Social Psych Summary PDF
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This document summarizes key concepts in social psychology, including self-concept, the origins of the self, and social cognition. It discusses how people's social environment affects their feelings and thoughts about themselves.
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she comparesthescoresofboysand S elf-concept=sumtotalofaperson's girls to see if they are different. thoughts and feelings that define the...
she comparesthescoresofboysand S elf-concept=sumtotalofaperson's girls to see if they are different. thoughts and feelings that define the self as an object (passive) (QUASI EXPERIMENT) Origins of the Self - Dr. H believes that multimedia George Hebert Mead presentations of math concepts will Generalizedother-sociologistandhe thought that the development of this help students learn better than observer is a process of maturing lectures about math. He randomly because required brain growth assigns 20 students to one of two 1. preparatory (there is no self, start mimicking) groups—onewhogetsalectureabout 2. Play (the self isbeginningtoemerge, a new math concept and another can take one or two roles) group that gets a multimedia 3. Game (kids can manage multiple presentation about the same new roles,understandhowpeoplerelateto themortherelationshipbetweenother mathconcept.Then,hecomparesthe individuals) scoresforthegroupsonachallenging You are not born with the self, you 10-item math test. (TRUE havetogrowandmaturecognitivelyto understandotherpeopleperspectives, EXPERIMENT) fully born self, … - IndependentandDependentvariable William James - Howdoesexposuretonaturalscenery Thought that self was an emotional process and not just cognitive affect levels of stress among college maturing. The self neededtofunction students? for you, adapt andchange,emotional - What is the effect of social media identification you add something to yourself and when you don't identify usage on self-esteem among college with it anymore it goes out of yourself students? ○ Spiritual (youreunderstanding - Does the type ofmusicplayedduring your place in the world, study sessions impact memory religious beleifs, cultural,...) ○ Social (your roles to other retentionin college students? people, yourunderstandingof your place for others, wife, daughter, etc.) ○ Material (things and people that are ofimportancetoyou, thigns you dont travel wihtought, pictures of your family and friends ont he wall) Cultural Influences on the Organization of the Self Cultural Orientations he Self - Chapter 3. T Individualism - focus on the self Important Vocabulary Collectivism - focus on the group Self-asymbol-usingsocialbeingwho Becauseofthecultureitwillinfluence canreflectonhisorherownbehavior the way we feel about ourselves (Self is the foundation of our groups) Independent (focus is you) vs. Observer (Self) vs. Observed Interdependent (boundary of you is (Self-Concept) poorest,thepeopleofyourlifearepart of you) S chemas: cognitive structures (ideas about your future career, ethnicity, ... think about yourself) your self-schemas are stored at your self-concept, loves stuffed animals “acollectionofbasicknowledgeabout The Self’s Main Job a concept or entity that serves as a guide to perception, interpretation, imagination, or problemsolving”(APA Dictionary of Psychology) Developed through experience Guide processing of new information Have for people, things, and events rganizing Knowledge about the Self O Is the self specifically represented in the brain? Theselfisprobablymostlyindividually your prefrontal cortex, the ventromedial prefrontal cortex is very important Important Vocabulary Self-schemas = the beliefs people hold about themselves that guide the processing of self-relevant information Self-concept = the sum total of a person’s thoughts and feelings that define the self as an object Most well-developed Paying Attention to the Self Speeds processing of information Self-awareness - a temporary Schematic or Aschematic psychological state in which you tae Most important schema!! - yourself as an object of attention Self-schema What are you looking at? Your Gender Schemas self-concept, your body, your moods, Bem’s conceptualization of femininity, etc... masculinity, and androgyny Who's doign the looking? The self Other terms: masculine = Private self-awareness TEMPORARY agency/instrumental; feminine = Publicself-awareness(howiappearto expressivity/communion/relational other people) TEMPORARY Gender schema -importantforsome, Doanimalshowself-recognitionandtherefore not important for others have a sense of a bodily self? After a couple of days these animals startedtousethemirrorasatooland understood that what wasreflectedin the mirror were them. Self Awareness has consequences Usually involves evaluating the self-concept, not just being aware of it Self-schemas (1) Teo dimensional view ○ How you feel about that ow Do We Get Information About The H low feminine -----------------x---- high feminine Self-concept? By Looking To Others (1) low masculine ---------------x--- high masculine Social comparison (Festinger, 1954)- when you know how you're doing on C omparison of the traditional something, I look at grades, work? one-dimensional and the more recent Compare yourself to other workers two-dimensional model of gender whenthereisnoobjectivestandardto Scoring the Revised BSRI youtendtowatchotherpeoplesimilar Masculinity: Sum your ratings for the to you even-numbereditems.Then,divideby ○ Upward - compare with 9. someone better than us Femininity: Sum your ratings for the (athletes) (Motivation, odd numbered items. Then, divideby information) 9. ○ Downward - compare with Androgynous if higher than 4(ish) on someone who is worse than both. us (feel better) How Do We Get Information About The Social comparison and social media Self-concept? By Looking Inside (Hunt et al., 2018) Introspection Hypothesis: Does social mediacause ○ To know yourself yiu need greater feelings of loneliness? - introspect People from the control group that ○ Use self-awareness to do used more social media felt more introspection lonely, youarecomparingyourselfwit How are introspection and self-awareness people that are better than you. different? Why does social media cause these Self-awareness = is a psychological effects? stateinwhichonetakesoneselfasan People engage in upward social object of attention; involves seeing comparison. yourself as a distinct entity in the world People on the sites are onlyshowing Introspection = looking inward and an edited version of themselves and knowing one’s own thoughts and their life. feelings (theprocessoflookinginside Connect to people you know not and knowing your thoughts and strangers! feelings) Evaluating the self: Self-awareness makes introspection Self-esteem possible. Esteem comes from Latin aestimare Cautions about the accuracy of which means “to estimate or appraise” introspection. An affective component of the self, People overestimate their positive consisting of a person’s positive and qualities. negative self-evaluations. Peoplearen'talwaysgreatataffective Evaluating the self: forecasting. Self-esteem Affective forecasting- thinking about Different versions: Trait- personality, how im going to feel in the future, State-howyoufeelrightnow,Domain forecasting our emotions - different states of life How Do We Get Information About The 8 domains: physical appearance, Self- concept? By Looking Outside athletic abilities, morality, romantic, The Looking Glass self relationship, and social acceptance ○ Your idea of What purpose does self-esteem serve? ○ How others see you ○ How others judge you It isasociometer.-meterofhowwell self concept -> actual self are you fitting in your social groups and social accceptance It is a hierometer. -youwanttobeat the top of the hierarchy, top of your social group, down - not in the top anymore It protects us from fears of our own death (Terror Management Theory). Self-discrepancy Theory (Higgins, 1987) So, Dr. Hardin, high self-esteem is always Actual Self: How we currently are better? Ideal Self: How we would like to be Not necessarily Ought to Self: How we should be Advantages of HSE: ○ Confident, persistent at difficult tasks, resist peer pressure, physically healthier Cost? Direction of causality? Related to narcissism So, Dr. Hardin, low self esteem is bad? Not necessarily Neutral evaluations rather than T he more apart are ideal and actual negative themorewefeel:DejectionEmotions: May have self-concept confusion disappointment, frustration, But! Problems come from dissatisfaction Not wanting to fail. Ought more apart actual - Agitation Focusing on self-protection emotions - agitation, threat, fear Emotional instability So,howdowerecoverself-esteemwhenit drops? 1. Exaggerate the abilities of those who outperform you 2. Distance yourself from the person 3. Distance yourself from the task 4. Downward social comparison gentic Self: Controlling (NO) Regulating A T he more apart are ought and actual The Self the more we feel:AgitationEmotions: Sense of agency refers to thefeeling agitation, fear, threat of control over actions and their Self-Regulation consequences. Baumeister’s strength model Self-awareness has consequences! 1) At any time, only a limited amount of Self-regulation = the ways in which energy is available to self-regulate. people control and direct their own 2) Each actofself-regulationusessome actions (Franzoi & Oswald) of that available energy. Self-Regulation 3) After self-regulating in one area, one Carver & Scheier’s will find it harder to regulate in another. Control Theory of Self-Regulation Self-regulation and self-control (Clinical Agentic Self: Regulating and guiding psych version) the self Self-control = inhibiting strong Control theory - am I aware where I impulses want to be Self-regulation = reducing the frequency and intensity of strong impulsesbymanagingstress-loadand Flexible and context dependent r ecovery ○ Direct or subtle reminders Self-regulation is what makes ○ Being a minority; being salient self-control possible, or in many ○ Conflict or rivalry cases, unnecessary. Interpersonal Self: Presenting The Self To Special Roles in Psychology The World Self-presentation Managing the impression we present to others But, they are looking at me!!!! The spotlight effect describes how people tend tobelieve that others are paying more attention to them than they actually are—in other words, our tendency to always he Uncomfortable Self T feel like we are “in the spotlight.” Self-Conciousness: the awareness ofhis/her So, why bother presenting at all? own body in a time-space continuum and its You are made salient. interactions with the environment – including Others control something that you others. want. Public: awareness of the self as it is ○ Especially if the important viewed by others. observers hold unfavorable Private: tendency to introspect and impression of you, and you examine one's inner self and feelings. want to change it. Social Cognition and Person Perception - What tools do we have? Chapter 4. Caution about using them! Social Cognition Want to appear likable? Use ingratiation The ways in which we interpret, strategies analyze, remember, and use Express liking for others information about the social world. Create similarity Implicit (involves judgments or Be physically attractive decisionsthatareunderthecontrolof Project modesty automatically activated evaluations Want to appear competent? Use Self- thatoccurwithoutourawareness.)vs. promotion strategies Explicit(involvesdeliberatejudgments Stage performances of your abilities or decisions of which we are Claim competence or better yet have consciously aware) others do it for you Automatic thinking Want to appear powerful and as though Social categorization you have higher status? Use Intimidation The process of forming categories of strategies people based on their common Display the artifacts of status and attributes power Big 3 Conspicuous consumption Prototype - The most representative Social influence on the self memberofacategory,amentalmodel SocialIdentities:aspectsofaperson’s that stands for or symbolizes the self-concept based on his/her group category memberships Schema Some are lifetime memberships(e.g., An organized structure of knowledge gender, ethnic, religious) about a stimulus that is built up from Some are temporary (e.g., hobby, experience and that contains causal team) relations; it is a theoryabouthowthe social world operates S tereotypes - a widely held but fixed Impression formation: deciding who and oversimplified image or idea ofa the person is (i.e., traits, moods, etc.) particular type of person or thing. Attribution: deciding why the person Why are schemas potentially problematic? did something Affect information processing and Impression formation memory the process by which observers Isusingschemasorstereotypesinevitable integrate various sources of or should we try to avoid doing it? information about others’ Fox (offers that stereotypes are not self-presentations into a unified and necessarily bad) vs. Devine consistent judgment (stereotypes have been shown to Their Nonverbal Behavior influence the interpretation of ○ Facial Expressions ambiguous behaviors) (“universal”) Heuristics ○ Gestures (not universal) Timesaving mental shortcuts that Emblems (piece reduce complex judgments to simple sign/number 2) "rules of thumb" Illustrators (add The availability heuristic information, where is The representativeness heuristic the river) The anchoring and adjustment Regulators(facilitatea heuristic conversation, talking When are we more likely to use heuristics? to someone using Whenwedon’thavetimetodocareful glasses, eye contact, processing …) When we have A LOT of information Adapters to process (self-directed Whentheissue(s)wearedealingwith behaviors, knee isn’t that important bounce,growabeard, Whenwehavetoolittleinformationto hair braid) do careful processing Cultural Differences in Nonverbal Behavior When the situation fits a particular Eye contact heuristic well Shaking hands When we are in a good mood Touching Deliberate thinking Personal space The truth and nothing but the truth?Iknewit Biases in Impression Formation all along. Self-conceptBias:whatweconsiderto Hindsight Bias (use it for other beimportantinourselvesisoftenwhat people): tendency, onceaneventhas we consider important in perceiving occurred,tooverestimateourabilityto other people (be on time) have foreseen the outcome Negativity effect: the tendency for What if I had...? negative traits to be weighted more Counterfactual thinking: tendency to heavily than positive traits in evaluate events by imagining impression formation (job interview) alternative versions or outcomes of Attribution what actually happened The process by which people use Don’t think about pink elephants… information to make inferences about Thought suppression: attempt to the causes of behavior or events. preventcertainthoughtsfromentering Locus of causality consciousness ○ Internal (person) - mood, Rebound Effect personality traits, abilities, … Person perception 2 Aspects of Person Perception ○ E xternal (situation) - situation utomatic or Deliberate A around them, action of other Processing? people, … Naïve scientists vs. cognitive misers Stability of causality Dual-process models ○ Stable vs. unstable Social World Beliefs Correspondent Inference Theory (Jones & Our ideas about howtheworldworks Davis) influence our judgments, decisions, An inference that the actor’s action and perceptions of others. corresponds to, or is indicative of, a False consensus effect: the tendency stable personality characteristic. to overestimate how common one’s Focus on behaviors that are: own attitudes, opinions, and beliefs ○ Low in social desirability are in the general population ○ Freely chosen Confirmation bias: the tendency to ○ Produce rare (noncommon) seek information that supports our effects beliefs while ignoring disconfirming ○ Follow-up information Covariation Model (Kelley) Self-fulfillingprophecy:theprocessby Principle of Covariation: For whichsomeone’sexpectationsabouta something to be the cause of a person or groupleadtothefulfillment particular behavior,itmustbepresent of those expectations when the behavior is present and Just World Belief: A belief system in absent when it does not occur. which the world is perceived to be a Types of Attributions: fair and equitable place, with people ○ Internal - her moods (he’s a getting what they deserve. rude jerk) Make sure to read the end of the ○ Entity-sheisdoingitbecause chapter of me (Hannah is the entity) Exit Cards - ○ Circumstance (it is unusual) - Prototype: variations of trees for Biases in Attribution example The Fundamental Attribution Error - heuristics:timesavingmentalshortcuts (Correspondence Bias): the tendency that reduce complex judgements to to overestimate the impact of simple “rules of thumb” dispositional causes and - Schemas (stereotype): are a kind of underestimatetheimpactofsituational heuristics causes on other people’s behavior Actor-Observer Effect: the tendency ttitudes & Persuasion - Chapter 5. A for people to attribute their own The Nature of Attitudes behavior to external causes (blame) Attitude: a positive or negative but that of others to internal causes evaluation of an object Self-servingBias,success,andfailure: Tricomponent View - attitudes are made up the tendency to assign an internal of our beliefs about an object, our feelings cause for our positive outcomes and about theobject,andourbehaviortowardthe an external cause for our negative object. outcomes Attitude toward Birth Control Is the FAE really “Fundamental”? ○ Cognitive element (believes birth control is important) ○ Affective element(isfearfulof unwanted pregnancies) ○ Behavioralelement(usesbirth control) Decisions, Decisions… A mbivalent Attitude: mixed, strong, positiveandnegativeevaluationofan object (chocolate cake) Attitudes can vary in accessibility ○ Attitudes based on emotion, especially positive emotions, are more accessible Covert Measures Attitudes that are more extreme and Facial electromyograph (EMG) positive are more defining of your Implicit Association Test (IAT) self-concept Implicit Attitude: an attitude that is Attitudes are stronger if based on activated automatically from memory, moral beliefs often without the person’s awareness Values: enduring beliefs about that she or he possesses it. important life goals that transcend How does Automatic Thinking Shape specific situations Attitudes and Behavior ○ Symbolic Attitudes: about Mere Exposure what the thing stands for Thetendencytodevelopmorepositive ○ Instrumental Attitudes: about feelingstowardobjectsandindividuals the thing the moreweareexposedtothem(as Implicit vs. Explicit Attitudes long as the initial exposure in neutral Implicit: automatically activated or positive). without conscious awareness ○ Requires no prior knowledge Explicit: consciously held attitude of the object Dual: simultaneously processing ○ Emotionally based - no contradictory implicit and explicit thinking required attitudes toward the same object Classical Conditioning How are Attitudes Measured? Learning through association Self-Report Measures Neutral stimulus is paired with a Wording is tricky stimulus that naturally procedures an Order od questions is tricky emotional response Likert Operant Conditioning Reinforcement of a behavior >> positive attitude associated with that behavior Punishment >> negative attitude associated with that behavior Behaviorally based How does deliberate thinking shape attitudes and behavior? The concept of cognitive consistency Heider (1946) Humans expect and prefer that their perceptions of themselves and the worldtobecoherentandharmonious, and they aremotivatedtomakethem so. Cognitive Dissonance Theory We wish to appear consistent in our thoughts and behavior Inconsistency is uncomfortable, Behavioral Measures aversive T o avoid or reduce the aversive ehavior representing b feeling, we engage in the following: a positive attitude) ○ Irrational behavior Paid $1 for lying and saying the task ○ Cognitive distortion & was enjoyable? rationalization ○ Probably felt the task was Cognitive Dissonance: a feeling of bring and dull discomfort caused by performing an ○ Didnothaveagodreasonfor action that is inconsistent with one’s telling the lie attitudes (dating) The money isn’t Festinger & Carlsmith (1959) enough to reduce Insificcient justification and dissonance dissonance between Festinger & Carlsmith (1959) Stage 1 being an honest First, twist wooden pegs on a board person (with a for 30 mins negative attitude) and Second,putspoolsofthreatontopegs tellign a lie (doing a and take them off again for 30 mins behavior representing Festinger & Carlsmith (1959) Stage 2 a positive attitude) Were told that test was about how So, must change the motivation influences performance only thing they can, Tellthenextparticipanthowenjoyable the negative attitude and fun the activities were ○ Rated the task as interesting 2 Groups and enjoyable ○ Paid $1 for briefing the next How Could You Reduce The Dissonance? participant Changing attitudes ○ Paid $20 for briefing the next Adding cognitions participant Altering the importance of the After talking to the next participant, discrepancy were asked how they felt about the Reducing perceived choice study Making self-affirmations Festinger & Carlsmith (1959) Results Changing behavior Other Instances of Cognitive Dissonance Justifying effort: coming to like what we suffer for Justifying difficult decisions: when good choices get even better The Link Between Attitudes and Behavior What’s going on? Paid$20forlyingandsayingthetask was enjoyable? ○ Rated task as boring and dull he Nature of Persuasion T ○ BUT, $20 was a sufficient Classic Approach to Persuasion: The justification for telling a lie Message-Learning Approach The money is a good excuse for being an honest person (witha negative attitude) and telling a lie (doign a he Cognitive Response Approach: The T Fear Elaboration Likelihood Model F ear Appeals facilitate persuasion if certain conditions are met The recipient of themessagemusbe convinced that: 1. The dangers are serious 2. The dangers are probable 3. The recommendations to entral Processing C avoid the dangers will be Involves… effective Effortful Thinking 4. Change can be accomplished Thoughtful analysis Humor Creates a kind of internal debate Humor increases attention to a Payoff? persuasive message Creates more resistant attitudes ○ but it may interfere with (inoculation theory) message processing Greater behavioral consistency What Makes an Audience Able to be Peripheral Processing Persuaded Involves… Audience Variables Effortless thinking Accessible, strong attitudes are hard Less thoughtful processing to change Heuristically based decisions Intelligence Produces? Personality Short-term Need for cognition Lower-level of commitment Psychological Reactance Important Factors Of a Persuasive Definition: the motivation to regain a Communication freedom after it has been lost on 1. Source Variables threatened (Brehm, 1966) 2. Message Variables ○ Illegitimate or unjust 3. Audience Variables restrictions of freedom ○ Behavior is important ○ Amount experienceddepends on the alternatives available ○ Influences evaluations tereotyping Prejudice & Discrimination - S hat Makes a Source Persuasive? W Chapter 6. Credibility (Believability) Scope and Terms Expertise Science of the study of prejudice Trustworthiness particularly racism What Increases Credibility? APA guidelines for terminology Presenting an unpopular message Heads up! I’m going to say some Arguing agains own self interest outrageous things Likability Vocabulary - Stereotype (s) What contributes to likability A schema, a cognitive representation ○ Physical Attrativeness of the typical group member. ○ Similarity Beliefs about the personalities, What Makes a Message Persuasive? abilities,andmotivesofasocialgroup Personal Importance that doesn’t allow for individual Emotions Motivate, Enhance and variation (Franzoi & Oswald) Hinder Persuasion: vividness can bolster evidence B eliefs or associations thatlinkwhole Are stereotypes always false? groups of people with certaintraitsor Generalizations characteristics. ○ The elderly are frail. A belief about the personal attributes ○ PeopleofAfricanheritageare of a groupofpeople.Stereotypesare superior athletes. sometimes overgeneralized, ○ True? inaccurate, and resistant to new Mostly information (and sometimesaccurate; ○ Elderlyaregenerallymorefrail Myers & Twenge, 2019). than younger people. Vocabulary - Prejudice ○ Blackmenareabout40times an attitude directed toward people morelikelythanWhitemento simplybecausetheyaremembersofa play in the NBA specific social group. (Stephens-Davidowitz, 2017) attitudes toward members of specific “Accuracy dominates bias.” Our groups that directly or indirectly stereotypes are probably true about suggesttheydeserveaninferiorsocial 90% of the time (Jussim, 2012, 2017). status (Franzoi & Oswald) How is that 10% wrong? negative feelings about others We overgeneralize. becauseoftheirconnectiontoasocial ○ Liberals and conservatives group. overestimatehowextremethe apreconceivednegativejudgmentofa views are of the others’ views. group and its individual members We are just wrong. (Myers & Twenge, 2019) ○ Peoplewithdisabilitiesarenot Vocabulary - Discrimination incompetent or asexual as a negative and/or patronizing action was assumed by a survey in toward members of a specific social Oregon (Nario-Redmond, group (Franzoi & Oswald) 2010). negative behaviors directed against We exaggerate the worst examples. persons becauseoftheirmembership ○ All Muslims aren’t terrorists. in a particular group ○ All priests aren’t pedophiles. unjustified negativebehaviortowarda We exaggerate reality. group or its members (Myers & ○ Women are not Twenge, 2019) (overwhelmingly) superior to Remember the Tricomponent Model? men when it comes to understanding others’ emotions. What do Stereotypes do For Us? Provide quick info about possible (although not necessarily probable) threat ○ Ingroups vs. outgroups Free up cognitive energy and space Think of it Like This! for other tasks ○ Outgroup homogeneity effect Is Prejudice Always Negative? No It’s complicated So, we know what prejudices we have, right?Wecanjustdecidenottohavethem anymore, right? Unfortunately, it’s not that simple. E xplicit prejudice: consciously held, M ore subtle even if not publicly expressed Surfaces wen it’s safe, socially Implicit prejudice: unconsciously held acceptable, or easy to rationalize Implicit Associations Test Aversive Racism (https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit) Attitudes toward members of a racial Or search for “Project Implicit” groupthatincorporatebothegalitarian The Stereotype Content Model: Three social values and negative emotions, Forms of Prejudice (Glick & Fiske, 2001) causing one to avoid interaction with members of the group Conflictbetweenpositiveandnegative beliefs about a racial group Things are changing, for the better (we hope) Charlesworth etal.,(2019);Examined IAT data from 2004 to 2016 ○ Less self-reported prejudice: age, disability, body weight, race, skin tone, and sexuality. ○ Less implicitprejudice:sexual ho are Common Targets of Intolerance W orientation, race, and Stigma skin-tone An attribute that discredits ○ Change in implicit attitudes person/group in the eyes of others related to sexual orientation: Goffman’s (1986) categories of stigma all generations and ○ Tribal identities: sex, race, demographic groups religion, etc. ○ Change in implicit race and ○ Blemishes of individual skin-tone attitudes: strongest character: mental illness, among millennials and varied addiction, etc. according to participants’ race. ○ Abominations of the body: ○ Implicit attitudes toward diseases, disabilities, etc elderly individuals and Race-based Appearence Cues Can Trigger disabled individuals: stable Dicrimination over time Racism: prejudice and discrimination ○ Implicit attitudes toward based on a person's racial overweight individuals: slight background, or institutional and increase in prejudice over cultural practices that promote the time. domination of one racial group over Prejudice can be powerful, even if another unconscious - Eberhardt et al. (2006) the belief that members of one’sown Examples of variation in racial group are superior to members stereotypically of Black faces. These of other racial groups imagesarethefacesofpeoplewithno Old-fashioned Racism criminal history and are shown here forillustrativepurposes?
