Spent Coffee Ground: Transformation From Environmental Burden to Bioactive Metabolites (2023) - AQA

Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol (2023) 22:887–898 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11157-023-09669-w MINI-REVIEW Spent coffee ground: transformation from environmental burden into valuable bioactive metabolites Tanim Arpit Singh · Namrata Pal · Poonam Sharma · Ajit Kumar Passari Received: 29 June 2023 / Acce...

Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol (2023) 22:887–898 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11157-023-09669-w MINI-REVIEW Spent coffee ground: transformation from environmental burden into valuable bioactive metabolites Tanim Arpit Singh · Namrata Pal · Poonam Sharma · Ajit Kumar Passari Received: 29 June 2023 / Accepted: 9 September 2023 / Published online: 26 September 2023 © The Author(s) 2023 Abstract Spent coffee ground (SCG) is a primary peptides we can reduce the contamination of these by-product obtained during soluble coffee process- residues at an agronomical scale. In this review, we ing and could be used for high-value products due to discussed the spent coffee ground protein-based pep- its protein content. The SCG is a rich source of cel- tides and also high-lightened the properties of these lulose, hemicellulose, lignin, lipids and proteins. The valuable bioactive peptides in addition to other indus- bioactive peptide obtained after protein hydrolysis trially important metabolites. Conclusively, the SCG has great potential as an antioxidant, antimicrobial, peptides can be an interesting substitute to plant pro- and anti-mutagenic agent and a better understanding tein with functional properties in food industries, and is a prerequisite for proper utilization of the natural at the same time utilization of SCG would reduce the and renewable source of protein to attain a sustain- bio-waste burden. able approach. Moreover, by utilizing SCG-derived Tanim Arpit Singh, Namrata Pal and Poonam Sharma have contributed equally. T. A. Singh Maharaja Ranjit Singh College of Professional Sciences, Indore, M.P., India N. Pal · P. Sharma National Institute for Research in Environmental Health, Bhopal, M.P., India A. K. Passari (*) Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), 04510 Ciudad de México, México e-mail: [email protected]; ajit.passari22@ iibiomedicas.unam.mx Vol.: (0123456789) 13  888 Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol (2023) 22:887–898 Graphical abstract each bag (Mussatto et al. 2011). The climate of Brazil is perfectly suitable for coffee farming and the cof- Keywords Spent coffee ground · Protein · Peptide · fee plantations spread in an area of around 27,000 Bioactivity square kilometers. The major coffee producing areas in Brazil include Minas Gerais, Sao Paulo and Par- ana. However, coffee production generates a lot of 1 Introduction coffee wastes and by-products, which, on the one hand, could be used for more applications such as the Coffee is one of the most valuable primary prod- removal of heavy metals and dyes from aqueous solu- ucts in the world trade and holds a major part in the tions, production of bio-fuels, composting material, food industry. Its production and consumption across production of reusable cups, a substrate for mush- the world reached 169.34 million bags of 60 kg room production, source of natural phenolic antioxi- and 198.39 million bags, respectively, in the year dants, and even in construction material (McNutt and 2019–2020 resulting in a surplus of 952,000 bags He 2018). On the other hand, it could be a source of on the estimate (Fig. 1a). The trend of general coffee severe contamination posing a serious environmental consumption has been continuously increasing, for problem. Conventional methods for eradicating SCGs instance, in 2018–19, the annual global production were either incinerated as a solid fuel or dumped, of coffee in the fiscal year 1990–1991, 2000–2001, ignoring its valuable organic contents. SCG incinera- and 2010–2011 raised by 83.35%, 50%, and 20%, tion has been reported to cause major environmental respectively (Atabani et al. 2022). Brazil is the larg- pollution (Vítezová et al. 2019) due to the excessive est producer of coffee throughout the world followed emissions of toxic gases such as carbon monoxide by Vietnam and Colombia. These three coffees pro- (CO) and nitrogen oxides (­NOx). This result in air ducing countries are responsible for producing and pollution and significantly contributes to augmenting exporting almost 60% of the global coffee throughout global warming. Additionally, landfilling needs large the world (Fig. 1b). According to the International areas with a potential pollution risk and also contrib- Coffee Organization, Brazil on an average produce utes to groundwater contamination (Leow et al. 2021; approximately 40 million bags coffee with 60 kg in Kueh 2021; Atabani et al. 2022). These methods are Vol:. (1234567890) 13 Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol (2023) 22:887–898 889 Fig. 1  Statistics on Coffee. Annual production of Coffee by the a major countries across the world, and b Market share of top cof- fee-producing countries (Deshmukh 2021; Shahbandeh 2022) highly destructive to the environment and thus, to of carbohydrates and polysaccharides in SCG makes handle these contaminants consistent waste manage- it an adequate substrate for the production of bio- ment strategies should be framed and implemented diesel, biochemicals and other phenolic compounds with existing national regulations (Costa et al. 2022). (He et al. 2020). The valorisation of SCG for pro- For instance, Nestlé, the world’s largest food com- duction of commercially valuable compounds is still pany pledged to alleviate such waste in Europe by underexplored and is needed to be evaluated for better 2020 by utilizing it as a source of renewable energy production of different value-based products. Besides source in more than 20 Nescafé factories (Campos- extraction process, pre-treatment is also an impor- Vega et al. 2015). tant method that is required to taken into considera- SCGs are the residues obtained from brewing tion while utilizing SCG waste. Pre-treatment of SCG coffee. Coffee brews are typically prepared from by-products with N-methyl morpholine N-oxide Arabica coffee or Arabica/Robusta blends, and are (NMMO) enhanced the bioconversion of lignocel- available to consumers as roasted beans, whole or lulosic components of waste into methane and other ground, or as instant/soluble coffee. The term “spent important compounds (Oliva et al. 2022). coffee grounds” can therefore be used to refer to both Around 9.5 million tonnes of coffee were produced those produced after brewing at home or in cafete- globally in 2018, and for every 1 g of ground coffee, rias as well as those received from the soluble coffee 0.91 g of SCG is generated (Tan et al. 2020; Bar- industry. In contrast to wasted coffee obtained after rios et al. 2022). Protein content in SCG is 12–17% brewing from cafeterias/household contexts, indus- (Fig. 2) which is relatively higher than the roasted trial spent coffee ingredients are significantly more coffee which is 3.1% (w/w). The chemical composi- successfully removed, resulting in more chemically tion of coffee brews depends on extraction efficiency, depleted remnants (Bomfim et al. 2022). which is attributed to varied factors, including the SCG are majorly comprised of cellulose, hemicel- coffee species, roasting temperature, grinding grade, lulose, lignin and proteins. Apart from these major coffee/water ratio, water quality, temperature, pres- constituents it also contains value added compounds sure, and percolation time (Olechno et al. 2021). like fatty acids, cafestol, vitamins and lipids (Bat- Therefore, different extraction processes will lead to tista et al. 2021). These compounds, by using differ- chemically diverse brews and so as the SCGs. ent extraction methods can be isolated and utilized With the estimated increase of coffee production commercially in different commercial sectors like and consumption in the upcoming years, there is an cosmetics, food and pharmaceuticals. The presence imperative need for proper utilization, along with a Vol.: (0123456789) 13  890 Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol (2023) 22:887–898 Fig. 2  Step involved in coffee processing, origin, and composition of SCGs and their biological proper- ties (Iriondo-DeHond et al. 2021) novel industrial application. Recently, more attention recovery of functional metabolites from SCG. Con- has been paid to recycling spent coffee for the devel- ventional methods such as probiotic fermentation, opment of healthier products. Thus, in this review, enzymatic hydrolysis (Roukas and Kotzekidou 2022), we tried to collate the existing knowledge available solvent extraction, and microwave-assisted extraction regarding SCG-based valuable metabolites mainly have been reported to date for the extraction of SCGs focusing on the SCG-derived peptides. Since the metabolites as per the available literature (Wu et al. world is fast running out of new therapeutic options, 2019). potential bioactive peptides would be needed to save mankind, thus future studies should emphasize SCG- 2.1 Microwave‑assisted extraction (MAE) based peptides to unravel the SCG treasure house. Nevertheless, it shall offer a preliminary overview MAE has been proven to be one of the most potent of some of the efforts of the scientific community techniques and considered is the advanced and best to furnish SCG, coffee by-products with valuable alternative to conventional and other extraction tech- traits, that can be exploited at the industrial level to niques. The efficient and rapid heating released by synthesize valuable compounds for the prevention of MAE is associated with the dielectric properties of diseases. the samples. Dielectric heating quickly raises the temperature of the sample matrices, consequently, reduces the heating time. Being a closed system, 2 Composition of spent coffee ground MAE controls the temperature and pressure condi- tions and also prevents the loss of volatile materials SCG comprises cellulose (12.4%), hemicellu- and extraction solvent, contrary to the open system. lose (39.1%), lignin (23.9%), fat (2.29%), protein Despite this, numerous factors affect the efficiency (13–17%), and total dietary fibres (60.46%) and of the MAE process such as the nature of the matrix, micronutrients such as potassium, calcium, magne- power of microwave irradiation, temperature and sium, sulfur, phosphorus, iron, manganese, boron, extraction time, solvent choice, and solvent/solid and copper, thus making them intriguing sources of ratio, though the impact of the latter can be curtailed raw materials for various applications at industrial by providing agitation during the extraction process scale (Fig. 2) (Saratale et al. 2020). Though, the (Coelho et al. 2021). extraction technique plays an important role in the Vol:. (1234567890) 13 Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol (2023) 22:887–898 891 2.2 Supercritical fluid extraction (SCFE) subsequently increasing the production of succinic acid, acetic acid, and volatile compounds (Liu et al. Zetzel had previously described the supercritical 2021b). extraction unit, which was used to obtain the wasted coffee grounds and coffee husk extracts (Zetzel et al. 2.4 Enzymatic hydrolysis 2003). The extraction process, moisture content, par- ticle size, type and volume of solvent, and extrac- Jooste et al. (2013) thought that using an enzyme tion time all affect the product yield. Several other cocktail (mannanase, endo-glucanase, exo-glucanase, parameters including pressure, temperature, and time xylanase, and pectinase) to hydrolyze residual parti- could affect the SCF extraction efficiency (Sharma cles could boost the output of soluble solids in instant et al. 2021). Soxhlet solvent extraction has been the coffee or serve as a raw material for the manufac- baseline method employed in several previous studies turing of bioethanol and food additives (mannitol). investigating lipid extraction from SCGs, with n-hex- Enzymatic hydrolysis has advantages over chemical ane observed as the most effective solvent in studies pre-treatment, including a better yield of fermentable that considered a range of solvents (Efthymiopoulos sugar, softer working conditions, higher selectivity, et al. 2019). The Advanced SCFE technique is an eco- and lower energy expenditures. friendly and green-based approach that employed sol- SCG on an average contains 13.6% w/w of pro- vents such as ­CO2 under supercritical conditions for teins. The total amount of proteins even during the the extraction of different valuable substances such as roasting stage is found to be in range of 8.5–13.6%. oil, polyphenols, or pigments. This method possesses This shows that the protein and other nitrogenous several advantages such as safe, non-mutagenic, compounds in the SCG remains stable even after dif- non-flammable, readily available, and economically ferent treatment procedures (Belitz 2004). The crude owned to ­CO2 usage. protein content reported by Cruz et al. (2012) in espresso coffee residues varies from 12.8 to 16.9%. 2.3 Probiotic fermentation The higher protein content in SCG than in the coffee bean is due to the concentration of the non-extracted Given the nutritional makeup of SCG and the exist- components during instant coffee preparation. Due ence of insoluble components, these by-products to other nitrogen-containing substances like caffeine, ought to have an intriguing effect on the gut flora. trigonelline, free amines, and amino acids, the pro- Since it was found that SCG increased the levels of tein content in SCG might be overestimated (Gao Lactobacillus spp. and Bifidobacterium spp. under et al. 2019). However, similar protein contents, vary- in vitro fermentation, Panzella et al. (2017) examined ing between 6.7% and 9.9% and up to 14% have been the impact of microbial fermentation on hydrolyzed reported by many authors (Franca and Oliveira 2022; spent coffee grounds by monitoring changes in micro- Bevilacqua et al. 2023). The 11 S protein, a storage bial composition and the synthesis of short-chain fatty protein, makes up about 45% of the total proteins acids, which are known to have beneficial features. in the coffee endosperm, or 5–7% of the dry bean Liu et al. (2021a) evaluated the effects of yeast weight. Two-dimensional profiles of green coffee pro- extracts (0% and 0.25%, w/v) on the non-volatile and teins recognized that the 11 S storage protein consists volatile compounds derived from SCG hydrolysates of high 32 kDa α- and low 22 kDa β- molecular subu- fermented with single-cultures of two non-Saccha- nits (Acuna et al. 2002). romyces wine yeasts, Torulaspora delbrueckii, and The SCG protein has a high lysine/arginine ratio, Pichia kluyveri. The result showed that the addition which indicates that it may contribute to physiologi- of yeast extracts significantly improved the growth cal effects that are hypercholesterolemic and ath- of both T. delbrueckii and P. kluyveri, especially erogenic. The three amino acids arginine, glutamine, P. kluyveri, resulting in higher ethanol production. and histidine, which are known to have a significant Another study conducted by his group also dem- impact on the body’s immune system, are also abun- onstrated that the addition of yeast extracts affected dant in SCG protein. Some SCG proteins’ high lev- the metabolism of both S. cerevisiae and L. thermo- els of cysteine and methionine can raise the antioxi- tolerans during SCG hydrolysate fermentation thus, dant levels in the body stabilizing DNA during cell Vol.: (0123456789) 13  892 Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol (2023) 22:887–898 division and lowering the chance of developing cer- extract) and total phenolic content (267.66-304.81 mg tain types of colon cancer (Campos-Vega et al. 2013, GAE/g protein extract) were obtained after a 20-min- 2015). ute extraction time. The primary phenolic compound SCG protein has a greater concentration of in SCGs, chlorogenic acid, was recovered using envi- branched-chain amino acids (BCAA) and a higher ronmentally friendly UAE extraction methods (Okur Fischer ratio except for some. Proteins with high et al. 2021). The maximum concentration of chloro- BCAA, Fischer ratio, and low content of aromatic genic acid found was 85.0 0.6 mg/kg Fresh Weight amino acids can be looked for in the production of using UAE at 60% amplitude for 15 min. Further- physiologically functional foods for specific needs, more, using ultrasonic-autoclave-assisted extrac- such as in patients with malnutrition associated with tion at 40% amplitude for 10 min, the total sugar and cancers, burns, trauma, and liver failure, as well as reduced sugar contents of the SCG sugar extracts for the nutritional support of children with chronic or were detected to be 529.25 mg glucose/g extract and acute diarrhea or milk protein allergies (Master et al. 361.25 mg mannose/g extract, respectively (Samsalee 2021; Campos-Vega et al. 2015). The SCG protein and Sothornvit 2021). The hydrolysate of spent coffee can be used for the formulation of food products with ground was found to contain 2016.4 milligrams per multiple human health benefits during liver diseases, litre of reducing sugars (464.2 milligrams per litre of oxidative stress, and hypertension. Patients with mannose, 947.1 milligrams per litre of glucose, and hepatic encephalopathy have received treatment with 256.3 milligrams per litre of galactose), with a 401.70 proteins that have a Fischer ratio higher than 20 and milligram per litre of total phenolic content. Addi- aromatic amino acids (AAA) that are less than 2% tionally, the hydrolysate demonstrated antioxidant (Campos-Vega et al. 2015; Bhattarai et al. 2022). activity with an antioxidant content of 564.3 milli- grams per liter of ascorbic acid equivalent (Ho et al. 2.5 Ultrasound assisted extraction (UAE) 2022). UAE is a rapid and low-cost method that is employed for the extraction of valuable phenolic compounds from the SCG waste (Tiwari 2015). This process is 3 SCGs: sources of bioactive peptides versatile in terms of solvents that are employed and requires low investment when compared with other SCGs-derived protein ranges from 12 to 17% and techniques like supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) thus could serve as a rich source of peptides. In a or pressurised solvent extraction. UAE allows the use study conducted by Valdés et al., the peptide content of different solvents and neither have restrictions on (OPA assay), the antioxidant activity, and the in vitro the polarity of compound nor towards the moisture ACE-inhibitory activity of SCG protein hydrolysates of matrix (Rastogi 2011). The UAE can be effec- were determined. The result showed that the highest tively utilised in enhancing the mass transfer during protein content is obtained from espresso SCG, and solid-liquid extraction process to obtain commercially possesses antioxidant and ACE-inhibitory activities important products like biodiesel and phenolics from (Valdés et al. 2020). Another research conducted by SCG. This effectiveness of this method is due to the Samsalee and Sothornvit reported 15.97% total pro- cavitation effect that is generated by the ultrasonic tein content derived from SCGs, which also sug- waves (Rabelo et al. 2016). Like majority of conven- gested that varying protein content corresponded to tional methods, UAE also has one disadvantage, that the variety and brewing conditions used during the we do not obtain solvent-free extracts and to over- process (Samsalee and Sothornvit 2021). come this an additional concentration step is requisite Ribeiro et al. evaluated the bioactive potential after extraction (Ghitescu et al. 2015). of protein extracted from green and roasted cof- Ultrasonic-assisted extraction, used as a pre-treat- fee beans and SCGs. They observed that both green ment to conventional extraction, was used to study coffee bean and spent coffee ground protein showed the protein from spent coffee grounds. According to high ACE inhibition efficiency, and hence possess Samsalee and Sothornvit (2021), the greatest antioxi- high antihypertensive potentials. This can be related dant activity (933.92-976.03 mM Trolox eq/g protein to the low molecular mass peptides released after Vol:. (1234567890) 13 Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol (2023) 22:887–898 893 digestion. Moreover, the high antioxidant activity SCGs are a rich source of peptides. Protein can be ascribed to the interactions occurring between hydrolyses during bacterial fermentation of SCG the proteins and melanoidins during roasting. It was can produce bioactive peptides; however, this has observed that antihypertensive and antioxidant poten- not been reported yet. As a substitute for obtain- tials were evident in the protein fraction of spent ing potentially beneficial compounds for the pre- coffee grounds. Therefore, the usage of this protein vention of chronic diseases, Ramirez and his col- in nutrition might be an important strategy for both leagues have stimulated the release of peptides from glycemic and hypertensive cases and even can be digested protein hydrolysates of SCG fermented by explored for the prevention of the oxidative damage Bacillus clausii, identified them, and evaluated their produced by metabolic disorders (Ribeiro et al. 2021). bioactivity potential by in silico analysis of their Febrianto has extracted the protein and antioxidative peptide sequences. The fermentation procedure metabolites from spent coffee grounds through the raised total proteins, soluble proteins, and protein hydrolysis of protein utilizing papain. The research hydrolysates by 2.7, 2.2, and 1.2-fold, respectively. showed a promising result with 67.38% protein Seven peptides with possible antioxidant proper- extraction and its hydrolysate also exhibits high anti- ties, angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE), and oxidant activity. The finding showed that the use of dipeptidyl peptidase-IV (DPP-IV) inhibitory action crude papain has proven to be effective to hydrolyze were more prevalent in fermented SCG samples. the SCG with its optimum concentration of 6%- and Each peptide’s likelihood of being bioactive was 2-hours incubation time (Febrianto 2018). predicted by PeptideRanker with YGF and GMCC peptide sequences presenting a higher score (0.97), 3.1 Bacterial fermentation of SCG induces the followed by the YWRYDCQ (0.65) and RMYRY release of potentially bioactive peptides (0.60) peptides (Table 1) (Ramirez et al. 2021). A natural alternative method for producing pro- 3.2 Melanoidins: another valuable bioactive tein hydrolysates is fermentation. Proteins in food metabolite derived from SCG are hydrolyzed by microbial proteolytic systems to release peptides and amino acids. This technique During roasting, coffee’s protein composition changes has been employed in recent years to make food- when the proteins are broken down, polymerized, plant protein hydrolysates, which have other health and incorporated into melanoidins. Arabica roast and advantages and function as inhibitors of an enzyme brew have total amino acid contents of 10.1 and 6.4% involved in the etiology of metabolic syndromes. dry weight, respectively, indicating that SCG has a 3.7% dry weight of amino acids (Ginz et al. 2000). Table 1  Bioactive potential of peptides identified after digestion with pepsin/pancreatin of spent coffee grounds proteins predicted by the BIOPEP database (Ramirez et al. 2021: Ribeiro et al. 2021) Bioactive fractions of SCG-peptides Activity RY, YW, YRY​ Antioxidant SH, SL, QL, IN, AL, TN, DN, YS, YQ, QH, RM, YR, QT, WRY, WR, YD, DPP-IV inhibitor YW GR, GK, QK, IF, AR, GM, RY ACE-Inhibitor AQL, PH, VPK, GW, GL, EY, VAF, VF, PL, YG, GF DPP-IV inhibitor; ACE-inhibitor GF DPP-III inhibitor; DPP-IV inhibitor; ACE-inhibitor VL Stimulant; DPP-IV inhibitor IL Stimulant; DPP-IV inhibitor; ACE-inhibitor TY Antioxidant; DPP-IV inhibitor AH, MY Antioxidant; DPP-IV inhibitor; ACE-inhibitor VY Antioxidant; DPP-III inhibitor; DPP-IV inhibitor; ACE-inhibitor Vol.: (0123456789) 13  894 Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol (2023) 22:887–898 Melanoidins are large molecular weight, brown- 4 Applications of SCG in various sectors colored nitrogenous compounds with a small amount (< 6%) of amino acids; glutamic acid, and glycine Apart from bioactive peptides, spent coffee grounds being primarily generated by acid hydrolysis. Cof- can potentially be used in several other sectors. It fee melanoidins possess multi-health-promoting has been significantly used as, not limited to, distil- properties and have been linked to several biological lates, nutraceuticals, animal feed, energy sources, actions, including anti-oxidative, antibacterial, anti- fertilizers, insecticides, biofuel, construction mate- cariogenic, anti-inflammatory, antihypertensive, and rials (Ramalakshmi et al. 2008) (Fig. 3). In the food antiglycative ones (Iriondo-DeHond et al. 2021). The industry, SCGs could be used as a dietary fibre source metal-chelating capabilities of melanoidins have been as well as in the production of alcoholic distillates. found to mediate the antibacterial action of melanoi- “Coffee flour” which is produced after drying the dins against several bacterial strains in three different SCG, followed by the extraction of coffee oil is highly ways. At low concentrations, they show bacteriostatic fibrous, protein-rich, and gluten-free. It is for use as a activity via iron chelation from the culture medium, novel food ingredient in sweet recipes, baked items, however, the possibility of sequestering additional snacks, and ready-to-eat products (Klingel et al. vital cations cannot be ruled out. Additionally, it 2020). has been shown that melanoidins can chelate the SCG can also be used to produce a spirit involv- siderophore-Fe3+ complex for bacterial strains that ing three processing steps. Aroma compounds are can manufacture siderophores for iron acquisition, extracted out of SCG through hydrothermal treat- thus reducing the virulence of such harmful bacteria. ment which is then supplemented with sucrose and Finally, at high concentrations, melanoidins promote fermented to ethanol, the resulting fermented broth cell membrane disruption through the elimination is then distilled. The chemical analysis determined of ­Mg2+ cations from the outer membrane resulting that SCG spiricet had an organoleptic quality that in the leakage of intracellular molecules (Rufian- was suitable for human consumption (Sampaio et al. Henares and Cueva 2009). 2013). Green coffee beans possess numerous nutraceuti- cal benefits and so do their waste by-product SCG. Chlorogenic acids (CGAs) including caffeoylquinic Fig. 3   A general overview of the production of Spent coffee grounds (SCG) after the coffee bean has been used for brewing. The figure further elaborated on SCG with its possible commercial applications Vol:. (1234567890) 13 Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol (2023) 22:887–898 895 acids are the most studied among such molecules thereby improving the general plant stand (Ronga with nutraceutical properties (Fanali et al. 2020). et al. 2016). Such wastes can also be a rich dietary source of hydrophilic bioactive antioxidants. Almost all SCGs, generated either from the filter, plunger, or espresso- 5 Conclusion type coffeemakers, contain a significant amount of total caffeoylquinic acids, mainly di-caffeoylquinic Driven by rising consciousness on the continual acids which is about 4–7 times more than the brews. depletion of irreplaceable natural resources, emerging Moreover, the observed antitumor and anti-allergenic creative and revolutionized approaches for alternately action shown by the extract of SCG have paved new repurposing biowastes for environmental health secu- opportunities in the pharmaceutical application (Val- rity and sustainability have been the foremost pursuit dés et al. 2020). of researchers across the globe. The study of natu- SCG which is an environmental bothering, can be rally occurring substances that are biologically active profitable as an energy source if dealt with appropri- is expanding all the time. Because of their use and ately. Considering the energy source, SCG has suc- advantages, particularly for human health, peptides cessfully been converted into biodiesel, bioethanol, are among the possible bioactive chemicals. Peptides bio-ethers, bio-oil and biochar, and biogas (Tun et al. can be found in a variety of foods that are made from 2020a). SCGs were also used to produce adsorptive both animal and plant sources; at the moment, they filters during the process of wet co-granulation which are found in food industry residues. could then be utilized for the elimination of anionic Peptides with high bioactive potential were more as well as cationic dyes. A few research have also prevalent in fermented SCG, and these peptides may suggested the cosmetic benefits of SCG for instance, be used to treat diabetes, hypertension, and oxida- Choi et al., have conducted an experiment on UVB- tive stress. There is not much or scarce information induced photoaging in hairless mice. They topically regarding the bioactivity of peptides from SCG pro- applied the oil fraction (OSCG) and ethanol extract tein hydrolysates; however, some peptide fragments (ESCG) of SCG that protected the skin of studied with hydrophobic amino acid Tyr (Y) on the C-ter- mice by down-regulating matrix metalloprotein- minal resemble that generated after thermolysis of ases (MMP2, 9, and 13), signifying the potential of Arabica-SCG with alcalde and gastrointestinal diges- SCG extracts as an anti-photoaging agent (Choi et al. tion of coffee silver-skin with pepsin and pancreatin. 2016). Due to their availability and nutritional rich- Despite several advantages, it is still not well explored ness, SCG has also been added to the feed rations at the industrial level to use the SCG treasure trove. of animal feedstock (San Martin et al. 2021; Rasool Hence, more comprehensive studies are required to et al. 2023). identify and evaluate the activity and mode of action The modularity, stability, and strength of SCGs’ of the peptides extracted and their in vivo bioavaila- husks made them an ideal candidate for different bility. Thus, coffee can be considered a source of pep- applications in civil engineering. For example, the tides that could aid in reducing the risks of non-com- great similarity in physical properties of SCGs with municable chronic diseases. Additionally, the protein that of sand reflects its suitability for road subgrades obtained from SCG could be used as an alternative (Saberian et al. 2021). food supplement or as functional food over artificial With the growing demand for bio-insecticides, a protein sources. methanol extract of SCGs were successfully inves- tigated by Hussein et al. (2022) for its insecticidal Acknowledgements Dr. Passari is also thankful to CONA- CYT (979132) for receiving the Sistema Nacional de Inves- activity against the major pests of green beans tigadores (SNI) level I grant. We are thankful to CA Shalu namely, Spodoptera littoralis, Agrotis ipsilon, Bemi- Agrawal, Delhi, India for the critical reading and the language sia tabaci, Empoasca fabae, and Aphis craccivora editing of the manuscript. AKP was supported by the postdoc- (Hussein et al. 2022). SCG compost (SCGC) has toral scientist grant number IN202216 from DGAPA, UNAM. been alternatively evaluated instead of commercial Author contribution TAS & NP: Writing – original draft, peat (CP) and fertilizers. A proportion of 40% SCGC Data curation, Investigation, Formal analysis, Editing. PS: Data has influenced the dry weight and foliar parameters, curation, Manuscript Revision and Editing; Editing Figures, Vol.: (0123456789) 13  896 Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol (2023) 22:887–898 AKP: Conceptualization, Validation, Visualization, Investiga- Bomfim ASC, Oliveira DM, Voorwald HJC, Benini KCCC, tion, Supervision, Writing – Reviewing & Editing. Dumont M, Rodrigue D (2022) Valorization of spent Cof- fee Grounds as Precursors for Biopolymers and Compos- Declarations ite Production. Polymers 14:437. https://​doi.​org/​10.​3390/​ polym​14030​437 Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no Campos-Vega R, Oomah BD, Loarca-Pina G, Vergara-Cas- known competing financial interests or personal relationships taneda HA (2013) Common beans and their non-digesti- that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this ble fraction: cancer inhibitory activitydan overview. Foods paper. 2(3):374e392. https://​doi.​org/​10.​3390/​foods​20303​74 Campos-Vega R, Loarca-Piña G, Vergara-Castañeda HA, Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Com- Oomah BD (2015) Spent coffee grounds: a review on cur- mons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits rent research and future prospects. 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