Speech Sounds and Disorders PDF

M01 What is a Speech Sound Disorder? A type of speech difference Must meet three criteria: - Speech disorders arises during childhood and is not directly attributable to damage - Speech is not the result of dialect or accent - Child or members of the...

M01 What is a Speech Sound Disorder? A type of speech difference Must meet three criteria: - Speech disorders arises during childhood and is not directly attributable to damage - Speech is not the result of dialect or accent - Child or members of the child’s community consider it a speech problem Why study speech sounds disorder? Children's lives: nearly everyone understands that to lead a full life a child needs to communicate The big picture: 1. SSD is the most common type of communication disorder 2. Nearly 4 out of 5 children require treatment 3. Three-quarters of preschoolers with SSD also have language difficulty 4. Toddlers or preschoolers with SSD at increased risk for later academic difficulties 5. Preschoolers with SSD java have a higher risk of challenges if they also have language problems, low nonverbal intelligence,etc. 6. About 11-15% of 6yo with SSD also experience SLI 7. Half of students with SSD struggle through highschool 8. Grade school teachers perceive students with decreased intelligibility as having less academic potential than peers 9. Students with SSD at risk of being bullied, struggling with friendships, etc. Speech sound disorders can be classified as: Phonological Disorders: knowledge-based difficulties with language rules Articulation disorders: difficulty producing speech Big difference between the 2 is knowing the language and doing language - The conceptual distinction between knowing (phonology) and doing (speaking) is important, because it suggests that seemingly similar difficulties may result from different causes. A child with phonological problems may also show difficulties learning other aspects of language, including syntax and reading, while a child whose problem involves more doing than knowing may have difficulties restricted to pronunciation (Baada et al., 2022). What’s the difference between: Articulation disorders: errors in productions of specific sounds, using distortions and/or substitution ( thoap for soap) - Phonological disorders: predictable, rule-based errors that affect more than one sound within a class of phonemes ( tup for cup) - Is linguistic Which matters most? Phonological and articulation ability both contributed to speech accuracy  Greatest contribution came from phonological abilities: the child has to have phonological pieces in place in order to be successful across language and literacy The nature of speech sound disorders Articulation pioneers: believed speech problems arose because person could not configure mouth appropriately Rise of phonologist: phonological approaches gained popularity The present compromise: speech sound disorder is a cover term that is neutral to the disorder’s cause. Other terms, similar meanings The future: Dominant perspectives in our profession change is possible Will this help someone: Knowledge of SSD can help: - Promote vocal development - Help a toddler learn to speak - Lead a pre-k to unravel mysteries of speaking in sentences - Support student to succeed social and academically - Help persons without communication disorders learn English EBP (evidence based practice) is a major goal of clinicians in our profession The study of SSD changes in response to evolution of culture, health care education - Preschoolers - Diversity - Relooking at students We can expect the field to change as new theories of speech and human behavior appear These are the major ideas in this chapter: Speech disorders matter because they may negatively affect a person’s life. Persons with speech sound disorders may also have difficulties in school, social relations, and employment. Articulation and phonological disorders reflect the dual nature of speech. Speech sound disorder is a widely accepted cover term for articulation and phonological disorders. Help exists for a person with a speech sound disorder. M02: Phonetics Fundamentals of speech production - How sounds are produced - Difference between phonetic and phonology Speech Sounds of American English - Vowels and their descriptions: high/low, front/back; tense/lax; rounded/unrounded  Consonants and their descriptions - Place manner, voicing Notations Brackets indicate phonetic transcription Slashes indicate phonemic transcription (we will be using this majority of the time) You can place single sounds, groups of sounds, words/phrases within brackets or slashes Ball et. al (2009) recommend adding straight vertical lines when sounds are believed to be contrastive x→y x becomes y x/y y for x Syllable Structure Changes: Cluster Reduction: Simplifying a consonant cluster to a single sound (e.g., “poon” for “spoon”). Final Consonant Deletion: Omitting the final consonant in a target word (e.g., “cu” for “cup”). Initial Consonant Deletion: Beginning consonant within a target word is omitted (e.g., “oggy” for “doggy”). Weak Syllable Deletion: Omitting an unstressed syllable within a word (e.g., “nana” fpr “banana”). Substitution: Fronting: Sound made in the back of the mouth is replaced with a sound made in the front of the mouth (e.g., “tar” for “car”). Backing: Sound made in the front of the mouth is replaced with a sound made in the back of the mouth (e.g., “gog” for “dog”). Stopping: Replacing fricative or affricate sounds with stop sounds (e.g., “tee” for “see”). Gliding: Replacing liquids (/l/ and /r/) with glide sounds (/r/ and /w/). Assimilation: Velar Assimilation: non-velar sound changes to a velar sound due to the presence of a neighboring velar sound (e.g., “kack” for “tack”). Nasal Assimilation: non-nasal sound changes to a nasal sound due to the presence of a neighboring nasal sound (e.g., “money” for “funny”). M03 Oral Mechanism Examination Orofacial Examination Purpose: To identify or rule out structural or functional factors that relate to communication disorders and dysphagia Will need: disposable gloves, small flashlight, tongue depressor  For children it is possible to substitute lollipops for tongue depressor (need parent permission!) If foods are used to assess lip and tongue movements be aware of allergies Assume that the office, school, medical facility is nut free Basic Speech Anatomy Vocal Cord Glottis is the space between the vocal folds. Vocal folds are the two moving parts. Orofacial Precautions Sterilize all equipment that is used in the mouth Wash hands before and after contact Wear gloves if there will be any contact with body fluids, mucous membranes, or broken skin Never use single use equipment more than once Follow the facility’s infection control policies regarding procedures for disinfecting and cleaning surfaces Interpreting the Orofacial Exam Asymmetry of Face Often associated with neurological impairment or muscle weakness Cranial Nerve Review! Abnormal Color of the Tongue, Palate or Pharynx Grayish color may be associated with paresis/paralysis Bluish tint may result following excessive bleeding Whitish color if present along the border of the hard and soft palate it may be a symptom of a submucosal cleft Dark/translucent if on the hard palate may indicate a palatal fistula or cleft Dark spots may indicate oral cancer Lingual movement elevation, depression, protrusion, retraction, lateralization The tongue may be enlarged/scalloped, fissured/cracked, coated Deviation of the Tongue or Uvula May indicate neurological involvement and tongue may deviate towards the weaker side due to inability to match extension of stronger side (may coexist with facial asymmetry) During phonation uvula may deviate towards stronger side as palatal muscles will pull the uvula towards the stronger side of velopharyngeal opening Abnormal Height or Width of Palatal Arch Shape varies from client to client When especially wide or high the client may experience difficulties with palatal lingual sounds An atypically low or narrow arch in conjunction with a large tongue(macroglossia) may result in consonant distortions Narrow, high-arched, flat, bubbled Tethered Oral Tissues (TOT) TOT can occur at the level of the tongue, lip, or buccal region May require revision for functional purposes Lingual tether can be anterior or posterior May effect articulation and/or latching and future feeding Enlarged Tonsils While large tonsils may not always lead to an adverse affect on speech production, in some cases enlarged tonsils may interfere with general health, resonance and hearing Forward presentation of the tongue may persist resulting in abnormal articulation Types of Occlusions Missing Teeth Depending on the teeth missing articulation may or may not be impaired Important to determine if the missing teeth are a cause or contributor to the communicative disorder In most cases, particularly with children, missing teeth do not seriously affect articulation Inquire how dentition plays a role in feeding Mouth Breathing May indicate a restricted passageway to the nasal cavity If the client also experiences hyponasal (denasal) speech, a referral to a physician should be made Mouth breathing may additionally be associated with anterior posturing of the tongue at rest Poor Intraoral Pressure Poor maintenance of air in the cheeks is a sign of labial weakness Additionally it is a sign of velopharyngeal insufficiency (structural concern) or velopharyngeal incompetence (functional concern) Recommended to check for nasal emission (mirror) or air escaping from the lips (poor labial seal) Be aware of possible diagnosis of dysarthria, hypernasality, or both Weak, Asymmetrical, or Absent Gag Reflex May indicate muscle weakness in the velopharyngeal area May indicate neurological impairment Alone the lack of a gag reflex does not indicate the presence of a disorder/dysfunction rather other factors need to be considered Weakness of the Lips, Tongue or Jaw Common in individuals with neurological disorders Aphasia, dysarthria or both may be present Important to observe mouth posture at rest (open vs. closed) M04 Speech in the brain The journey of speech begins in the brain and then arrives in the muscles, which move, channel, and shape air to create sound. This chapter introduces the systems involved in speech production. The nervous system is responsible for high-level functioning as well as activating and monitoring the speech production systems. The respiratory system provides the driving force for phonation, which allows downstream articulators to shape sounds for communication Begins in the brain as an electrochemical event  Neurons - Specialized nerve cells that transmit information through an electrochemical process (action potentials) - Motor neurons bring information out to the body from the brain and spinal cord. - Sensory neurons bring sensation from the receptors within the PNS and body into the central nervous system. - Interneurons filter and fine tune the efferent and afferent information. They greatly outnumber motor and sensory neurons. Components of neurons - Cell bodies responsible for basic functions. The cell bodies compose the grey matter within the nervous system. Large groups of cell bodies are often part of a functionally similar, larger system - Dendrites communicate with cell body and axons. These are necessary for communication with other neurons through the electrochemical communication of the action potential. - Axons: White matter is a collection of a large number of axons, which are responsible for transmitting impulses throughout the central nervous system. Neurons each have a singular axon that eventually communicates with other neurons via numerous telodendria. Although neurons are present in many shapes and sizes, they each have the same core components: cell body, dendrites, axon, and axon terminals (called telodendria). In addition, support cells within the nervous system, or glial cells, are responsible for cellular health, maintaining the blood–brain barrier, and carrying away metabolic byproducts. Communication between neurons - Dependent upon the release of neurotransmitters across the junction between the neurons (synapses). - Speed of transmission accelerates when myelin sheath surrounds neuronal axon which also protects and insulates the axon Gross anatomy - Central Nervous System (CNS) consist of brain and spinal cord - Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) consist of cranial and spinal nerves - Your CNS has a left and a right cerebral hemisphere, cerebellum, brain stem, and spinal cord. Meningeal linings surround your two cerebral hemispheres and protect your brain. - They are arranged in three levels, including the pia mater (deep, closest to the brain), arachnoid mater, and dura mater (toughest layer, superficial). Cerebrospinal fluid and blood supply run through these layers to nourish and protect the brain and CNS. Functions of hemispheres - The functions of your cerebral hemispheres vary considerably. The two hemispheres communicate via commissural fibers called the corpus callosum. - Two hemispheres communicate via corpus callosum  - Left hemisphere responsible for speech, language, sequencing, planning, mathematics, and integration as well as providing cortical control of innervating the spinal nerves to control the right side of the body. - Right hemisphere location for prosody, music, visuospatial recognition (including facial recognition), and creativity as well as controlling the left side of the body. Cortex Your cortex is the location of the highest-level functions in your brain, including reasoning, executive functioning, voluntary control of structures, memory, vision, hearing, and language and speech production. Layer of cells that covers the cerebral hemisphere Divides into four lobes Frontal Lobe - Largest lobe - It is the location for major cognitive functions, personality, motivation, inhibition, language production, speech production, motor programming, motor sequencing, and executive functioning. - Speech -related functions in the frontal lobe include planning, sequencing, motivation prior to the initiation of speech. - Cortical locations important for voluntary speech in the frontal lobe include your premotor area, supplementary motor area, and the expressive language center oftentimes referred to as Broca’s area. - Frontal lobe also contains the Primary motor cortex. which is responsible for voluntary movement and is an essential location for speech production. Parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes - The parietal lobe is the primary cortical area for sensory information, memory, cognition, and perception. - The temporal lobe is an essential component of speech and language production due to its ability to codify language, make memories, and integrate with visual input. Language comprehension is located at the juncture of the temporal and parietal lobes at Wernicke’s area. The lateral surface of the temporal lobe is the location for the primary auditory cortex, responsible for hearing and frequency representation. Connections to your hippocampus, which are essential for converting short-term to long-term memory, are in the temporal lobe. - occipital lobe is responsible for visual input and integration of visual material and contributes to speech and language development. Subcortical structures Your subcortical structures are essential for communicating between brain structures and monitoring background activities. Interactions of the basal ganglia, thalamus, and cerebellum fine tune planned voluntary motor movements based on results of previous activity.  These structures work together to serve as the quality control system for your CNS. Basal ganglia - are responsible for graceful motor movement, essentially functioning as a filter that eliminates unwanted voluntary movement and suppresses involuntary movements. Thalamus - Integrates motor activity with sensory feedback - particularly the results of previous motor movements, and relays that information to the corresponding portion of the cortex. Cerebellum - AKA little brain - Shares information with thalamus and CNS regarding the location of structures in space, the speed or sensation of movement, and predicting the location of structures as they move Brainstem Hub of autonomic involuntary control and integrates with large amounts of efferent and afferent information communicating through the CNS to the PNS. Your brain stem is the location of numerous ascending and descending white matter tracts. It also contains large numbers of cell bodies in a structure called the reticular formation, which is responsible for basic life functions such as respiration, digestion, and maintenance of homeostasis. Cranial nerves Your corticobulbar (cranial nerves) and corticospinal (spinal nerves) tracts provide the CNS with control of the cranial nerves and spinal nerves within the PNS. These tracts decussate, or cross the midline, within the brain stem for contralateral control of the body. Corticospinal tract fibers continue to the spinal cord whereas corticobulbar fibers innervate the cell nuclei for 10 of the 12 cranial nerves. Speech in the muscles Speech next involves the movement of muscles. Muscle contractions within the speech systems move, channel, and shape air for speech. Lower respiratory system within the rib cage includes the lungs, the soft tissues of the trachea, sections of bronchi and smaller airways, and alveoli. Alveoli are air sacs within the lungs and the location of oxygen and carbon dioxide gas exchange. Inspiration  An active process Two primary muscles - Diaphragm: large sheet of muscle that separates thorax from abdomen, It is mainly active during deep inspirations by pulling the lungs downward as it contracts. - External intercostals: increase volume of lungs which results in air rushing into the lung for inspiration Expiration Passive or forced process Passive expiration relies on gravity, elasticity of the lungs, and recoil within the rib cage to return the lungs to an equilibrium state following inspiration. However, speech expiration is an active process and requires activity in the many muscles responsible for forced expiration. Internal intercostals: compresses the rib cage and lungs by pulling the ribs downward. This result in air rushing out of the lungs. These are the muscles responsible for making the subtle airflow and pressure changes necessary for speech Abdominal muscles: not involved in inspiration but are essential muscles for speech production. The Larynx Biological function is to protect the airway Phonation is an overlaid function (organ for voice production) Laryngeal structures are primarily cartilaginous Three levels help protect your airway: epiglottis, vestibular folds, true vocal folds - epiglottis is to protect the airway during swallowing - These thick folds serve as a layer of airway protection - true vocal folds are involved in phonation. ❖ The space between the true vocal folds is called the glottis, closing of the vocal folds is adduction, and opening is abduction. Your true vocal folds perform the many functions essential for phonation The bernoulli effect - As the velocity of airflow increases through the constriction of your larynx, the pressure perpendicular to that flow will become negative in relation and will result in your vocal folds coming back together. Many muscles in your larynx are involved in glottal configuration or pitch change Adduction (closing of the vocal cords) brings vocal folds together for phonation. The speech articulators Speech articulation is the process of shaping of mobile and immobile structures to produce speech The Overlaid function of speech integrates with biological functions of airway protection, chewing, and swallowing, requiring the complex coordination of the same structures under entirely different motor programs. Mobile articulators  Your mobile articulators are the mandible, tongue, velum (soft palate), lips, cheeks, pharynx, and larynx (see previous section). Larynx: sound source for speech Mandible: Influences interactions of teeth, tongue, lower lip Tongue: completes shape configurations using intrinsic muscles, The tongue lacks a skeletal framework and completes all shape configurations using its intrinsic muscles. Velum: separates nasal cavity from oral cavity and pharynx Immobile structures Maxilla: upper jaw; hard palate. - Your hard palate and upper jaw separate the oral cavity from the nasal cavity. Teeth: Biological function to cut, shear, grind food for chewing and swallowing - The teeth also play an essential role in the production of certain speech sounds (for example, [f] and [v]) and contribute to the articulation of many other sounds. These are the major ideas in this chapter: The foundation for speech is 100 billion neurons in the nervous system. Nervous system control of speech relies on high-level cortical function in addition to other structures of the CNS and PNS. Your respiratory system is the driving force for typical speech. The biological function of your larynx is airway protection; it is also responsible for phonation. Although they use the same structures, movement and control of the speech articulators is markedly different from that for chewing and swallowing. Speech Reception and Perception For verbal communication a listener must both receive and perceive sounds Speech reception - Converting a physical sound wave to different types of energy Speech perception - Comprehension of a spoken message using a combination of input, skills, and cues. Sound in the air Speech reception begins as a sound wave in the air. Sound Generation Dominos - One air particle bumps the one next to it, transferring energy to the next particle in line - Rarefaction ❖ Now you have air particles moving back to their original spot and some air particles moving away from their original spot, creating areas with fewer air particles in it (with air particles spaced farther apart)  - Condensation ❖ areas where air particles are spaced closer together - Alternating areas of condensation and rarefaction form a longitudinal wave, Properties of Particle Motion - Two elements moving in a sound wave - Direction particles move in comparison to direction wave determines type of wave - Transverse wave is a type of wave where particles move perpendicular to the direction in which the wave is traveling. Soundwaves in 3D Three important characteristics of sound: 1. Time - refers to speed of sound - Speed of sound is how far the wave travels in a certain amount of time. 2. Frequency - Measure of how many completed cycles of waveform occur per second - wavelength is distance in space traveled by one cycle of the wave - Period is amount of time it takes to complete one cycle 3. intensity - Correlates with human perception of loudness - inverse Square Law relates intensity and distance - measured in dB Sound in the Ear Opposition to sound wave movement is called impedance Ears collect sound waves from Air The Outer Ear Pinna- visible on the side of the head External auditory canal-tube through which sound travels The middle Ear Tympanic membrane-first tissue encountered by Sound wave Ossicular chain- three bones that stretch across middle ear - Ossicular lever ❖ causing pressure to increase at the end of the chain, which causes more fluid in the inner ear to mov - Window size The inner air Oval window Cochlea is on the inner side of the oval window Organ of Corti - In middle layer of cochlea - Contains hair cells Sound in the Brain In this final stage, speech reception concludes and speech perception begins. The auditory nerve Branch of the vestibulocochlear nerve or (CN VIII) Central Auditory Pathway Brain stem is the connector between the spinal cord and the brain Three structures within the brainstem: medulla, pons, midbrain Where speech reception ends, speech perception begins The end goal of speech sound production is to communicate a message or intent SPLICE S: Sensory Cues P: Perception Decisions - Percept is the meaning assigned to sensory input - The decision of what meaning to assign to sensory input is influenced by past knowledge and experiences. L: Linguistic Cues - Structure on which to map the received sound I: Indexical Cues - Who produced the sound can influence perception C: Cognitive Skills - Memory - Attention E: Environmental Cues - Pragmatic environment Major topics addressed in this chapter include: The three important dimensions of sound waves are frequency, intensity, and time. The main parts of the ear are the outer, middle, and inner ear. Many factors affect how listeners perceive speech sounds, including sensory input and lexical, indexical, cognitive, and environmental features and knowledge. M05 INFANTS Speech Perception Intonation Infants education begins before birth An unborn infant hears its mother’s voice Fetal hearing of sounds outside the womb established by 28 weeks gestation Familiarity of mother’s voice and native language lays the foundation for bonding Development - Infants pay attention to intonation as they grow  - Knowledge of stress and intonation is crucial Speech Sounds Infant possesses a cochlea and hearing mechanism capable of categorical perception - categorical perception is, the ability to divide the speech stream into individual sounds Development - Categorical perception exists at birth - In infancy child movies from “citizen of the world” to citizen of a specific language - Basis of this change is maturation of the primary auditory cortex which is a sensory area adjacent to Wernicke’s area in the temporal lobe Keeping what an infant started - Retaining the wide perceptual abilities vs.loss of ability loss of ability means an infant is learning - Bilingual infant retains perceptual categories of languages to which it is exposed - Exposure to electronic teachers such as audio and videotapes do not show the same results - Infant appears to need interaction with a real person to learn Vocal Production Vocalizations provide practice for later speech development A link between ear and mouth Vocal Development in Infants Age Vocalizations 0–2 months Reflexive vocalization 2–4 months Cooing 4–6 months Vocal play 6–10 months Canonical babbling 10–12 months Variegated babbling  Reflective vocalization - Vegetative sounds occur as a byproduct of breathing in and out while moving the tongue and jaw Cooing - Become more prevalent around 2-4 months - You may hear sounds that are [k], [g] , and [x], and other sounds that you can only classify as “velar or pharyngeal fricative maybe kinda voiced sorta things.” Here are three alternative explanations for why an infant’s vocalizations change from reflexive to cooing: - Myelination: around 3 months reaches the area of the homunculus that controls movement to the back of the mout - Larynx: descends the throat during the first and second year, allows an infant to produce a wider variety of sounds. - Oral structure changes during infancy Vocal Play - Sounds near the front of the mouth become prominent around 4-6 months. Examples b and d like sounds Canonical babbling - 20% or higher contain consonant and vowel within same syllable - Reduplicated like [ba ba ba] and nonreduplicated babble like [ba da da] typically co-occur (meaning that either or can occur first or together) - Canonical babbling matters because it advances speech development Syllables Speech sounds Individual differences Variegated babbling - Also called jargon - Canonical babbling under adult-sounding intonation - Appears in some infants around 10-12 months Sound Communication What an infant learns Categorical perception leads to early realization that sounds carry meaning Conversations like a game of catch in which people toss sound back and forth During the first year, a child acquires rudiments of conversational turn taking By 3-4 months: may vocalize when spoken to By 5-6 months: may play sound and gesture games How an infant learns Language acquisition happens in the context of social interaction  Parentese: a specific type of spoken language marked by less grammatical complexity and increased pitch variation, spoken to the child one on one showed a direct impact on the child’s expressive language Roseberry et al. (2014) concluded that “socially contingent interactions are powerful catalyst for word learning” Bonding provides emotional connection Speech input that facilitates learning holds a child’s interest, changes in response to a child’s shifts in attention, and contains modifications that accommodate a child’s experiences and developmental level Familiar social routines is a critical factor for speech learning Putting it together Infant learns that sound can mean something Child needs both a brain to learn and environment dedicated to teaching Bonding provides emotional connection a parent needs Parentese transforms the noise in a child’s world into a ladder for learning Familiar social routines provide important location for learning This chapter discussed the following topics: During infancy, a child lays down foundations for future speech development. Infants begin with a speech perception mechanism capable of potentially hearing all sounds in the world’s languages, but they end the first year with a perceptual system largely restricted to the sounds in the child’s language community. Whereas perception abilities begin widely and then narrow, vocal production begins narrowly and then broadens, growing during infancy from vegetative sounds to a small stock of consonants, vowels, and syllables. An infant learns such fundamental communication building blocks as the “my turn–your turn” structure of conversation and a small stock of word meanings. TODDLERS Speech perception During first year, environment shapes infants speech perception mechanism Toddlers challenge of speaking with advanced speech perception abilities Speech production During first year, early sound making is a byproduct of breathing in and out, while opening and closing the mouth and, later, sound making include babbling a small stock of sounds, syllables, and stress patterns In the second year, child builds expressive vocabulary (words a child produces) Different ways at looking at consonant sound development Consonant inventories, phonetic inventories (Phonetic inventories list the speech elements a child can produce) (by initial/final, months) table 7-1  A phonetic inventory analysis tells you what a child can do, rather than what they cannot do. You can also look at speech development in toddlers by analyzing the consonants they pronounce correctly. Because correctness is determined relative to the adult language, investigators call this a relational analysis Correct consonants, relational analysis TABLE 7–3. Consonants Correct: Relationship Between Development and Articulator Distance Under 24 months 24 months Stops bpmn bdgptkŋ Affricates Fricatives Liquids Glides hw hw Vowels Toddlers more advanced in vowel development than consonant development Early acquisitions include “corner” [i u a ɑ] ; mid vowels come in somewhat later than open and closed pure vowels Between 1;6 and 1;11, a toddler correctly produces 80% of nonrhortic vowels Syllables Open syllable predominate early in the second year Toddler shows improved ability to close syllables with consonant Stress Words containing single syllable predominate Multisyllabic words often consist of two syllables and have primary stress on first syllable Pronunciation of banana as [nana] and umbrella as [bεlə] illustrate this pattern. Sound Communication What a toddler learns-Growth of Language table 7-4 Speech for communication By 12-13 months, toddlers may possess a few spoken words By 16-18 months words become primary form of communication Size of expressive vocabulary grows with increased use of words to communicate How a toddler learns Changes in Parentese to Facilitative talk - Strategic errors: s an adult-made error that focuses a child on communication. To give a speech example, if a child pronounces word-initial [t] as [d] during play the caregiver or clinician might point to a doll’s toe and say, “Doe.” The hoped-for response is that the child looks confused or laughs and, perhaps, attempts to say the word with an initial [t]. - Modeling: as the name suggests, provides a child an example (a model) of the behavior a caregiver wants a child to learn  - Bombardment: increases the relative frequency of a speech element. The logic behind bombardment is that a child tends to learn earlier what they hear more often - Requests for confirmation or clarification: focus a child’s attention on the purpose of speech, which is to communicate. The technique’s value lies in focusing a child on speech to communicate a message from one person to another. - Parallel talk: provides a child words and sentences to describe either their activities or aspects of the environment to which the child is attending. Parallel talk supports the well-known truth that a child is more likely to acquire aspects of language that refer to things and actions they find interesting. - Expansions: fill in the missing parts in a child’s utterances. Hearing a speech sound is not the same as knowing how to produce it Lexical Selection: Many toddler follow lexical selection by picking and choosing words to say based on their ability to pronounce them Word-based learning: is a strategy that allows the learner to say words just well enough for someone to understand Favorite sounds and word recipes: allow them to render wide variety of sounds through a few simple means Gestalt learning simplifies speech by bypassing words in favor of phrase and sentence melody (also called mature jargon) Major ideas in sound communication in toddlers: Toddler grows expressive vocabulary and increasingly communicates Facilitative talk shapes language Toddler perceives more speech than they can produce Toddler develops strategies that help them communicate despite their speech challenges. Image Strategies toddlers use to communicate include: - Say words with sounds you already make (lexical selection) - Say words just well enough for someone to understand you (word-based learning) - Say many different words in a few simple ways (favorite sounds and word recipes) - Say the sentence intonation and let speech sounds be placeholders (gestalt learning) Major ideas in this chapter include: Image Toddlers increasingly use words to communicate. Perceptual errors occur through lack of knowledge and inattention. A toddler’s first words contain sounds, syllables, and stress patterns learned during the first year, and they stumble on new speech elements as they increasingly use words to communicate. Communication strategies allow toddlers to communicate when they perceive more distinctions than they can produce.