 = 1.11 Which means, the population growth rate of these birds is 11% annually. If λ is less than one, the population decreases. If λ is 1 population size is constant. If λ is greater than one, population grows.  3.1.3 Communities The set of populations of different species that live in a particular place and that maintain interaction with each other is called a community. (Ecological community or biotic community). Ecological community: A group of living beings from diverse species and biological types (microorganisms, plants and animals) that live in a related manner to each other in the same space. Emerging properties of communities : Richness and diversity. Richness: Species or specific richness is the number of species in a community. Diversity: the variety of species in a community, which depends on the richness and relative abundance of each species. https://indiabioscience.org/columns/education/common-misconceptions-in-biology-species- richness-and-diversity-are-the-same  Emerging properties of communities: Composition The list of the species a community contains. Example: The composition of the tree community of the Oak forest of the Sierra de Zapaliname, Coahuila: Quercus greggii Q. Mexicana Q. laeta Q. saltillensis Q. rugosa and Q. grisea, the Pinus pinegreggii, The arbutus (Arbutus xalapensis) The juniper Juniperus flaccida  Emerging properties of communities: Physiognomy Physical aspects that communities of sessile organisms like plants or coral reefs. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233580897_Use_of_Monocharacteristic_growth_forms_and_phenologica l_phases_to_describe_and_differentiate_plant_communities_in_Mediterranean-ecosystems/figures?lo=1 https://www.britannica.com/plant/plant/Ecology  Emerging properties of communities: Spatial structure Refers to the way in which populations are distributed in space. Horizontal structure How species are distributed on the surface of a land Vertical structure Describes the way in which community components are distributed in a vertical plane, means at different height above the ground or at different depths of the https://www.researchgate.net/publication/367970120_Forest_ecosystem_properties_emerge_from_interactions_of_ soil or water. structure_and_disturbance/figures?lo=1 Helps to study the height reached by different plants in a forest, the height at which bird's nests are distributed or at which species of butterfly fly or the depth at which algae are distributed etc.  Emerging properties of communities: Quantitative Structure Describes what percentage of individuals or biomass each species contributes to the interior of a community. Helps to identify which species of the community hoard more resources, which depends on how abundant is a species with respect to others, also how much biomass all the individuals of a species accumulate in a community. https://qbiodiversity.org/category/research/  Emerging properties of communities: Phenology Seasonal change suffered by the features of the communities. Sun illuminates' earth’s hemispheres differentially. When the northern hemisphere is in summer, the southern hemisphere is having winter. So, the temperate climate plant communities undergo seasonal changes, like, most of them have no leaves in the winter, they bloom and produce fruits in the spring, they develop new foliage in the summer They get rid of leaves in the fall. https://x.com/IrishPhenology/status/1398255794752196617  Emerging properties of communities: Succession state The stage of development that community settled had in a place after the last catastrophic event occurred, which in Ecology is known as disturbance. The disturbances can be fires, floods, landslides or habitat destruction by opening forests to agriculture. After a disturbance, communities go through a process that includes an early period of species recolonization Another phase of the development A stage of maturity. https://microbenotes.com/secondary-succession/ 3.1.4 Ecosystems An open system made up of biotic communities and their abiotic environment which maintain an exchange of matter and energy. They are not closed, but open entities that maintain exchange of matter and energy with the other surrounding ecosystems. https://www.sciencefacts.net/types-of-ecosystems.html  Emerging properties of ecosystems: Production The amount of matter and energy stored per unit area in the bodies of organisms. Primary production: Secondary production: Autotrophs Heterotrophs  Emerging properties of ecosystems: Decomposition rate Speed at which the bodies of organisms disintegrate into their smallest parts. Saprophagous organisms Decomposing or disintegrating Detritivores animals (scavengers and organisms coprophages) Bacteria and fungi  Emerging properties of ecosystems: Standing biomass and necromass Standing biomass is the amount of organic matter stored by organisms that have not died in Necromass refers to the amount of dead an ecosystem at any given time organic matter that is deposited in an ecosystem https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0048969718325075 https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/figures?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0287039 Emerging properties of ecosystems: Trophic structure Scheme of how matter and food energy move between the living and non-living components of an ecosystem. https://socratic.org/questions/what-is-exactly-is-trophic-structure Emerging properties of ecosystems: Ecological efficiencies Measure the efficiency with which trophic levels of an ecosystem consume and assimilate food matter and energy, as well as to use these two elements to produce their own body tissues. https://old-ib.bioninja.com.au/standard-level/topic-4-ecology/42-energy-flow/energy-efficiency.html  Emerging properties of ecosystems: Rate and pattern of nutrient cycling The speed with which the nutrients move. https://byjus.com/neet/nutrient-cycle/  Emerging properties of ecosystems: Rate and pattern of energy flow The speed with which the energy move and the route that follow the energy packages that living being used to carry out their vital function, which occurs in a unidirectional pattern. https://www.aakash.ac.in/important-concepts/biology/energy-flow-in-the-ecosystem  Biomes Types of natural ecosystems associated with the different climatic regions of the planet. Have a set of plants, animals or other organisms that resemble each other despite geographical distance, which is because of the climate and the type of environment (terrestrial or aquatic) in which these beings live in.  The tropical rainforest can be found in warm and rainy weather. Desert and scrubland are distributed in dry weather. Temperate forest is in temperate wet climate of median latitudes and mountains. In cold weather, forest formations known as taiga or boreal forest are distributed which is dominated by trees with a cone-shaped crown or conifers. The tundra is in polar climates, with photosynthesizing organisms like small shrubs, grasses, mosses and lichens, which are resistant to freezing temperatures. https://askabiologist.asu.edu/explore/biomes  3.2 Biotic and Abiotic Factors 3.2.1 Interactions, Resources, Conditions and Disturbances The environment is a complex set of multiple factors that surround and affect the health, performance, abundance, survival and diversity of living beings. Environmental factors that exerts pressure on the traits of individuals, populations, communities and ecosystems Biotic factors Abiotic factors Living beings Non-living beings https://www.sundayobserver.lk/2024/06/09/news-features/24823/the-environment-our-big-beautiful-home/ Modern vision of environmental factors that affect the levels of organization that Ecology studies (Biological systems) Environmental factors that affect the levels of organization: Ecological interactions Bidirectional relationship between two individuals or populations that affect their performance, fertility, survival and population size in a positive or negative way. The most important interactions are predation, competition and mutualism. https://www.turito.com/learn/biology/competition-predation-symbiosis-grade-7 Environmental factors that affect the levels of organization: Resources Elements of the environment when used or consumed by an organism or group of organisms for their benefit, reduce their availability for another living being. Examples are space, water, food, pollinators, solar radiations or prey. It could be biotic or abiotic. Biotic resources are like pollinators, prey that a predator eats, seed dispersers organisms etc. Abiotic resources are like water, soil nutrients, or energy obtained from solar radiations. https://www.kew.org/read-and-watch/plant-seed-dispersal-animal-poo Environmental factors that affect the levels of organization: Conditions Physical and chemical factors of the environment to which organisms respond differentially such as temperature, humidity, speed of water in the river, degree of acidity of the soil and toxic substance. https://www.epa.gov/caddis/temperature https://mantech-inc.com/blog/measuring-exchange-acidity-for-soil-management/  Environmental factors that affect the levels of organization: Disturbances Sudden or chronic events that damage or kill organisms and affect the conditions and resources of a place, which causes colonization spaces to open for other living beings. Examples of abiotic disturbances are fire, floods, lava spills, landslides, hurricanes, parasite outbreaks, falling meteorite etc. Biotic disturbances includes caterpillar outbreaks, explosive incidence of bubonic plague bacteria, entrance of an exotic harmful fish into a coral reef etc. https://guloinnature.com/what-is-ecological-disturbance/  3.2.2 Biotic Factors The environment of an organism or a population includes the other living beings with whom it coexists, which can have a negative, neutral or positive effect on their performance, survival and abundance, which can be viewed as an ecological interaction, as a resource or as a source of disturbance. Ecological interaction are best explained when two populations are involved Competition between two different species is known as interspecific competition. https://slideplayer.com/slide/5697315/#google_vignette. Interspecific competition: Predation (-,+ or +,-) One organism, the predator, feeds on another organism, the prey. In this relationship, the predator benefits from gaining energy and nutrients, which has a positive effect on its survival and reproduction. On the other hand, the prey experiences a negative impact as it is consumed and may be killed, reducing its chances of survival and reproduction Different types of relationships between the species https://microbenotes.com/predation/  Competition is an interaction between two populations that negatively affects both, as they rely on the same limited resources. It can occur in two forms: Interference competition: When the Exploitation competition: When the populations engage in direct physical populations indirectly affect each other or chemical aggression to gain access by reducing the availability of shared to the resource. resources without direct aggression.  Interspecific competition: Mutualism (+,+ ) Each species provides a Mutualism is a type of service or resource that the interaction between two other needs, leading to a species in which both positive impact on their benefit from the survival, reproduction, or relationship. growth. Ant bodyguards: Association between ants and acacia plants. Plant Lichens: Association between fungi and offers ants a nest in their hollow spines, nectar and protein rich algae. Fungus get food and algae gets substance the Beltian bodies, while ants defend the plants by minerals caught by the fungus. attacking the herbivores on the plant.  Interspecific competition: Commensalism (+,0 ) The relationship in which one species benefits from another without causing any kind of beneficial or harmful effect. Chapulinera heron and cattle: Herons benefit from the Seed dispersion by mammalian hair, where the plants cattle by feeding on the insects that fly or jump in the benefits from dispersing its seeds and mammals are not path of the cattle and there is no evidence that the cattle affected in any way have any benefit. Interspecific competition: Amensalism (-,0 ) Relationship in which one of the population negatively affects another, without the later being damaged in any way. Displacement of Tetreanychus urticae silk-producing mote over Panonychus ulmi, to which it force to move from the bottom of the leaves towards the upper face in apple trees. P. ulmi is negatively affected by the silk nets that weave T. urticae on the underside. Images create by chatgpt Biotic factors can also be sources of disturbance, like swarms of locusts destroying vegetation, herbivore population booms, viral outbreaks affecting key species, or the introduction of invasive species disrupting ecosystems.  3.2.3 Abiotic Factors Some elements of the environment that affect the features of biological systems are abiotic.  The most important environmental condition that affect all types of ecosystem is temperature. Excessive cold and heat affect the performance of organisms and consists of a natural selection that causes an evolutionary response in their part.  At cellular level, membranes can Move rupture, water inside cells slowly freezes, and dehydration occurs and salts lethargic concentrates. These changes Cold prevents cells from capturing habita oxygen, often ts leading to death Some organisms have antifreeze Some animals substances such have thick fur as glycerol, and fat tissues glucose and salts which act as to prevent the insulating, water in their protecting them bodies from from cold freezing.  Body gets dehydrate, and Trichom enzyme es degeneration causes no Reflects proper solar functioning of the cells radiation Modifications High Perspiratio happens temper n in animals and plants ature Cladodes Remain vertical in Hide in Spines shades the the midday the soil photosynthetic tissues to prevent burning  Humidity Refers to the amount of water vapor in the air and plays a crucial role in determining the hydration of terrestrial organisms/ High humidity is essential some animals like, frog, moisture mealybugs, earthworms, snails and slugs.  Acidity or pH (hydrogen potential) Very acidic (low pH) or very alkaline (high pH) damage plant root cells by denaturing proteins or preventing cellular respiration. Affects the ability of roots to capture nutrients or facilitate the absorption of toxic chemicals such as aluminum. Acidic pH in seawater causes marine organisms like corals, mussels, crabs and microscopic foraminifera to fix calcium in their bodies https://www.researchgate.net/publication/365842971_Plant_strategies_to_mine_iron_from_alkaline_substrates/figures?lo=1 https://www.britannica.com/science/ocean-acidification  Salinity High salinity affects organisms in the coastal lagoons and desert areas. High concentration of salt prevent water intake in plants and regulation of the content of the vital liquid in the bodies of the animals. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332654820_The_Influence_of_Dietary_Salt_Beyond_Blood_Pressure/figures? lo=1 https://pub.mdpi-res.com/life/life-11-00545/article_deploy/html/images/life-11-00545-g001.png?1623320207  Water torrent Animals and photosynthetic organisms in the rivers have clamping organs so as not to be carried away by the current. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-031-11441-0_16  Strong winds Pinus albicaulis and Pinus ponderosa of Europe twist their trunk as the grow to prevent wind from preventing vertical growth In mountain areas exposed to strong winds, the trees tends to have an asymmetry in their canopies https://www.summitpost.org/wind-twisted-ponderosa/268654 https://treeplantation.com/rock-trees.html https://mx.pinterest.com/pin/564005553347907409/ Abiotic resources that require living beings Mineral Water CO2, O2 Nutrients Hydration of the cells is CO2 is the important Components of the important to maintain a resource for molecules that make up metabolism and good photosynthesis and O2 for the bodies of organisms. health. cellular respiration to release energy for the maintenance of the metabolism. Abiotic resources that require living beings Solar Chemical radiation bonds The source of energy to Chemical bonds contained carry out photosynthesis. in certain rock molecules are used by chemoautotrophic bacteria to produce foods  Abiotic Disturbances Floods Landslides Hurricanes https://www.kgw.com/article/news/nation-world/central-europe- flooding-romania-poland-czech-republic-austria/507-4de628f8- https://appliedsciences.nasa.gov/what-we-do/disasters/landslides https://www.wired.com/story/hurricane-ian/ 338d-48fa-a3b0-6519cf9a5243 Fires Volcanic eruptions Meteorite fall  Organism’s adaptations for surviving the disturbances The ecosystem and organisms of the Amazon rainforest are well adapted to floods: trees resist this condition many animals like sloths can swim https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256116387_DIVERSITY_OF_ADAPTATIO NS_TO_FLOODING_IN_TREES_OF_AMAZONIAN_FLOODPLAINS/figures?lo=1 https://slothconservation.org/slothopedia/5-behavior/  A grass plant showing tiller The underground structures of a A Lodgepole Pine tree, showing how formation, where side shoots grow plant, such as rhizomes, bulbs, and its cones open due to fire, an example from the base to protect the tubers, which help it resist fires. of serotiny. This mechanism allows meristems from fire. This These parts remain protected seeds to disperse after a fire, ensuring adaptation ensures that the plant beneath the soil and store nutrients, the species regenerates in a cleared can survive fires and quickly enabling the plant to sprout new and nutrient-rich environment regrow new shoots from the growth after the fire. protected growth points. Chatgpt created images and information 3.3 Producers and Consumers An ecosystem is composed of different biotic and abiotic compartments through which matter and energy flow. One of the mechanisms thorough which these elements pass between living organisms is feeding. Through feeding the organisms acquire compounds necessary to build and rebuild tissues, energy necessary for tissue maintenance and carrying metabolic activities. https://www.sciencefacts.net/food-chain.html  The linear schemes by which food passes from one organisms to another is called a Food chain. It is rare to happen in nature because only a few organisms eat only one type of food or are devoured for only one type or organism. Example: Corn grasshopper spider lizard cat The grasshopper eats the corn, the spider eats the grasshopper, the lizard eats the spider, and the cat eats the lizard.  The trophic level is defined as the number of times the food energy passes from one living being to another. Photosynthetic organisms and chemosynthesizers that make their own food are known as primary producers constitute the trophic level 1. Living being that produce tissues from the action of feeding off bodies or products of other organisms are called secondary producers which include animals, heterotrophic protists, fungi and non-photosynthetic bacteria. Secondary producers are also known as consumers and according to their position in the food chain, they can be https://www.savemyexams.com/dp/biology/sl/25/revision-notes/interaction-and-interdependence/transfer-of-energy-and-matter/trophic-levels/ primary consumers (herbivores), secondary consumers (carnivores and parasites) or tertiary consumers (top predators and hyperparasites. General trophic chain of an ecosystem would be represented as: Primary producers primary consumers secondary consumer tertiary consumer  The set of interwoven trophic chains is called trophic networks or food web. Through food web, the organisms are effectively related to populations in an ecosystem. https://www.sciencefacts.net/food-web.html  Dung beetle Saprophages are organisms that feed on dead matter or feces. In trophic chains, saprophages can be located as a trophic level higher than last-order consumers or as primary consumers. https://www.earthdate.org/episodes/dung-beetle- astronomers Detritivorous are saprophagous organisms that consume and degrade dead matter through the digestive tract, such as vultures, earthworms, dung beetles and necrophagous flies. https://facts.net/science/biology/19-fascinating- Decomposers or disintegrators are fungi, protists facts-about-decomposers/ and bacteria that consume and degrade the dead matter through non-digestive enzymatic mechanisms. https://phys.org/news/2018-08-hungry-bacteria- nutrients-environment.html  Abiotic compartments that store food 1. Soil of terrestrial ecosystem 2. Benthos of aquatic ecosystems 3. Suspended particles in the water bodies https://www.globalsoilbiodiversity.org/blog-beneath-our- https://eschooltoday.com/learn/what-is-nekton/ https://basicwaterscience.com/physical-water-quality- feet/2016/8/4/preserving-ecosystem-services-through- parameters/water-sediment-and-particulates/#google_vignette adaptive-soil-management Matter and energy move in an ecosystem differently Materials that make up and use living things can move an infinite number of times in the form of cycles.  Energy moves virtually once and unidirectionally as a flow. The energy is not returned to the sun or to the rocks. Moves from primary producers to consumers and saprophages through trophic chains. During respiration of all organisms and the photosynthesis of primary producers, gases are exchanged with atmosphere which do not contain energy.  The cyclical patterns in which Cycling involves biological processes The reason why matter has different elements move such as like photosynthesis, respiration, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus or transpiration, feeding and excretion etc., this cyclical behavior lies chemical processes such as production in the Law of water are known as of ammonia by rays and oxidation, and biogeochemical cycles. geological processes like erosion, Conservation of matter. runoff, and evaporation.  Energy flow in Ecosystems Energy is the ability to produce work, and work is the force necessary for a resting object to move. Ecosystem and individual organisms use energy to function. The energy that affects an ecosystem is light energy which is transformed into chemical energy through photosynthesis. The chemical energy is in the atomic bonds of the molecules of carbohydrates, lipids and carbohydrates. The energy stored in the tissue of an organism is known as biomass energy. The energy obtained from the organic matter that makes up living organisms, their excreta, and their non-living remains. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-981-19-2912-0_1  The energy that is fixed in the ecosystem by the autotrophs through photosynthesis and chemosynthesis is called gross primary production (GPP). Part of the energy (and biomass) used for metabolism and the maintenance of bodily function is called autotrophic respiration. Part of the energy used for the construction of tissues which constitutes the matter of the plants that populate terrestrial ecosystem of autotrophic algae and bacteria is known as net primary production (NPP). In another https://www.savemyexams.com/a-level/biology/aqa/17/revision-notes/5-energy-transfers-in--between-organisms-a- level-only/5-3-energy--ecosystems-a-level-only/5-3-5-net-primary-production/ words, it is the gross primary production minus respiration.  Net primary production (NPP) represents the energy available to feed the following trophic levels. The magnitude of the NPP in an ecosystem, denotes the amount of energy and food biomass available to the other organisms that are distributed in the food chain. The less productive ecosystems are desert and open sea (90 and 125 grams per dry weight per meter square). The most productive natural ecosystems are the tropical rainforest and coral reefs which reach up to 3.5 and 4.0 kgps/m²). The most productive human made ecosystem are the sugarcane crops, which can reach in a single year a production of 9.4 kgps/m². The biomass and energy that a trophic level acquires pass through various processes. The energy and biomass produced in the trophic level 1 can pass to the trophic level 2 through consumption or ingestion ( c). Part of that energy and biomass consumed is assimilated through the intestine is called assimilation (A). The unused fraction is excreted by the body through feces known as defecation (D). The consumption and assimilation production of products are ecological efficiency estimators. Defecation and respiration products are ecological inefficiency estimators.  Each trophic level record a particular production value. The net primary production is located at the base, above the production of primary consumers, then the production of secondary consumer and so on. For a long time, it was believed that production relation between one level and another was constantly 10% and is known as law 10% or ecological tithe law. But the values achieved by this ecological efficiency vary. Example:- in an aquatic ecosystem the Trophic transfer energy (TTE) varies between 2 and 24%. 3.5 Biogeochemical cycles (Nutrient cycles) The biogeochemical cycles play vital roles in the formation of life of plants, animals, and microscopic organisms. It involves the movement of inorganic natural elements and compounds. It facilitates the perpetual transfer of matter from one place to another allowing the recycling of nutrients within the biosphere.  3.5.1 Water cycle The indispensable molecules for life and the support of human civilizations. 70% of cells are of water. Involved in almost all metabolic processes. Medium where most of the chemical and enzymatic reactions takes place. Involved in the transport of nutrients and release of waste products. Participates in photosynthesis and regulates and transport nutrients from roots to the leaves in the plants. Approximately 97.5% of water in the planet is ocean salty water whereas the rest 2.5% is fresh water that are in the glaciers, groundwater, lakes, rivers, soils, atmosphere and the biosphere. Only 0.55% of the fresh water is available for humans.  Water cycle also known as hydrological cycles is the process of circulation of water between the different compartments that form the hydrosphere. It starts when the solar radiation heats the land and marine surface which causes the water to evaporate. Als, the water that captures through the roots can be transpired through leaves. (perspiration) This vapor (both evaporation and perspiration) is called the evapotranspiration is released into the atmosphere. As the steam rises, it cools, and the water condenses into tiny drops that form the clouds. According to the prevailing temperature, the clouds, by gravity precipitate the water in the form of rains, hail, sleet or snow, feeding freshwater systems. The precipitated water can evaporate again, drains on the earths surface or infiltrate the soil. In the soil, the water can be taken by the plant roots or percolated and feeds the underground aquifers which can feed springs and river, https://www.simply.science/images/content/chemistry/states_of_ move to the sea or is extracted by humans. matter/atmo_and_envi/conceptmap/biogeochemical_cycles.html  The water cycle has sped up due to the release of greenhouse gases like water vapor, carbon dioxide, Accelerated water cycle methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone from human activities. This causes: Increased evapotranspiration and more frequent torrential rains Powerful hurricanes forming more often. Melting of glacier and polar ice, speeding up water currents, increasing river flows, and raising sea levels. The overexploitation of aquifers creates water shortage threating: Agriculture and food production Sanitary services, increasing the risk of infectious diseases. In the future, conflicts over water resources may become more common, replacing wards driven by oil. This highlights the importance of sustainable water use and climate actions to protect this essential OpenAI. (2024). ChatGPT [Large language model]. https://chatgpt.com resource.  3.5.2 Carbon cycle Most important chemical element of living beings since it constitutes the material with which the cells of organisms are constructed. Essential part of organic molecules like carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids. Carbon is in the form of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and in the oceans and is a very important compound of fossil fuels. Carbon moves constantly in the atmosphere, the earth’s crust, soils, bodies of water and living beings.  Carbon cycle develops in two phases: Geological phase which takes millions or years to complete Biological phase which can be carried out over a period of days or thousands of years. Biological phase Through photosynthesis autotrophs capture atmospheric CO2 and transform into organic matter which remains in them for a long time and also moves through the trophic chains. Carbon returns to the atmosphere either through degradation of organic matter in cellular respiration or by decomposition of feces, corpses and remains of fungi, microbes, algae, and plants. https://byjus.com/biology/carbon-cycle/ Geological phase CO2 in the atmosphere contact with the ocean water and is transformed into carbonate. Carbonate combines with calcium produces calcium carbonate, the main component of seashells. Then the organisms with shell dies, these shells precipitate and accumulate at the bottom of the ocean to form ocean sediment. Over millions of years this sediment becomes limestone, which represent the largest amount of carbon integrated into the earth’s crust. This carbon returns to the atmosphere when limestone dissolves or is released by volcanic eruptions. Carbon also moves through dead organisms, which are buried in the depths of soils and converted into fossils in a process of millions of years, which will be burned by humans or by volcanic activity to return to the https://www.vtaide.com/png/carbonCycle.htm atmosphere. https://www.britannica.com/science/climate-change  3.5.3 Phosphorous cycle Essential elements of living beings: part of the nucleotides that form DNA and RNA, the phospholipids of cell membrane and ATP In animals it helps in the muscle contraction and constitutes a large part of the ones and teeth in the form of calcium phosphate. Naturally phosphorous is in the form of phosphate ions (PO₄³⁻) in water bodies, living beings and sedimentary rocks. Rocks are formed by precipitation and accumulation of particles transported by water and wind and deposited at the bottom of water bodies. Phosphate from sedimentary rocks can move dissolved in water in a process known as leaching, but only very low amount.  Cycle begins with the erosion of sedimentary rocks, which allows this element to be released and incorporated into the soil. Plants take it by the roots and transform it into organic matter, to integrate it into their tissue. From plants, phosphorous moves through trophic networks. When these organisms die or excrete their wastes, phosphates are used and absorbed by saprophages and thus back into the soil. In aquatic ecosystems also the phosphates are absorbed into the aquatic autotrophic organisms, and mobilized trough food webs. When these organisms die or excrete their waste, through years they form phosphate sedimentary rocks that can move from the ocean to the earth through a https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/phosphorus-cycle/ process called uplift.  Human impact on the phosphorous cycle Accelerated the phosphorous cycle by increasing the availability of this element by 33% through mining. Phosphorous used in agriculture moves from fields into rivers, lakes, and oceans through aquatic and wind erosion This causes eutrophication which is the excessive enrichment of ecosystems with nutrients. Eutrophic effects: Increased primary production (growth of certain photosynthetic organisms) Reduced biodiversity, as only organisms that tolerate high nutrient levels thrive. Humans have also increased the phosphorus deposits in marine ecosystems by 2 to 6 times compared to level before 1800, leading to ecological imbalances. https://slideplayer.com/slide/16392935/ This highlights the need for sustainable phosphorous use to protect ecosystems and biodiversity. 3.5.4 Nitrogen cycle Nitrogen is an essential constituent of molecules such as Atmospheric nitrogen fixation proteins, DNA, RNA, and chlorophyll. However, its availability for primary producers and primary consumers is very low, 78.1% of this element is stored in the atmosphere as molecular gas (N2), which cannot be absorbed the autotrophs. Solar rays, chemically transform this atmospheric nitrogen to nitrogen oxides (nitric oxide NO, nitrous oxide N2O and nitrogen dioxide NO2) and ammonia (NH3), which can be deposited in the terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Ammonia is captured by primary producers to form tissues and enter the trophic chains. Cattles can emit nitrous oxide (a powerful greenhouse gas) and ammonia to the atmosphere through flatulence, burps and feces. Burning of fossil fuels, fires, destruction of vegetation, industrial activities, wastewater release and fertilizer use. Decomposition of dead tissues of all organisms releases organic nitrogen dissolved in the soil in the form of small organic molecules and is absorbed by plants. Urea in the urine of animals can be converted to ammonia by microbial action. https://www.alltech.com/blog/biofertilization-increased-soil-nitrogen-availability  Atmospheric molecular Nitrogen is also transformed in ammonia by nitrogen fixation by terrestrial and marine bacteria and by industrial fixation carried by humans to produce fertilizers for their crops. Ammonia produced, by microbial action is converted into nitrates NO3- in a process called nitrification. Nitrogen oxides, Nitrates and ammonia are reintegrated into the atmosphere in the form of molecular nitrogen through the process of denitrification, also carried out by bacteria. https://byjus.com/biology/nitrogen-cycle/ Human impact on the Nitrogen cycle Humans have disrupted the nitrogen cycle by increasing nitrogen availability in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems through the excessive use of fertilizers. This causes eutrophication leading to: Nitrogen pollution that poisons water and harms the growth and survival of many plants and algae. Favoring only a few photosynthetic organisms that tolerate high nitrogen levels causing them to dominate landscapes, rivers, lakes and coastal areas. Loss of biodiversity in affected ecosystems, as only nitrogen- tolerant species thrive. This highlights the need for better fertilizer management to maintain health ecosystems to protect the biodiversity.  3.6 Ecological Niche and the Role of Ecological Interactions Each organism has got a different role in an ecosystem, which means, it occupies different ecological niche. In the nature each species plays a particular role. Ecological niche refers to the specific ecological role that each species playes within the structure and functioning of a community, which consists of all the biotic and abiotic aspects of a species existence, including all physical, chemical and biological factors required for their survival, health and reproduction. Examples: ▪ Primary producers of the upper stratum of forests ▪ Herbivores eat leaves when it is cloudy, others eat roots at noon ▪ Carnivores feed on lizards at dawn, others eat flying insects ▪ Beetles eat feces in summer while some flies eat them in winter. https://es.slideshare.net/slideshow/lesson-24-ecological-niche-45561935/45561935 ▪ Some animals eat corpses and others eat decaying leaves. ▪ Some bat pollinate agaves, while certain bees pollinate cacti.  The The intervals morphological of the , physiological multitude of ane behavioral conditions traits within which conferred by they can certain survive, grow and reproduce abilities Ecological Niche of a The group of resources organisms is the abstract they space consume formed by: The space and The time ( in the organisms day or in the that feed at year) their expense Hutchinson’s Niche concept The ecological niche is described as a multi-dimensional space, considering various environment factors such as temperature, humidity and soil conditions.  Performance and Tolerance Curves Organisms have an optimal range of various environmental factors shown in the form of a bell curve known as the Shelford tolerance curve. (In honor of the discoverer, US ecologist Victor Ernest Shelford). At extreme environmental conditions, (too hot or too cold), organisms may struggle to survive, while in optimal conditions they grow and reproduce.  Resources Physical Components of the Ecological Niche The food and other space materials organisms need The environment where the for growth, reproduction species lives. and survival. Components of the Ecological niche Time Conditions of survival The periods during which Include temperature, humidity, and soil pH that the species can organisms are active and tolerate. perform life processes.  Habitat and Ecological niche Habitat: where an organism lives (home). Ecological niche: what an organism does in an ecosystem (profession). Ecological niche includes factors like interactions with other species like who the organism eats, and who eat it and how it uses resources.  Ecological Equivalents Sometimes, organisms from different regions, but belonging to different species can have similar niches and is known as ecological equivalents. Example: North American flying squirrels, (Glaucomys) and Australian marsupials, (Petaurus) occupy similar niches despite being from different evolutionary lineages. Evolutionary Convergence The process where unrelated species become morphologically similar because they occupy similar niches.  Fundamental niche and Promedial niche Fundamental niche: the total range of environmental condition and resources an organism can theoretically use in the absence of competition or predation. Promedial niche: the actual niche when an organism occupies when interacting with competitors and predators, often a smaller subset of the fundamental niche. Chthamalus stellatus has the potential to be distributed a long the entire width of the coast, both in low and humid areas and in high and dry areas, (fundamental niche), however, in the presence of Balanus balanoides, C. stellatus distributes only in the high and dry areas of the beach. (Promedial niche).  Competition and Predation Competition and predation generally reduce the size of an organism’s niche. The competitive exclusion principle (also called the Gause principle) states that two species with identical niches cannot coexist indefinitely because one will outcompete the other. Can be avoided if one of the two species in competition evolves to use other different resources, another time of day, increase or decrease its body size or maintain a different seasonality.  Resource Partitioning If the competition determines that one of the species uses other resources, it is said that there is a partition of resources, which prevents the species from competing. 3.7 Factors that Determine the Climate 3.7.1 Climate, Weather and Climate Elements Climate: the average state of the conditions of the atmosphere that characterize a region over a long period of time (at least 30 years). Climatology: the study of climate Weather: conditions that the atmosphere has in a moment given and in a particular place.  An element of the climate is any physical variable that can be measures in the atmosphere which are: ✓ Temperature ✓ Solar radiation ✓ Atmospheric pressure ✓ Wind ✓ Precipitation ✓ relative humidity and ✓ cloudiness Related with heat Related to the transfer movement of water  Thermodynamic elements Temperature Solar radiation Amount of heat energy accumulated in the air. Unit: Degree Celsius (ºC). Amount of light energy Measure with thermometer. comes fromthe sun that Depends on solar radiation, altitude, and wind force and hits the earth¨s surface. speed. Example: the annual average temperature of Guadalupe, N.L, is 22.1 ºC but varies from 14.1ºC to 28. 4ºC  Atmospheric pressure Wind direction and speed Weight exerted by the mass of air on a surface unit. Horizontal movement of air masses, which are Depends on the altitude, higher above the sea level produced by differences in air density also depends on than at the top of the mountains. atmospheric pressure. Measure with barometer. Measure with anemometer. Expressed as millimeters of mercury (mmHg), Strong winds can reach upto 70 kilometerper hour. (In torrs (Torr) and kilopascals (kPa). Monterrey 2018 December). Example: the atmospheric pressure at sea level is 1 Hurricane Gilberto of 5th category hit NuevoLeon and Atm= 760mmHg = 101.3kPa, whereas at the tip of Tamaulipas in 1988, reached upto 295km/h. Everest is 38.3kPa (287 Torr= 0.38Atm  Precipitation Amount of water falls either as liquid or as solid from the atmosphere to the Earth. Depends on the temperature of the region. When more water evaporates, more water will fall when it condenses in the atmosphere. Measured with a rain gauge in millimeters. The unit in linear millimeters is obtained. A unit of water volume (mm³) is divided by one of surface area (mm²). 1 mm³/ mm² = 1mm Example: In Monterrey, the average rain fall per year is 604mm. September is the rainiest month with 150.6mm. Last week we had 76mm of rain here in Monterrey.  Relative humidity Cloudiness Percentage of water vapor that contains a unit of air volume. Percentage of sky that is covered by Depends on the temperature, higher the clouds. temperature, higher the evaporation Directly affect the weather Measured with a hygrometer Alter the amount of solar radiation that Units are in percentage. can affect the earth’s surface. Measured by observing the fraction of the Example: In Ciudad Victoria, Tamaulipas, the sky that is covered by clouds relative humidity can vary from 0% in January to 74% in September. Example: The average cloudiness in Ciudad Apodaca, Nuevo Leon, varies between 23% in June and 52% in September. 3.7.2 Factors that affect the climate Latitude: The angle at which each place on the planet is presented with respect to the equator line and goes from 0º (on the equatorial line) to 90º (at the poles). Earth’s latitude influences how much solar radiation a region receives. The equator gets the most direct sunlight making it the warmest, while the poles receive oblique rays, resulting in colder climates, which makes the tropical regions rear the equator are warm and the areas near the poles are cold. Altitude The height that reaches a place on Earth from sea level. The higher the height with respect to sea level, the lower the atmospheric pressure and the lower the air temperature On average, temperature decreases by about 0.6ºC for every 100 meters of altitude and that’s why the mountain peaks are often covered with snow even in the tropical regions. Relief Mountains influences rainfall and temperature in 4 ways Differential incidence of rays By orographic rain shadow effect Due to the slope of Foehn effect Due to the differential accumulation of water between hillsides and mountains The windward side of a mountain (facing the wind), tends to be wetter due to the orographic effect, where rising air cools and condenses leading to rain The leeward side (facing away from the wind) is drier, a phenomenon called a rain shadow. Marine currents Ocean currents can warm or cool nearby land. The Gulf Stream brings warm water from the equator towards Europe, moderating its climate, while cold currents along western coasts dry out these regions. Coriolis effect, determine that the fluids in the northern hemisphere move to the right (clockwise) while in the southern hemisphere move to the left. Continentality Areas near the sea experience greater precipitation and are more humid than areas within continents or away from water bodies. Areas far from the ocean, called continental regions, experience more extreme temperature. They cool down faster in winter and heat up more in summer, compared to coastal areas that have more stable temperature. Sea works as a thermoregulator, as the water heats and cools slower than the land. Vegetation Vegetation emits steam by evapotranspiration that increases air humidity and cloud formation which regulates temperature variations. Shadow avoids the incidences of sunlight on the ground and favors cooler temperature during the day. At the local level, it reduces wind speed, and at the regional level, vegetation increases precipit 3.7.3 Types of Climate Climates are classified according to the levels of temperature, precipitation, evaporation and season of the year in which it rains. Koppen classification system defines the climate by letters: the first capital letter indicates the main type of weather, and then a second letter indicates the climate subtype. Tropical or warm humid climate (A). Areas where the temperature of the coldest month is higher than 18ºC. Precipitation is greater than evaporation. Classified according to the pattern in which the rains in the year and how large they are in the summer. Tropical humid with rains all year around(Af) Tropical humid with rains in summer (Am) Tropical subhumid with rains in summer (Aw) Dry climate (B) Regions where evaporation exceeds rainfall levels. Classified as: Desert or arid climate (BW) Semi-arid climate (BS) rains a little more than BW. Temperate humid climate Places where the temperature of the coldest month does not exceed 18ºC, but always greater than -3ºC. Precipitation is greater than evaporation. Subtypes classification depending on how the rains are distributed to all year around. Wet temperate with rains throughout the year (Cf) Wet temperate with rains in summer (Cw) Wet temperate with rains in winter (Cs) Cold climate (D) Areas where the average temperature of the warmest month is above 10º and that of the coldest month is below -3ºC Polar climate Regions where the average temperature of the warmest months is below 10ºC. 3.8 Ecosystems of Mexico Mexico´s rich ecosystem is due to 1. Geo-diverse country: topology includs coastal planes, plateaus, mountain ranges like Sierra Madre Oriental, Sierra Madre Occidental, Sierra Madre del Sur and the Transversal Volcanic Axis. 2. Latitudinal and altitudinal geographical features: range from tropical and humid of the southeast of the country to the desert and semi-arid of the north, including temperate climates of the mountainous areas. 3. Country is located n an area of the planet where two biogeographic zones converge: the Antarctic and the Neotropical 4. An extensive Maritime and insular territory that hosts wide variety of marine and coastal ecosystems, which include coral reefs and mangroves.  3.8.1 Natural Terrestrial Ecosystems Tropical rainforest Distribution: Sinaloa, Tamaulipas, Huasteca Potosina, northern Hidalgo, Veracruz, Tabasco and the Yucatan Peninsula. Characteristics: Includes evergreen tropical Dominate tall (30-40m) and medium (20-30m) trees. forest and sub-deciduous Distributed in areas with humid tropical climates with rains tropical forest throughout the year, or during the summer (Af and Am) with annual rainfall of 1000mm Leaves are evergreen, they are sub-deciduous. Flora Lianas, epiphytic plants like orchids and bromeliads, ferns and fungi. Trees like cedar, mahogany, breadnut  Dry Tropical rainforest Distribution: Along the western coast of the country from the south of Sonora and southwest of Chihuahua to Chiapas, some parts of Baja California, Tamaulipas, Veracruz and north of the Yucatan Peninsula. Characteristics: Also known as tropical deciduous forest or low jungle. Tress with small spines dominate (between 7.5 and 15m high). Very rainy season from June to October Very dry season from November to May Temperature between 20ºC and 29ºC Varied precipitation ranging from 100 to 1800mm. Deciduous behavior (tress lose their leaves) Most frequent species: Copalillo, ceiba, cazahuate and cactos columnares Fauna is very similar to that of humid rainforests.  Xerophilous scrub Distribution: Distributed mainly in the north, covers, large part of the peninsula of Baja California, costal plain of Sonora, a great part of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, Durango, Tamaulipas, Zacatecas and some parts of San Luis Potosi, Guanajuato, Jalisco, Oaxaca, Puebla, Hidalgo and Mexico City. Characteristics: Vegetation dominated by small leaved shrubs and succulent plants such as cacti and magueys. Coexist with deciduous tress of less than 4m high, like creosote bush, mesquite, huisache and acacia. Areas of desert and semi-arid climate (BS and BW). Rainfall less than 700mm Temperature between 12ºC and 26ºC Extensive dry season of seven to 12 months. The terrestrial ecosystem that has the greatest extent distribution in the country which covers 40% of the territory.  Flora Izotales: yucas Tetecheras: the columnar cacti Nopaleras: plants of Optunia called tetechos genus Inert scrubs: Scrubs without Rosetophilic scrubs : agaves throns and yucas Spiny scrubs: Scrubs with throns Tarantulas Fauna Bees Scorpions Beetles Quails Roadrunners Crows Buzzards Coyotes Kangaroo rats Tuzas Bats  Spiny forest Distribution: From the coastal plain of Sonora to Sinaloa and inthe northern parts of Veracruz, certain parts of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, Zacatecas and San Luis Potosi. Widely spread in Guanajuato and adjacent areas of Michoacan and Queretaro. Characteristics: Dominated by throny trees and deciduous tress between 4 and 15 m high Develops in semi-arid dry climates Temperature vares from 17ºC and 29ºC Precipitation between 350-2000mm.  Flora Palo blanco Cardon or Sahuaro Acacia (Lysiloma cactus candidadum) Cuachalalate (Amphipterygi um adstringens Guayacan ) (Handroanthus chrysanthus)  Fauna Spiders Ants Bedbugs Aphids Beetles Butterflies Vertebrates such as lizards, desert iguanas, mourning gecko,small vipers, foxes, skunks, coyotes, rabbits, rodents, tlacuaches and quails  Temperate forest Distribution: Distributed along the Sierra Madre Occidental, the Sierra Madre Oriental, the Transversal Volcani Aixis and the Sierra Madre del Sur. Characteristics: Found in the mountainous regions of the summer and with a cold winter (Cw). Dominated by trees adapted to the cold of winter and include pine forest (Pinus), oak (Quercus), oyamel (Abies), juniper (Juniperus) and cypress (Cupresus).  Pinus peuce (Acicular) Abies (Acicular) Characteristics: The leaves of these trees withstand very cold temperatures and can be hard (¨Sclerophilic¨, like those of the oaks), in the form of needles (¨acicular¨ as in the pines and oyameles), or in the form of scales (¨escuamifolias¨, as in junipers and cypress). Found in the mountainous regions of the country that have a humid and subhumid temerate climate with rains in summer and with a cold winter (Cw). Quercus alba (Sclerophilic) Junipers (escuamifolias) Cypress (escuamifolias)  Flora Characteristics: Located at altitudes between 2000 and 4200 m.a.s.l. Strawberry tree Saucillo (Acanthosyris falcata) Mild and semi cold temperature Temperature between 12ºC and 23ºC, with a possibility to reach 0ºC in the winter in areas that have a rainfall of between 600 and 1000mm. Height of pine forest trees between 8 and 40 m and found in the highest parts of the mountain. Height of oak forest: 4 and 25 m, found at the lowest part of the mountain. Height of oyameal forest: 20 and 50 m Height of juniper forest: 2 and 15 m Tepozan Height of cypress forest: 15 and 35 m Very frequent to see the mixed forest, due to the transition from one type of forest to another is progressive. Can be pine-oak forest when pines are abundant or oak-pine forest when oaks are abundant.  Fauna Spiders Pseudo scorpions aphids Beetles Butterflies Ants Frogs Toads Vipers Rattlesnake Lizards Eagles Hawks Hummingbirds Owls Woodpecker, acorn and bats  Mesophilic mountain forest Distribution: Distributed in ravines between slightly sunny and humid mountains, especially to the east of the Sierra Madre Oriental, which covers from the south of Tamaulipas, a small part of Nuevo Leon to the north of Chiapas and some places in the Valley of Mexico Characteristics: Also known as foggy forest. Dominated by trees 8 to 40m high broadleaf (“mesophilic”). Located in the altitudes between 800-2400 m.a.s.l. Areas with humid temperate climate with rains throughout the year (Cf). Temperature between 12ºC and 23ºC. Rainfall 1000 and 3000mm Mist covers it at dawn and dusk.  Flora Pines Oaks Oyamel Magnolia Liquid amber Caudillo Arbol de la manitas Epiphytic plants such as bromeliads and orchids Diversity of fungi.  Fauna Arthropods Amphibians Reptiles Eagles Owls Quetzals Hummingbirds Bats Squirrels armadillos White-tailed deer Coyotes Gray fox  Grassland Distribution: Distributed mainly to the west of Sierra Madre Occidental in Sonora, Chihuahua, Durango, Zacatecas, Aguascalientes and Northern Jalisco, as well as southwest of San Luis Potosi and in small part of Nuevo Leon. Characteristics: Dominated by grass and herbs 20-70cm high which include mountain zacatonales. Located in semi-arid climate zones (BS). Altitude between 1,100 to 1,500 m.a.s.l. Temperature between 12ºC and 20ºC. Precipitation 300-600mm  Flora Navajita grass Buffalo grass Silver popotillo Llanero grass Red grass Common toboso Paniso carpet Wolf grass Spider grass Coexist with shrubs and trees like Mesquite Ocotillo Lechuguilla Candelilla Creosote bush Poplar sycamore  Fauna Arthropods such as termites, grasshoppers, beetles, butterflies, bees and bumblebees Prairie dog Antelope bison Porcupine Tlalcoyote Northern fox Excavating rodents Rabbits Hare Golden eagle Prairie hawk Mountain plover Prairie owl 3.8.2 Underground Ecosystems: Caves Underground ecosystems are in caves or caverns. Habitats exists underground, outside the influence of sunlight Energy comes from organic matter that is carried by water currents into the caverns, by the production of feces and the death of organisms that feed on the outside such as bat or by the energy fixed by chemo-autotrophic bacteria.  Types of Caves 1. Grottoes: Formed by the dissolution of the rocks and have stalactites, stalagmites and columns, as well as calcium carbonate concretions 2. Lave tubes: underground channels where lava once flowed 3. Anquihalinas: flooded caves that open to the surface by the cenotes and that maintain water with different degrees of salinity, which depends on its proximity or remoteness with the sea. 4.