Population and Health - SSG-SG-TB-PP PDF

Population and Health Unit 1: Population and Health Why the study of population geography is important. Geographers analyze population problems by first Population distribution is describing where people are examined by : found across Earth....

Population and Health Unit 1: Population and Health Why the study of population geography is important. Geographers analyze population problems by first Population distribution is describing where people are examined by : found across Earth. Concentration 1. Population Distribution Density 2. Growth Rates 3. Health and Medical Care World population portions Earths land divided into 7 portions. Geographers are concerned Each portion is +- 1billion people with the populations versus the resources available. World population cartogram Countries are displayed by Overpopulation occurs when size of population rather the number of people than land. exceeds the capacity of the environment to support life. Lesson 2: Overpopulation Overpopulation happens when a population surpasses the environmental carrying capacity, leading to unsustainable living standards and quality of life. Population growth requires Other requirements that natural resources populations have employment to earn a clean water and air livelihood food and crops for nutrition waste removal energy for cooking and water treatment domestic use services such as electricity building materials and housing potable water; health care for shelter. education communications networks safety and security. Traditions / cultural beliefs: In rural agricultural areas higher birth rates=more labour. Standard of the education of girl In patriarchal societies, a children: large family is connected to Direct connection to education and his importance birth rates. awareness of rights, health, and the prospect of independence from men Lack of rights of woman and that higher education can offer. children: In patriarchal societies, woman have little rights over their Lack of access to and bodies. knowledge about contraception: Men decide when and how Information on contraception many children to have. and reproductive health is limited in rural areas and patriarchal societies. Religious reasons: Larger families show blessings. Contraception is prohibited. Lesson 3: Population Concentrations four main population Reasons Some Land Areas concentrations on Earth Are Not Part of the Ecumene 2/3 of the worlds population: East Areas of Earth Dry Lands =20% Earths surface Asia, South Asia, Europe, and occupied by permanent Not suited for agriculture. Southeast Asia. Population are adapted to human settlement is Other clusters: N.America and Africa climate and survive by raising called the ecumene. These areas often have favorable animals. Some areas on earth climates and resources, attracting are to harsh inhabit large populations. Cold lands = North and South In contrast, regions with harsh Pole Ground is covered in ice or climates and limited resources tend permanently frozen to be sparsely populated. (permafrost). The four population clusters occupy: low-lying areas Wet Lands = near the equator fertile soil High levels of rain temperate climate. High temperatures and rain Most live near the ocean or near a deplete soil of nutrients for river with easy access to an ocean. agriculture. High Lands = High altitudes Mountains are steep, snow covered and sparsely populated. Lesson 4: Population Density Population Density Physiological Density Physiological density relates population size to resource availability in a region. Arithmetic Density Agricultural Density Arithmetic density enables Agricultural density indicates easy comparison of population the ratio of farmers to arable conditions across different land, highlighting economic countries differences between countries.  Arithmetic Density Physiological Density Agricultural Density Arable land = land suited for agriculture. Comparing AD and PD = understand Study PD and AD= relationship between the capacity of the land to yield population and resources in a country. food.  Natural and Human Factors that Affect Population Distribution PHYSICAL / NATURAL ENVIRONMENT FACTORS SOCIAL / HUMAN FACTORS Climate: People settle in areas with moderate climatic Economy: Developed economies attract people for conditions. economic opportunities. Extreme conditions: Kalahari (hot, dry), Alaska (cold, Example: Johannesburg and Cape Town in South Africa. wet). Politics: Stable political systems encourage settlement; Water: Reliable water sources are essential for human unstable systems cause outward migration. settlement. Examples: Zimbabwe, Syria. Culture or Social Factors: Places with longstanding Soil: Fertile soil attracts agricultural activities. traditions of settlement, such as Vatican City, linked to Example: Overberg region, Western Cape. religious artifacts. Natural Environment: Plains and natural harbors are Transport and Communications: Good networks of more suitable for large settlements compared to polar roads, railways, air travel, and communication infrastruc regions, deserts, and forests. tures encourage settlement. Infrastructure: Availability of roads, water supply, Resources: Settlements develop around resources like electricity, sewage, healthcare, and communication coal, fish, and minerals for trade and industry. networks supports settlement. Lesson 5: Population Indicators (Demographics) Natural increase and The future population of population growth Births and Deaths the world National Increase is the % in Demography= scientific study of the which the population grows in a population characteristics. Fertility year, excluding migration. Demographers look at how people are Crude Birth Rate = NI affects the Doubling Time = distributed spatially by: total lives births per year number of years needed to for every 1000 people. double the population. 1. age Mirrors the NIR 2. gender Life Expectancy = number of years an individual will live given Mortality 3. occupation the social, economic and medical Crude Death Rate= 4. fertility conditions. 5. health. number of deaths per Life Expectancy at birth= year for every 1000 average number of years a people alive. newborn infant will live. Total Fertility Rate= average number of children a woman will have in her child bearing years. 95% of NIR = developing geographers use TFR to measure the countries number of births in society. To understand regional NIR differences, geographers study fertility and mortality rates. GDP per Capita= Country’s income Total population Doctor ratio= 1 physician per 1000 of the population Number of live births * 1000 Crude Birth Rate= Total population Life Expectancy= average number of years a person can expect to live. Number of deaths*1000 Crude death Rate= Total population Literacy Rate= % of population in an age group who can read and write. Number of infant deaths Infant Mortality Rate= 1000 births Percentage of Population Urbanized= % of population living in cities and towns. Number of maternal deaths Maternal Mortality Rate= 100 000 births Number of births Total Fertility Rate= Child bearing years Lesson 6: Population Pyramids A population pyramid is a bar graph that displays the percentage of a place’s population for each age and gender. Shows if a country's population is expanding or contracting. Shows other events with mass effects on population such as mass immigration, mass emigration or a natural disaster. Male on the left Female on the right 5 year age groups lowest age at the bottom Width of bar= %of popullation Highest age at the top. Lesson 6: Population Pyramids Expansive population Constrictive population Stationary population pyramids pyramids pyramids Large % of population in Constricted at the bottom. Proportions in each group young age groups. Lower % of young ages in of the population that are High fertility rates with the population. roughly equal. lower life expectancies. Declining birth rates since No decrease or increase in Third-world countries have each succeeding age group population; it is stable expansive population is getting smaller and pyramids smaller. Lesson 7: The Demographic Transition Model (DTM) High Birth and Death Rates: In the beginning, both Demographic transition= It describes the shift birth rates (CBR) and death rates (CDR) are high. from high birth and death rates with a low rate Lots of babies are born, but many people are of natural increase to low birth and death rates dying, so the overall population doesn't grow much. with a higher total population. Declining Death Rates: Next, advancements in medicine, sanitation, and food supply reduce the death rates, but birth rates remain high. This leads to a rapid increase in population (high NIR). Declining Birth Rates: As the country develops further, birth rates start to fall due to family planning, education, and economic growth. The death rates continue to be low, so the population grows, but at a slower rate (lower NIR). Low Birth and Death Rates: Finally, both birth and death rates are low. This results in a stable or slowly growing population, with a higher total population compared to the initial stage. the demographic transition model helps us understand how and why a country's population changes over time, from lots of births and deaths to low births and deaths. In Stage 1, both birth and death In Stage 3, countries experience a rates are high, resulting in a low In Stage 2, countries more modest population growth. total population. This was typical experience very high population Birth rates decline rapidly, and of pre-industrial societies where growth due to rapidly declining death rates continue to fall, but at agriculture was the main death rates while birth rates a slower pace compared to Stage occupation, and high birth and remain high. People tend to have fewer children death rates were common. due to economic changes, urbanization, and better education. In Stage 4, countries have very low birth rates and low or slightly increasing death rates, resulting In Stage 5, countries experience a decline in in zero or negative natural increase rates, known population due to very low birth rates and an as zero population growth (ZPG). This balance is aging population. Where people tend to have influenced by social changes, such as increased fewer children and choose to have them later in female workforce participation and better access life. to contraception. Population growth and resource theory He argued that population grows Malthusian Catastrophe: geometrically while food supply Malthus warned that without increases arithmetically. Without preventive checks, unchecked "moral restraint" to reduce birth rates population growth could lead to or disasters to raise death rates, widespread misery, famine, and population growth could overstrain disease due to overpopulation and resources. resource depletion. Malthus identified two types of checks that would naturally limit Impact of Malthus' Theory: population growth: While technological advancements and Positive Checks: Natural forces like improved resource management have famine, disease, and war that reduce prevented global overpopulation, population numbers by causing Malthus' theory initiated important suffering and mortality. discussions about the relationship Preventive Checks: Actions taken by between population growth and individuals and societies to control resource availability. population growth, such as delayed It laid the groundwork for future marriage, abstinence, and birth considerations of sustainable control. development and the environmental impacts of human activities Contemporary Neo-Malthusians and Critics Neo-Malthusianism builds upon Malthus' Carrying Capacity: ideas but incorporates modern concerns Neo-Malthusians focus on the "carrying about technology, environmental capacity," the maximum population an degradation, and the broader impact of environment can support without human activities on the planet. resource degradation. They warn that exceeding this capacity risks ecological imbalances and harms Population Pressure: both human populations and ecosystems. Neo-Malthusians believe rapid population growth strains natural resources, causing overexploitation of land and water, leading to resource depletion, Resource Scarcity: environmental degradation, and lower Neo-Malthusians argue that growing quality of life for communities. populations increase demand for resources such as food, water, and energy. Unsustainable production and The Neo-Malthusian theory recognizes consumption can lead to resource the global environmental effects of scarcity, resulting in social and economic unchecked population growth, addressing conflicts, worsening inequalities, and issues like pollution, deforestation, destabilizing societies. biodiversity loss, and climate change due to heightened human activity. Comparison Aspect Malthus' Theory of Population Growth Neo-Malthusian Theory Builds upon Malthus' ideas with modern Origin Proposed by Thomas Malthus in 1798 perspectives Population grows exponentially, while Rapid population growth can outpace resource Main Idea resources grow linearly, leading to availability, causing environmental degradation and overpopulation and scarcity resource scarcity Positive checks (famine, disease, war) and Checks on Emphasizes resource depletion, environmental preventive checks (delayed marriage, abstine Population impact, and carrying capacity nce, birth control) Population pressure, environmental sustainability, Focus Population growth and resource depletion and resource scarcity Acknowledges global consequences like pollution, Environmental Limited consideration of environmental deforestation, biodiversity loss, and climate Impact impact change Technological Considers technological advancements but warns Less emphasis on technology's role Advancements against over-reliance on them Modern concerns about sustainability and resource Examples Historical context of Industrial Revolution management strategies to address conservation of natural resources and overpopulation: Conserve all varieties of food, timber plants, livestock, microbes, and agricultural anim als. Identify and conserve all economically important organisms. Preserve unique ecosystems first. Utilize resources efficiently. Prevent poaching and hunting of wild animals. Develop reserves and protected areas carefully. Reduce the levels of pollutants in the environment. Strictly prohibit deforestation. Strictly follow environmental laws. Conserve useful and endangered species of plants and animals in their natural and arti ficial habitats. Create public awareness regarding biodiversity conservation and its importance. Lesson 8: Strategies to Decrease Crude Birth Rate (CBR) DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION China's population policies POSSIBLE STAGE 5: DECLINE One child policy 1980 Families receive financial subsidies, better housing, longer maternity leave if agreed to have one child. Very low CBR Free contraceptives, abortions and Increasing CDR sterilizations were offered to further Declining NIR discourage births. India’s population policies First country to implement family planning in 1952. Several decades of declining CBR , a Clinics, alternative birth control, free or stage 5 country will have less woman low cost birth control devices and of child bearing age. legalized abortions were offered. Many European and former communist Family planning programs have been countries already have a negative NIR. sponsored, information has been shared This stems from heavily controlled on TV, radio and pamphlets. family planning programs. Today, sterilization of woman is the most common form of birth control. Epidemiologic Futures POSSIBLE STAGE 5 CAUSE: POSSIBLE STAGE 5 CAUSE: POSSIBLE STAGE 5 CAUSE: EVOLUTION POVERTY CONNECTIONS Infectious diseases have Infectious diseases are more Easier travel methods have evolved and changed by common in poor areas due made it easier for transmission developing a resistance to to unsanitary conditions. of diseases. drugs and insecticides. People cant afford medicine AIDS diffused from sub-Saharan Antibiotics and genetic for treatment. Africa engineering have contributed TB is still prevalent in Ebola diffused from DRC. to the emergence of new developing countries versus Some countries lack the medical strains of viruses and bacteria. developed countries. care to prevent the spread of viruses and save those who have been infected. Factors reducing Description population A set of measures taken by a State to modify its population size, either by State Policy promoting large families or immigration to increase it, or encouraging birth limitation to decrease it. Disease Prevalence of illness that can reduce population through increased mortality rates. "The negative impact following an actual occurrence of natural hazard in the event Natural Disasters that it significantly harms a community". Can cause loss of life, property damage, and economic harm. Conflict Armed conflicts and wars that lead to loss of life and displacement of populations. The permanent change of residence by an individual or group, excluding transitory Migration movements like nomadism, migrant labor, commuting, and tourism. Family planning helps people achieve their desired number of children and manage Family planning pregnancy spacing. It's essential for controlling population growth and minimizing negative economic and environmental impacts. Improved status and rights Woman with better education, awareness of their rights, and financial independence of women are in a better position to refuse pregnancy and childbirth. Once women are able to access and attain higher levels of education they can educational attainment of acquire knowledge and skills that leads to employment and financial autonomy over women their own lives. Development Lesson 1: What is Development? What is Development Development Regions Development refers to a country's More Developed Country (MDC): advancement in improving its economy (through highly developed country=progressed further diffusion of knowledge and technological along the developmental continuum. advancements) and society for better quality of life. Less Developed Country (LDC): Progress is assessed through various has some progress but still less than a development indicators. developed country. Environmental factors are vital, with an emphasis on energy conservation and The world is divided between 2 developed sustainable growth. regions and 7 developing regions. Development Continuum Countries are classified according to their level of development. Process of improving the conditions of people through diffusion of knowledge and technology. Every country lies somewhere along a continuum of development, which represents varying stages of progress. Lesson 2: Indicators of Development Social Indicators of development Human and social development Crude Birth Rate(CBR) Crude Death Rate (CDR) Life Expectancy (LE) Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) Human or social development aims to enhance the Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR) quality of life by ensuring access to basic needs, opportunities, and rights. Total Fertility Rate (TFR) It is essential for fostering an equitable society Pupil Teacher Ratio (PTR) where individuals can achieve their full potential Literacy Rate (LR) and contribute to their communities. Food and nutrition: Components: specified % of population must meet Health: Access to healthcare services, improving calorific standards. life expectancy, and reducing disease. Education: Ensuring quality education for all, increasing literacy rates, and promoting lifelong Doctor to population ratio: learning. physicians per 1000 of the population. Equality: Promoting gender equality, social justice, The WHO recommends 2.5 physicians. and reducing disparities between different social groups. Percentage or workers in the primary Social Services: Providing social safety nets, housing, and welfare programs. sector: higher % of population in the primary sector=developing country. Access to safe water  Social Indicators of development Measure Description Measures how many babies are born per 1,000 people in a population per year. Crude Birth Rate (CBR) Poorer countries have higher CBR due to high replacement rates, poor access to family planning, and tradition of large families. Measures how many people die per 1,000 people in a population per year. Less useful Crude Death Rate (CDR) as a measure of development due to improved medicine and healthcare in many poorer countries. Age to which people can expect to live. Indicates overall quality of life, including Life Expectancy (LE) nutrition, stress, access to healthcare, and happiness. Higher in developed regions (80s) and lower in many African countries (50s). Measures how many babies die per 1,000 live births per year. Indicates the quality of Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) healthcare and protection of the most vulnerable in society. Measures the death of mothers during childbirth. Indicates issues like lack of proper Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR) food, shortage of hospitals/doctors, lack of medical facilities, and gender inequality. Total number of children a woman could have during her reproductive years based on Total Fertility Rate (TFR) specific age-related fertility rates. Global average TFR is 2.4, higher in Sub- Saharan Africa (4.7). Indicates time and freedom constraints for women.  Other Social Indicators of development Indicator Description WHO has declared basic standards of calories available for consumption. A country is not Food and Nutrition considered developed if a specified percentage of the population does not have access to this calorific standard. Percentage of the population in an age group that can read and write. It indicates the Literacy Rate socio-economic status of a country or region. Measures the number of physicians per 1,000 people. WHO recommends at least 2.5 Doctor to Population medically trained staff (including physicians, nurses, and midwives) per 1,000 people to Ratio meet primary healthcare needs. Percentage of People Jobs in the primary sector involve the extraction of raw natural resources, such as mining in Primary Sector or agriculture. Countries with large primary sectors tend to be less developed. Access to clean, safe drinking water is vital for human health. The percentage of a Access to Safe Water population with such access indicates development. Dirty water causes illness, death, and l oss of productivity. Lesson 3: The Human Development Index (HDI) Seven regions classified as developing, with Countries get an HDI score for Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia having the development based on : lowest HDI scores. A decent standard of living. A long and healthy life. Access to knowledge. Access to Knowledge HDI Educational factors Other indicators measuring regional variations Pupil/teacher ratio: number of UN= development is also about people students enrolled divided by the becoming healthier and wiser, not just number of educators. Fewer pupils= wealthier. more effective instruction. To form the access of knowledge Literacy rate. component of the HDI, the UN combines two measures of schooling. 1. Years of schooling in today’s adults: measures the number of Education in LDC’S years an adult 25+ in a country has spent in school. 2. Expected schooling in todays youth: 16.3 years in school and likely Improved education is a major goal in to graduate college. developing countries but funds are limited. Education receives a high % of GNI, but the GNI is low to begin with thus less money is spent The population of developed countries on each pupil vs in developed countries. have a higher average of years spent Developed countries dominate publishing in school versus developing countries. works, therefore students in developing countries learn from books that are not in their native language. Health and Wealth Consumer Goods Longevity Wealth in a country is used to The U.N. has selected life expectancy at birth as a purchase goods and services in a key contributor to the Human Development Index developed country, especially good (HDI). relating to transportation nd Life expectancy at birth is the average number of communication. years a newborn can expect to live based on Motor Vehicles: access to jobs, current mortality levels. services and businesses to distribute On average, a baby born this year is expected to products. live to: Telephones: enhance communications 71 years worldwide for individuals and businesses. 80 years in developed countries Computer facilities: sharing information 57 years in sub-Saharan Africa Products promoting transportation and Developed countries experience better health communications is vital to the economies outcomes due to access to resources and healthcare, function and growth. leading to longer life expectancies. These products are not always available in They support a higher percentage of older individuals developing countries. and have fewer children reliant on working adults Minority of people who have these goods are compared to developing countries. government officials, elite and business Improved health and welfare result in higher infant owners. survival rates, with over 99.5% in developed countries Technological innovations tend to diffuse versus 94% in developing countries, where malnutrition from the urban areas to the rural areas in and inadequate medical care contribute to higher developing countries. infant mortality. Technological change is bridging the gap between LDC’S and MDC’S. Economic Indicators of development Related to the earnings and spending of money for the individual or country. It does not account for quality of life nor the environment. Gross National Product (GNP): Economic Development: total number of good and Growth and improvement of a country's economy services produced by a Measured by increases in GDP, income levels, country in a year. Includes employment opportunities, and productivity. foreign income. Components of economic development Gross Domestic Product (GDP): total value of good and Industrial Growth: Expansion of manufacturing and services produced by a country services sectors. in a year. Infrastructure: Development of physical Both GNP/GNI and GDP: infrastructure like roads, electricity, and can be given per capita telecommunications. or per person. Trade and Investment: Encouraging domestic and foreign investments and promoting exports. Job Creation: Generating employment opportunities to reduce poverty and improve living standards.  Institutional Development. World development continuum Institutional development strengthens political, legal, and administrative The World Development Continuum shows varying systems for sustainable growth. development levels across countries as a continuous Strong institutions ensure coordinated, process, not binary. transparent, and inclusive development Countries are positioned along the continuum based on efforts. economic performance, social well-being, human They provide essential structure for development, and environmental sustainability. economic growth, social welfare, and environmental protection. Highly developed countries have advanced economies and high living standards. Governance: Less developed countries struggle with poverty and Building transparent, accountable, and limited infrastructure. effective government institutions. Emerging countries are making progress but still face challenges. Legal Frameworks: Establishing laws and regulations that protect rights, promote fairness, and support development goals. Public Administration: Improving the efficiency and effectiveness of public services, such as healthcare, education, and infrastructure. Civil Society: Encouraging the participation of non- governmental organizations (NGOs), community groups, and the private sector in the development process  Lesson 4: The Economic Structure The economic structure of a country comprises methods to generate wealth through primary, secondary, and tertiary sectors, the quaternary and quinary sectors gaining importance. The quinary sector includes top decision-makers in areas like government, science, education, NGOs, and healthcare. Economic Structure Indicators of development Income Geographers observe The U.N. measures the standard of Primary sector: extracting that people generate living a index called annual gross materials from the earth and spend their national income per capita at through mining and wealth in different purchasing power parity: agriculture. ways in developed 1. Gross national income/GNI: countries than in measures the average of wealth, Secondary sector: developing countries. not the distribution of wealth manufacturers process, 2. Purchasing Power Parity (PPP): transform, and assemble Purchasing power parity (PPP) is an raw materials into useful adjustment to the GNI to account products and industries for differences among countries in that fabricate the cost of goods. manufactured goods into finished consumer goods. Tertiary sector: provision of goods and services in exchange for money.  The contribution to GNI among sectors Productivity Productivity is measured by valued added capita. Value-added is the difference between the cost of inputs and the value or price of outputs. Value Added Gross Value cost of raw = - Manufacturing of product materials and energy GNI’S in developed countries has decreased= enough farmers to provide food for the GNI’S are high in country. developing countries and growing in developing countries. Developed countries are more productive due to access to more machines ect to perform work. GNI’S is now lower in the Larger per capita GNI/GNP pays for developed country than purchase of machinery= workers more developing due to technology productive=more wealth. used for processing. Developing countries rely more on man power. Lesson 5: Paths of Development Two Paths to Development Self Sufficiency Path International Trade Path This model emphasizes economic independence and self-reliance by reducing import dependency and promoting domestic production. Countries allow foreign investments and It aims to develop local industries, create jobs, and international markets. build infrastructure, often using protectionist policies A country identifies its unique assets or like tariffs and import quotas to encourage local assets in abundance that other countries production. are willing to buy. It encourages open markets, reduced trade The self efficiency models encourages: barriers, and global integration. 1. domestic production of goods. By participating in international trade, 2. Discourage foreign ownership of businesses and countries can access new markets, acquire resources. technology, and stimulate economic 3. Protects their businesses from international growth. competition. Key elements of the self sufficiency path include: Barriers limit import of goods by imposing higher taxes= product more expensive than locally. Imposing quantities of good imported and requiring licenses to import. New businesses succeed by being shielded from competition with large international corporations by the government. Investments are spread across all sectors. Incomes in the country side are on par with urban areas, thus reducing poverty.  International Trade Path Rostow Model Each country is one of the five stages of development. Traditional society: Drive to maturity: Not yet started development. Modern technology is now used in a High % of people in agriculture. variety of industries. High % of national wealth spent on Industries experience rapid growth and ‘’nonproductive’’ activities such as workers become skilled and specialized. miliatary and religion. Preconditions for takeoff: Elite groups initates innovative economic Age of mass consumption: activities. Economy shifts from production of With influence of educated heavy industry eg steel and moves to leaders=country invests in new consumer goods such as fridges and technology and infrastructure. cars. Thus increases productivity. Takeoff: Rapid growth in limited economic activities eg textiles. Two playful tigers danced around the ancient temple. Thus they become more productive than other sectors who remain dominated by traditional practices.  Fair Trade Model Financing Development Model Description: Creating equitable trading relationships between producers in developing countries Description: and consumers in developed countries. Strategies and mechanisms for funding development initiatives. Goals: Ensuring fair wages, improving working Sources of Finance: conditions, providing better trading terms for Government budgets, international aid, small-scale producers and workers. foreign direct investment (FDI), private sector investment, international loans. Emphasis: Ethical practices, environmental sustainability, Focus: social responsibility. Mobilizing and managing financial resources to support infrastructure projects, social Products: programs, and economic development for Often includes coffee, chocolate, and sustainable growth. handicrafts. Purpose: Address global inequalities and promote sustainable development through just and transparent trade practices Lesson 6: Sustainable Development Environmental development aims to Resource: substance in the environment that is sustainably manage natural resources useful to people, economically and technologically. and ecosystems. Sustainability: use of Earths resources in a way that It supports ongoing economic and human ensures availability in the future. development without depleting Renewable resource: produced by nature and is more resources or harming the planet. rapidly consumed by humans. This approach protects the environment Nonrenewable: produced by nature slower that what for future generations, promoting a is been used by humans. healthy planet. Three Pillars of Sustainabilty Strategy Description Protecting biodiversity, forests, Sustainability requires restrictions on the use of non Conservation water bodies, and other natural renewable and renewable resources to a point where resources. the environment can supply them indefinitely. The Brundtland Report argues that sustainability can be Reducing emissions, managing Pollution Control waste, and preventing achieved by bringing together environmental environmental degradation. protection, economic growth, and social equity. Promoting renewable energy, Sustainable Practices sustainable agriculture, and eco-friendly technologies. Addressing climate change through mitigation (reducing Climate Action greenhouse gas emissions) and adaptation (preparing for climate impacts). The Society Pillar: The economy pillar: The environmental pillar: consumer choices Natural resources gain Conservation=sustainable support sustainability monetary value through use and management of when people embrace its exchange in the market Earths resources to meet value. place. human needs. For example, a consumer Supply and demand Resources conserved if might prefer clothing determines the price. used at a less rapid rate made of natural or Geographers observe than they can be recycled materials to that goods don't replaced. clothing made directly reflect their Preservation: does not from petroleum environmental costs. regard nature as a products. A resource is worth resource for human use. what a society can get out of it. Lesson 7: Inequalities in Development Unequal and Uneven Development Gender Inequality Inequality adjusted HDI Gender related development index Index To measure the extent of inequality The UN uses the Gender Gender Inequality Index (GII) the UN devised the Inequality- Inequality Index and Gender measure the gap in the level adjusted Human Development Index Related Development Index to of achievement in: (IHDI). measure gender inequality. 1. Reproductive health It modifies the HDI for inequality. 2. Empowerment If the IHDI is lower than the HDI= Gender-related 3. Labor Market some inequality. Development Index (GDI) Inequality is reduced in developed measures the gap in the The higher the GII the countries as they spent their wealth level of achievement in 3 greater the inequality on education and healthcare. levels of the HDI: between men and woman.. 1. Income GII is highest in developing 2. Education countries. 3. Life expectancy Reproductive health is the GDI: countries are ranked biggest contributor to based on deviation from gender inequality. gender parity in the 3 dimensions of the HDI. Gender Empowerment and Employment Empowerment Employment Empowerment= ability of woman to Female Labor Force achieve improvements in their own Participation-rate= % of woman status being economic and political holding full time jobs. power. This % is lower in developing countries than developed. Empowerment dimension of the GII is measured by : % of seats held in legislature % of woman who have Reproductive health and the gender inequality index completed secondary school. Reproductive health dimension of National Legislature the GII based on: In developed and developing Maternal mortality rate countries, woman hold fewer Adolescent fertility rate. political positions than men. The U.N. includes reproductive health in the Gender Inequality Index (GII) for its role in reducing child Secondary school numbers and improving maternal and child health. 54% of woman worldwide have Women in developing regions experience higher completed school compared to risks during childbirth and increased teenage 64% of men. pregnancies. Developing countries boys are Nations offering comprehensive reproductive more likely to graduate health services generally have lower fertility rates. highschool than girls.  Core and Periphery Immanuel Wallerstein’s world systems analysis: North-South Split: Developed countries are primarily north of the equator; developing countries are south. World-Systems Analysis: Developed nations constitute the "core," while developing nations are in the "periphery." Uneven Development: Economic gap between core and peripheral regions due to globalization. North America, Europe, Japan, and South Korea hold a significant share of global economic activity and wealth. Developing countries in the periphery have less access to centers of consumption, communication, wealth, and power. Semi-periphery countries are economically intermediate, situated near core and periphery regions, with special connections like Latin America to North America and Africa/Eastern Europe to Western Europe. The development of China, India, and Brazil is evolving core-periphery relationships, requiring potential classification adjustments. Not for sale Not for sale Not for sale Not for sale Not for sale Not for sale Unit 3: Migration Bronwyn Potgieter Bronwyn Potgieter Bronwyn PotgieterBronwyn Potgieter Bronwyn Potgieter Bronwyn Potgieter 2024 2024 2024 2024 2024 2024 Not for sale Not for sale Not for sale Not for sale Not for sale Not for sale Bronwyn Potgieter Bronwyn Potgieter Bronwyn PotgieterBronwyn Potgieter Bronwyn Potgieter Bronwyn Potgieter 2024 2024 2024 2024 2024 2024 Not for sale Not for sale Not for sale Not for sale Not for sale Not for sale Bronwyn Potgieter Bronwyn Potgieter Bronwyn PotgieterBronwyn Potgieter Bronwyn Potgieter Bronwyn Potgieter 2024 2024 2024 2024 2024 2024 Not for sale Not for sale Not for sale Not for sale Not for sale Not for sale BronwynPotgieter BronwynPotgieter BronwynPotgieter Bronwyn Potgieter Bronwyn Potgieter Bronwyn Potgieter 2024 2024 2024 2024 2024 2024 Not for sale Not for sale Not for sale Not for sale Not for sale Not for sale BronwynPotgieter BronwynPotgieter BronwynPotgieter Bronwyn Potgieter Bronwyn Potgieter Bronwyn Potgieter 2024 2024 2024 2024 2024 2024 Not for sale Not for sale Not for sale Not for sale Not for sale Not for sale BronwynPotgieter BronwynPotgieter BronwynPotgieter Bronwyn Potgieter Bronwyn Potgieter Bronwyn Potgieter 2024 2024 2024 2024 2024 2024 Not for sale Not for sale Not for sale Not for sale Not for sale Not for sale Lesson 1: Introduction to Migration Bronwyn Potgieter Bronwyn Potgieter Bronwyn PotgieterBronwyn Potgieter Bronwyn Potgieter Bronwyn Potgieter 2024 2024 2024 2024 2024 2024 Human migration is the movement Migration involves two-way connections Not for sale Not for sale of people from one place to Not for sale Not for sale Not for sale between locations. Not for sale Bronwyn Bronwyn Bronwyn PotgieterBronwyn Bronwyn Bronwyn Potgieter another, typically permanently. Emigration: Moving from a location. Potgieterstudy spatialPotgieter Geographers Potgieter Immigration: Potgieter Moving to a location. 2024 2024 distribution, where people emigrate 2024 2024 2024 Net migration: The difference between 2024 from, migrate to, and the reasons immigrants and emigrants. Not for sale Not for sale behind these movements. Not for sale Not for sale Not for sale Not for sale Positive (net in-migration): More immigrants Bronwyn Potgieter Bronwyn Potgieter Bronwyn PotgieterBronwyn Bronwyn Bronwyn Potgieter than emigrants. Potgieter Negative Potgieter (net out-migration): More 2024 2024 2024 2024 2024 emigrants than immigrants. 2024 n = Not for sale Not for sale Not for sale Not for sale Not for sale Not for sale atio igr Imm BronwynPotgieter BronwynPotgieter BronwynPotgieter Bronwyn Potgieter Bronwyn Potgieter Bronwyn Potgieter 2024 2024 2024 2024 2024 2024 Not for sale Not for sale Not for sale Not for sale Not for sale Not for O M sale N BronwynPotgieter BronwynPotgieter BronwynPotgieter Bronwyn Potgieter BronwynIPotgieter M Bronwyn Potgieter 2024 2024 2024 2024 2024 2024 N Not for sale Not for sale Not for sale Not for sale Not for sale Not for sale BronwynPotgieter BronwynPotgieter BronwynPotgieter Bronwyn Potgieter Bronwyn Potgieter Bronwyn Potgieter tion= 2024 2024 2024 2024 2024 2024 migra E Lesson 2: International Net Migration International migration flows International migration refers to a permanent move from one country to another. North America, Europe, Southwest Asia, and the South Pacific see net in-migration. Latin America, Africa, and most of Asia face net out-migration. This trend shows migration from developing countries to wealthier nations for better job opportunities. Migration Transition Migration patterns in a society change as the society grows and develops. When a country is still developing (stage 2), people mostly move to other countries. As the country becomes more developed (stages 3 and 4), people tend to move within the country instead. Migration Transition Migration transition, introduced by Wilbur Zelinsky, describes how human migration patterns evolve with societal demographic and economic development. It outlines a predictable sequence of changes in migration as countries progress through different development stages, serving as a framework for analyzing migration trends and their connection to societal growth. Stage Description High birth and death rates stable or slow population growth Stage 1 - Pre-transition rural living. Little net migration. Migration is short-distance and driven my agricultural needs. High birth rates, declining death rates improved healthcare and sanitation Stage 2 - Early Transition rapid population growth increased rural-to-urban for employment rise international migration. Declining birth rates, death rates low slowed population growth Stage 3 - Late Transition continued urbanization, increased international migration for employment, education, or family reunification. Low birth and death rates slow or declining population growth Stage 4 - Post-transition high urbanization migration for family reunification, retirement, or lifestyle choices rather than economic Negative population growth Stage 5 -Advanced/Super aging population Transition (Optional) increased international migration to offset labor shortages lack of support for the elderly. Lesson 3: International and Internal Migration Distance of migration International migration is the Internal migration movement of people between countries. Covers less distance and is less Interregional migration: Movement traumatic. between different regions, often Internal migration is the from rural to urban areas for job movement within a specific opportunities. country or region. Intraregional migration: Movement Longer distances and new within a region, typically from older adapations. cities to newer suburbs International Migration Voluntary migration = individuals choose to move, for economic or environmental reasons. Forced migration = individuals are compelled to relocate due to cultural or environmental factors. The line between forced and voluntary migration is blurry. Economic migrants feel internal pressure to move for food or jobs, even if they aren't forced by violence. Lesson 4: Intraregional Migration Rural to urban Urban to suburban urban to rural People move from rural to Movement from cities to Counter-urbanization = more urban areas for: surrounding suburbs=interregional. people move to rural areas than 1. economic opportunities Cities pop decline and suburban leave them. 2. improved education pop increase. 3. healthcare People are attracted by the Motivated by: 4. appeal of urban amenities suburban lifestyle: 1. desire for a simpler lifestyle Detached houses with private 2. lower living costs This contributes to yards. 3. connection to rural urbanization and increases Safer and better-equipped schools. communities city populations. More parking space. 4. Modern communications and Access to jobs, shops, and transportation = rural areas recreational facilities via cars and remain connected economically trains. and socially. Growing cities expand into rural areas. Push and pull factors of rural urban migration Factor Description Push Factors Reasons to leave rural areas Lack of Services Limited access to water, electricity, healthcare, education Lack of Job High unemployment rates, low wages Opportunities Rural Depopulation Decline of rural industries, outmigration Natural Disasters Floods, droughts, earthquakes Climate Change Changing weather patterns, desertification Mechanization Job displacement due to technology Pull Factors Reasons to move to urban areas Access to Services Better healthcare, education, and infrastructure Job Opportunities More job opportunities in various sectors Entertainment Diverse entertainment options and cultural activities Safety and Security Lower crime rates and better law enforcement Effects of Urbanization Effect Description Urbanization boosts economic development by offering job opportunities and Economic Growth improved living standards. Drives development of transportation networks, housing, schools, healthcare Infrastructure Development facilities, and utilities, enhancing quality of life. Urban areas host universities and research centers, fostering knowledge Innovation and Education exchange and technological advancements. Cities are diverse, offering a rich cultural tapestry that promotes tolerance Cultural Diversity and appreciation of different cultures. Urban residents have better access to healthcare, education, entertainment, Access to Services and cultural amenities. Urbanization increases energy consumption, pollution, and land use changes, Environmental Impact causing environmental challenges. Includes overcrowding, housing shortages, and inequalities, with informal Social Challenges settlements lacking basic services. Effects of Counter-Urbanization Effect Explanation Stimulates economic development in rural areas through increased Rural Development investment in agriculture, infrastructure, and local businesses. Alleviates congestion, pollution, and housing shortages in urban areas, Reduced Urban Congestion improving quality of life for remaining residents. Helps preserve rural traditions, cultures, and landscapes by encouraging Preservation of Rural Identity people to live in less urbanized settings. Reduces environmental pressures in cities, contributing to lower pollution Environmental Benefits levels and reduced strain on natural resources. Can strain local resources and institutions due to increased demand for Challenges for Rural Areas services, infrastructure, and social amenities. Rural areas may have limited employment opportunities, leading to Limited Job Opportunities underemployment or unemployment among residents who choose to return or stay. Lesson 5: Reasons for Migration Migration involves push and pull factors: Push factors drive people away from their The choice to move permanently involves current location. multiple factors, with various reasons Pull factors attract them to a new location. influencing people's decisions. Migration usually involves both push and pull Economic: Seeking employment and financial factors as people feel pushed away from their stability (e.g., moving to Gauteng or Cape current location and pulled toward a new one. Town). Political: Escaping oppression or conflict most people migrate in search of three (e.g., Zimbabweans migrating to South objectives: Africa). economic opportunity; Religious: Leaving due to persecution or social restrictions. cultural freedom (social reasons); and Cultural: Joining family or those of similar environmental comfort culture and ethnicity. Health: Seeking a cleaner, safer environment (e.g., moving to rural areas after retirement). Quality of life: Finding better housing and services. Security: Relocating to safer areas with less crime (e.g., South Africans moving to Australia or New Zealand).  Cultural Reasons For Migrating Cultural migration occurs for personal reasons Internally Displaced Person (IDP): such as family and education. Forced to migrate for similar reasons Internationally, it results from political conflict. as a refugee but has not crossed an The United Nations High Commission for Refugees international border. UNHCR identifies three groups forced to migrate Asylum Seeker: due to political reasons. Someone who migrates to another country seeking recognition as a Refugee refugee. Forced to migrate involuntarily to another country to avoid: 1. conflict 2. violence 3. human rights violations 4. other disasters cannot return due to fear of persecution based on : 1. race 2. religion 3. nationality 4. social group 5. political opinion. Refugees receive special legal status and are eligible for international protection and assistance under the 1951 Refugee Convention.  Environmental Reasons For Migrating Migration is influenced by environmental factors, with people seeking appealing areas or escaping hazards. Advances in communication and transportation enable access to attractive, remote locations. An intervening obstacle hinders Adverse conditions like excessive or movement between locations. insufficient water push migrants Historically, major obstacles from their homes. included long and costly land or sea journeys. Floodplains often lead to forced Modern transportation, like cars migration due to flooding. and airplanes, has reduced these environmental challenges. Droughts in Africa drive people from drylands, worsened by Other obstacles can include legal desertification. restrictions, border controls, language barriers, cultural Population growth and low rainfall differences, transportation reduce land sustainability, causing difficulties, and discrimination. nomads to relocate to cities and Intervening obstacles can slow rural camps, relying on food aid. down or alter migration patterns and may affect the choice of destination.  Migrating to Find Work Economic reasons for migrating Distinguishing economic migrants from refugees. Economic migrants seek better job opportunities and usually require special skills or family ties for admission. Refugees fleeing government persecution receive priority for admission. Economic Push Factors Include low wages unemployment poverty lack of economic opportunities economic crises in the home region. Economic push factors: for individuals to seek better economic prospects elsewhere.  Summary push and pull in migration Factor Description Examples Conditions that drive Economic hardship, political instability, natural Push Factors people away from their disasters, environmental degradation origin Conditions that attract Job opportunities, higher wages, better living Pull Factors people to a new location standards, political stability Environmental Push and Environmental conditions Push: Droughts, floods, wildfires, climate change Pull Factors that influence migration Pull: Fertile land, clean water, pleasant climate Push: Poverty, unemployment, economic crisis Economic Push and Pull Economic conditions that Pull: Job opportunities, higher wages, economic Factors influence migration growth Legal restrictions, border controls, language barriers, Intervening Obstacles Barriers to migration transportation costs, discrimination Physical distance between Local migration, national migration, international Distance of Migration origin and destination migration Global migration pattern types Term Definition Example Choosing to migrate for better job Voluntary Made willingly, without external pressure opportunities Compelled to do something against Displacement due to war or natural Forced one's will disasters Migrating to a new country with no Permanent Enduring and lasting indefinitely intention of returning Seasonal migration for work or Temporary Limited in duration education Transhumance, where people move with Seasonal Related to specific times of the year livestock based on seasons Global migration patterns Type of Migration Pattern Description Urban Concentration Migrants settling in urban areas Rural Settlements Migrants settling in rural areas Migrant distribution patterns describe how migrants are spread Rural-Urban Migration Movement from rural to urban areas across different areas. Provide insights into Migration of skilled workers to countries with labor Skill-Based Migration factors influencing their shortages settlement choices, such as economic, social , Movement of people due to environmental factors government,cultural Climate-Induced Migration like climate change preferences. Ethnic or Diaspora Migrants settling in areas with existing communities Communities from their home country Migrant distribution patterns are influenced Transit or Border Regions Temporary settlement in border areas by preferences, economic conditions, social networks, government Seasonal Labor Camps Migration for specific work seasons policies, and cultural ties. Analyzing these patterns Government-Designated Government-directed settlement in specific areas aids in understanding Resettlement migration's effects on receiving regions and Chain Migration Migration based on family or community ties informs effective immigration and Refugee Camps Temporary settlements for displaced persons settlement policies. Government policies to distribute migrants across Dispersal Policies regions  Global migration distributions Different scales of analysis are vital for understanding human migration complexities. They enable researchers, policymakers, and organizations to study migration trends globally and locally, helping to develop informed immigration and emigration strategies and policies. Category Description Global migration distribution refers to the pattern or distribution of migrants on a global scale. It involves understanding where people are migrating from and to, as well as the overall movement Globally of people between countries and regions around the world. Analysing global migration distributions helps identify major migration corridors, trends, and global migration hotspots. Regional migration distribution focuses on migration patterns within specific geographic regions or a reas of the world. This analysis looks at the movement of people within a particular region, such as Europe, Africa, Regionally Asia, or the Americas. Regional migration distributions provide insights into migration trends, flows, and challenges within these defined areas. Migration distribution by country involves examining the movement of migrants into and out of individual countries. It provides a detailed view of migration trends at the national level, including the number of By Country immigrants, emigrants, and net migration rates for each country. By studying migration distributions by country, researchers and policymakers can assess the impact of migration on a nation's population and demographics. Lesson 6: Challenges faced by Migrants Unemployment and poverty: High immigration rates can lead to increased unemployment and poverty in cities. Emotional trauma and stress: Migrating and adapting to a new country is a significant emotional and psychological challenge. Dislocated families: Migrants often leave dependents behind, making family visits difficult and costly. Discrimination: Many migrants face prejudice and xenophobia, as seen in South Africa. Lack of access to medical services: Migrants may struggle to access local healthcare systems. Lack of access to services: Migrants may not be eligible for state services, resulting in limited or no support. Transportation issues: Migrants often live in remote areas and face costly and time-consuming commutes for work. Cultural differences: Differences in culture and religion can lead to conflicts with indigenous people. Climate: Migrants may struggle to adapt to different weather and climatic conditions. Documentation: Obtaining necessary immigration documents can be difficult and costly. Problems Faced by Migrants Migrants encounter numerous challenges and hardships during their journey and upon arrival, which differ based on individual circumstances, countries of origin and destination, and migration reasons. Challenge Description Obtaining visas, work permits, or legal residency status, which can be complex and time- Legal and Administrative Challenges consuming processes. Difficulties in adapting to a new culture, learning a new language, and navigating unfamiliar Language and Cultural Barriers social norms. Finding suitable employment and economic stability, facing discrimination or exploitation in Employment and Economic Challenges the job market. Building social networks and feeling a sense of belonging in the host country, leading to Social Integration feelings of isolation and loneliness. Limited access to healthcare services, particularly for undocumented migrants, leading to Healthcare Access health-related challenges. Discrimination and Xenophobia Experiencing discrimination, prejudice, or hostility from the local population or authorities. Facing the pain of family separation, with loved ones remaining in the home country while Family Separation migrating for economic or safety reasons. Housing and Shelter Difficulty finding affordable and safe housing, especially in expensive urban areas. Vulnerability to exploitation, human trafficking, and legal consequences due to undocumented Legal Vulnerability or irregular status. Migration within a country with special reference to South Africa and its neighbours Internal Migration in South Africa and Its Neighbors Urbanization and economic opportunities: Rural-urban migration: drive internal migration in South Africa and sees individuals moving from rural areas to neighboring countries. cities for employment, education, Major urban centers like Johannesburg and healthcare, and better living conditions. Cape Town offer more job opportunities, This trend drives urbanization and creates higher wages, and better living standards challenges in urban planning, infrastructure, than rural areas or neighboring countries. and housing. people migrate to these cities seeking employment. Historical factors: Cross-Border Migration: Apartheid shaped internal migration in South Africa borders Namibia, Botswana, South Africa. Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Lesotho, and Apartheid restricted movement for Black Eswatini. South Africans and led to forced removals. Migration is driven by economic disparities Post-apartheid, many migrated from rural and political instability in neighboring areas to cities for new opportunities and countries. to escape segregation's legacy. Many Zimbabweans migrate to South Africa to flee economic hardships and political issues. Challenges and Opportunities Informal Settlements Internal migration boosts urban economies Rapid migrant influx leads to informal and regional development but pressures settlements or shantytowns. urban infrastructure and services. Challenges include inadequate housing, Migrants may face social integration issues sanitation, and public health. and potential discrimination. Policy and Governance Internal migration in South Africa and Managing internal migration is complex for nearby countries is shaped by economic, governments. historical, and social factors, affecting Policies must balance economic benefits urbanization and development. with social integration and address Effective governance and policies are disparities. essential for managing internal migration Ensuring access to education and and addressing related challenges. healthcare for migrants is critical. Lesson 7: The Brain Drain Brain drain happens when skilled professionals from less developed countries relocate to more developed ones for better living conditions and pay. This leads to a loss of investment in their education for the origin country, depriving it of essential skills and potential entrepreneurs who could generate jobs.  The effects of emigration on the sending country Emigration and immigration have profound effects on both the sending and receiving countries. These effects can be social, economic, political, and demographic Labor Force and Skills Drain Social and Family Disruption Emigration can result in a skills drain, Emigration can lead to the causing both skilled and unskilled labor loss separation of families = social and from the sending country. emotional consequences. Children This scarcity of essential skills may may grow up without one or both negatively impact the economy and slow parents, affecting their upbringing economic growth. and well-being. Demographic Changes: Entrepreneurship: Emigration alters age structure with many working-age individuals leaving. Reduced entrepreneurship occurs This impacts the dependency ratio, when individuals opt to emigrate straining social welfare and healthcare rather than start businesses or systems. invest in their home countries, hindering economic development. Remittances Have positive aspect of emigration. They provide significant income for some countries. Remittances help reduce poverty and improve living standards for recipients. Effects of Immigration (Receiving Country) Labor Market: Immigration enhances workforce diversity and fills labor shortages, as immigrants often take on low- Social challenges in high-immigration countries skilled jobs that locals avoid. involve: Integration and social cohesion issues from Economic Growth: language and cultural differences. Need for effective policies to address Immigrants stimulate economic growth through these challenges. increased productivity, innovation, and Strain on infrastructure and public services entrepreneurship, contributing to job creation and due to a sudden influx of immigrants. tax revenue. Importance of planning and resource allocation for a growing population. Cultural Diversity Immigration enriches the receiving country's The effects of emigration and immigration culture with new traditions, languages, and differ based on each country's perspectives, resulting in a more vibrant society. circumstances, policies, and contexts, and can evolve over time. Effective immigration policies can maximize Demographic Impacts benefits while addressing challenges and ensuring the well-being of immigrants and It addresses aging population challenges by host populations. providing a younger, often more fertile population, supporting social security systems and maintaining a balanced age structure. Unit 4: Ethnicities Race Refers to physical traits like skin color, hair texture, and Skin color has been used to facial features. categorize people into racial Divides people into groups like Black, White, Asian, groups, which can lead to Indigenous, etc. discrimination and inequality. Not a scientifically valid concept, as genetic variations These classifications can be within racial groups are often greater than those misused to justify prejudice between them. and discrimination, reinforcing harmful stereotypes and limiting opportunities. Ethnicity Involves shared language, religion, customs, traditions, and history, relating to cultural identity rather than physical traits. Ethnic groups can include various races. For example, "Asian" encompasses ethnicities like Chinese, Indian, Japanese, and Korean. People within the same ethnic group often share a sense of belonging and common cultural practices. Preconceived notions Nationality: prejudice stereotyping Refers to a person's legal affiliation with a specific discrimination nation or country racism Determined by political boundaries. People from xenophobia. diverse racial and ethnic backgrounds can share the same nationality. Nationality does not necessarily determine a person's racial or ethnic identity. Geographers' interests in ethnicities Ethnic Conflict and Peacebuilding Spatial Distribution Geographers study the geographic dimensions of ethnic conflicts, including the Geographers examine the global locations of ethnic causes, dynamics, and consequences of groups to understand their regional concentrations ethnic violence. and dispersions. They research peacebuilding efforts, examining how spatial factors can Factors influencing this distribution include: contribute to conflict resolution and 1. Historical Migration Patterns reconciliation among different ethnic 2. Environmental Conditions groups 3. Economic Opportunities