Medieval English Literature 1st Kolokvij PDF

PREGLED ENGLESKE KNJIŽEVNOSTI-1.kolokvij 1. THE MIDDLE AGES the first (oldest) and the longest period in the history of English literature Medieval English literature can be divided into three periods: o Anglo-Saxon Literature o Anglo-Norman Literature o Middle English Literature (the fourteenth and the fifteenth centuries) - the period that spans from the collapse of the Roman Empire until the beginning of Renaissance (and Reformation) -Renaissance-> which was seen as a sort of “reawakening” of creativity and a “rebirth”, a revival of Latin and Greek literature and learning, and by the nineteenth-century critics -the medieval literature (and culture) was rather lively. It flourished and was quite diverse. 2 types of texts in medieval lit. -> a) rooted in the Christian culture- promoted by the Roman Catholic Church, and there existed a fair amount of religious literature. b) a secular strain -inspired both by oral traditions of various European nations and by enormous historical and social change BRITANNIA – A ROMAN COLONY - From the first to the fifth century, England = province of the Roman Empire called Britannia after its inhabitants, the Britons, who spoke Celtic language THE ROMAN INVASION - 55 B.C. Julius Caesar started the Roman invasion, and 78-84 A.D. the Roman governor Agricola completed it - Britain was divided into two Districts: Civil (South) and Military (North) - The Romans built two protective walls, Hadrian’s Wall and Antonine Wall against northern Ancient Britons (and especially the Picts) - Hadrian’s Wall was the northern limit of the Roman Empire, and Antonine Wall represented an attempt to expand the Empire ROMAN WAY OF LIFE: ROADS - The Romans brought their way of life (architecture, roads, plumbing, law, language, religion and so on) to the colonies, strongly influencing the lives of conquered tribes/peoples ROMAN LANGUAGE: THE VINDOLANDA TABLETS among the oldest surviving handwritten documents in Britain found near Hadrian’s Wall an important source about the life in Roman Britain ANGLO-SAXON INVASION CA. 450 - After the withdrawal of Roman legions and over decades of fighting, seafaring Germanic invaders (the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes) managed to conquer the British island and push the native Britons to the mountainous regions of Wales - The modern form of the native Celtic language is still spoken in that area of Wales, alongside English - The word English/England -> derived from the name of the tribe of the Angles - the names of counties Essex, Sussex, and Wessex -> territories occupied by the East, South and West Saxons - Anglo-Saxons spoke an early form of Old English, which displays clear kinship with other Germanic languages (esp. German and Dutch) - Old English literature also shares similarities with other Germanic literatures both in content and form (each literature had a body of heroic and of Christian stories) RELIGION - accepted Christianity from the Romans in the 4th century, after the conversion of the Emperor Constantine - After the invasion of the pagan (non-Christian) Anglo-Saxons and some 150 years following the invasion, pagan beliefs spread, so Christianity was preserved only in the remote regions unconquered by the Anglo-Saxons - Christian revival: in 597, a Benedictine monk, St. Augustine of Canterbury, was sent on missionary work by Pope Gregory to King Ethelbert of Kent (in the South of England) - At the same time, missionaries from Ireland (the Celtic Church) preach Christianity in the North -> within 75 years, the island was predominantly Christian again THE IMPACT OF CHRISTIANITY - a major impact on literacy: before Christianity, there had been no books (and therefore not many records of either the past (historical events) or the early, oral, literature) - The first extended written text in Old English (the Anglo-Saxon language) is a code of laws by the first English Christian king, Ethelbert - Venerable Bede: Ecclesiastical History of the English People (731)- historical record written in the Latin, focus: conversion to christianity KING OFFA (758-796) - defeated kings in Sussex, Anglia, and Wessex and proclaimed himself King of the English. - regarded as the most powerful Anglo-Saxon king before Alfred the Great, although he was more interested in his glory than in the actual unity of the English. - Offa's Dyke - a great earthen barrier that runs approximately along the border between England and Wales. KING ALFRED (871-899) - A very successful king, known as Alfred the Great - he managed to organize the first English fleet against the Danes (Vikings) who repeatedly invaded and ravaged the English coast in their longboats - A learned and graceful man, and a patron of literature: practically all of Old English poetry is preserved in copies made in West Saxon dialect after his reign - He promoted Old English (over Latin) by having the aristocracy taught to read and write in Old English, and he translated various works from Latin to English language, such as Boethius’s Consolation of Philosophy. - He instigated the beginning of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, a yearly record of important events in England, written in Old English OLD ENGLISH POETRY - Anglo-Saxon invaders brought with them the tradition of oral poetry, examples of which, for the most part, went lost. - Circumstantial evidence (short inscriptions on small artifacts) indicate what that poetry may have been like. - The earliest records of poetry in the English language are in manuscripts produced at monasteries from the seventh century on - Because literacy was reserved for priests and monks, most of Old English literature is drawn from Latin sources and deals with religious subjects- frequently added Christian elements to pagan poems THE MECHANICS (FEATURES) OF HEROIC POETRY - Germanic heroic poetry was performed orally in alliterative verse. It was composed much earlier than it was recorded on paper. - Being oral, the Old English poetry is marked by specific poetic diction, formulaic phrases, and repetitions of parallel syntactic structures that made it easier for the scop to remember the text and that are difficult to reproduce in modern translation. - It often describes current events (such as major battles or adventures); other subjects are also related to the heroic way of life: the sea, brave deeds, glory of warriors, friendship, and the love of home. - The focus of a heroic poem is on departures, arrivals, feasts, boasting speeches, dressing of the hero, going to bed, and so on (this is now a valuable record of the Anglo-Saxon way of life). - Romantic love is NOT a subject of interest HEROIC QUEST - A journey that a hero takes in order to perform heroic deeds - The hero’s quest is the basis of the plot of a heroic poem. The hero is selected and then called/invited to complete a challenge. - Heroes fight for honour and immortality; the concept of immortality is based on fame: one becomes immortal if one is famous and remembered by many generations. SCOPS AND PERFORMANCE - Old English poetry was performed by a scop - a travelling poet who entertained Germanic kings and warriors by reciting poetry to the accompaniment of a harp, an AngloSaxon lyre, or a similar stringed instrument “scop” means to create, form or shape meaning that scops were not just performers but authors/creators of the verses they sung or recited - The scops were envoys of morality motivating the listeners to live good and honest lives in line with the heroic code. Their poems helped record and keep the history of Germanic people (for them, poetry was the closest thing to immortality). FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE - Synecdoche and metonymy are frequent figures of speech: for example, keel -> ship, iron -> sword - Poetic language contains a multiplicity of terms (synonyms and kennings) for major words that appear frequently such as: lord, warrior, spear, shield and so on. - KENNING is a two-word compound that serves as a metaphoric expression for important/frequent terms: whaleroad = sea, life-house = body - Synonyms and compounds are chief poetic devices, so they appear frequently in apposition - use of parallel and appositive expressions = variation - Variation gives the verse a highly structured and musical quality. For example, in “Cædmon’s Hymn,” God is referred to five times appositively as: “he,” “ holy Creator,” “mankind’s Guardian,” “eternal Lord,” and “Master Almighty. Often, irony is used (fighting = “battle-play”) or litotes (ironic understatement) such as, “No coward path” (line 2541), to suggest that Beowulf was brave. Alliteration: repetition of identical initial consonant sounds in successive or closely associated syllables within a group of words. Prosody: line is the main unit of composition, divided into two parts by a pause (caesura), which gave the scop the necessary rhythm - The effect of such poetic devices is to formalize and elevate speech, slowing it (the poems are monotonous), and making it both indirect and different from the everyday language. They also helped the scop remember the text of the poem HEROIC CODE AND SOCIETY - Germanic heroic and kinship values were inspirational for both Christian clergy and laity mixing of pagan and Christian - Kinship is the basis of heroic code; “nations” (tribes) are groups of people related by kinship, not geographical area - A tribe is ruled by a chieftain called “king” [the root of the word is “kin”], their lord. COMITATUS CODE - The king/lord is surrounded by retainers (thanes, servants, followers) who are members of his household and frequently also blood kindred. He leads the men into battle, protects them, and rewards them with the spoils. - A lord’s generosity and benevolence is one of the most important aspects of heroic behaviour; in return for such generosity, the retainers must fight for their lord to the death. If he is slain, they must avenge him or die trying. - Blood vengeance = sacred duty and everlasting shame awaits those who fail to observe it. They fight for honour. - Wergild (”man-payment”) – fee paid to the family of the slain man in order to prevent blood revenge MIXING THE PAGAN WITH THE CHRISTIAN - Christian writers, like the Beowulf poet, were fascinated both by the pagan culture and by the conflict arising from the clash between the heroic code and the Christian dogma. They admire the courage of their pagan ancestors and express elegiac sympathy for the inevitable doom of ancient values. - Most frequently, in transcribing the oral heroic poems, the scribes added elements from the Old Testament, which echoes the values of the pagan/heroic world more closely than the New Testament - Often, they even cast Christian poetry in heroic mode 2.a “CÆDMON’S HYMN” Among the oldest extant English poems (late 7th c.) In vernacular = Old English, not Latin Bede’s Ecclesiastical History of the English People (731) o The most important source on the Anglo-Saxon period o Conversion and the beginning of church in England THE STORY OF CAEDMON Cowherds at the monastery of Whitby, singing songs (on pre-Christian times and heroes) Illiterate and could not sing In a dream, he received the gift of singing and composed his “Hymn” on the divine Creation Later, as a monk, he composed many other religious songs HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL CONTEXT Conversion of the pagan English people to Christianity Bede’s miracle of God making English people Christians, adapting their culture to Christianity Blend of two different traditions: the pagan, heroic tradition and the Christian tradition HEROIC SOCIETY Heroes – fights, blood-feuds, revenge Courage and skill -> desire for glory -> immortality Boasting LANGUAGE AND STYLE OF HEROIC POETRY Oral poetry Slow and elevated rhythm (followed by an instrument, a harp) Two half-lines + caesura Alliteration Kenning Stock phrases or two-word epithets (warrior = a feeder-of-eagles) “CHRISTIAN COLOURING” Literacy came with Christianity The Anglo-Saxon period began in the 5th c., the first preserved poem is from the 7th All pagan (heroic) Germanic literature is refracted through the Christian perspective CHRISTIAN VALUES Pride is a deadly sin Praising Jesus/God o Creation of the World and glorifying God (hymn) Applying pagan heroic verse to a Christian theme o God is praised like hero BEOWULF The oldest Anglo-Saxon long epic poem (8th –10th c.) Composed in oral tradition, written down by monks Only one manuscript preserved (late-10th c.) In the 20th c., the interest in the poem grew HISTORICAL DOCUMENT A document of the Anglo-Saxon period when very little was written down Set in the 6th century, before the end of the Anglo-Saxon invasion One datable fact: a raid on the Franks in which Hygelac, the king of Geats, was killed (in 520) CHARACTERS AND SETTING The Danes and the Geats (South Scandinavian tribes) Set not in England, but on the (contemporary) Danish island of Zealand BUT The poem is English in language and origin → in Old English by an Anglo-Saxon poet GERMANIC WARRIOR SOCIETY Comitatus code → kinship between the king and his thanes o Comrades, not slaves; the king rewards them with spoils of war Revenge → not to exact revenge was shameful o Later established the wergild or man-prince; based on status of the victim Honour and glory o Being pagans, this was their way of reaching immortality Revenge is the main motive in Beowulf Glory -> Immortality Another Beowulf’s motive is to demonstrate his strength and courage and enhance his personal glory THE MECHANICS OF HEROIC POETRY - Conventional scenes: departures, arrivals, sailing, feasts (eating, drinking, singing), riding horses, going to bed, getting up, dressing of the hero, boasting speeches - Long descriptions of specific events (the culture) FORMAL BOASTING Feasts at mead-halls Singing songs of heroes and their courageous feats A symbol of the king’s power -> the safest place in the kingdom THE HEROIC QUEST Key plot feature in heroic poetry -> a quest or a challenge Selection of the hero Testing of the hero Descent into the underworld Apotheosis-boasting Magic objects that help the hero ORAL-FORMULAIC POETRY Performed in alliterative verse o The principal poetic device in Old English poetry o Used to aid the memory KENNINGS A kenning -> a two-word phrase instead of a simple noun; a highly figurative epithet o Grendel = hellish fiend, hall-watcher o The sea = whale's road o A king = ring-giver o The names: ▪ Hrothgar = glory-spear ▪ Wealtheow = peace-servant ▪ Ecgtheow = sword-servant Litote- an understatement in which an affirmative is expressed by the negative of its contrary, as in “not bad at all.” ANCIENT HEROIC VS. CHRISTIAN TRADITION Two distinct worldviews: pagan vs. Christian Composite authorship (old theory) the Beowulf-poet was Christian God is merciful, while Beowulf is intent on revenge BIBLICAL REFERENCES Only to the Old Testament o Cain, Abel, the Flood -> comparable to Beowulf’s world o God as the Creator of all things o God’s mercy and judgment for the dead, Heaven o Hell and the Devil Other Themes: Youth vs. old age Light vs. dark Heroic vs. elegiac atmosphere WOMEN IN BEOWULF Generally not represented, only as wives and daughters of kings Grendel’s mother (a warrior) No romance 2. ANGLO-NORMAN BRITAIN WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR (1066-1087) - The next stage in the history of England and English literature begins with the Norman conquest in 1066. - This was a vibrant period which brought new forms of political organization and cultural (literary) expression, marked by the strong French influence and the reign of William the Conqueror, the first Norman King of England THE NORMANS - The Normans (contraction of Norsemen) were, like the AngloSaxons, descendants of Germanic adventurers who had seized a great part of northern France – Normandy – in the early tenth century. - They had adopted the French language of the land they settled in and their Christian religion. - They were great builders of magnificent churches and castles, with which they enforced their political dominance. Norman bishops exercised both political and spiritual authority. BATTLE FOR THE THRONE - William was promised succession to the English throne by Edward the Confessor, the then king of England who was related to William. However, after Edward’s death in 1066, his brother-in-law and most powerful of the English lords, Harold Godwin, claimed the throne of England for himself. - The betrayal angered William who assembled a fleet and an army, and on 14 October 1066 the famous Battle of Hastings took place. King Harold and his two brothers were killed in the battle, which cleared William's path to the throne crowned king of England on Christmas Day - Every English monarch who followed William, including Queen Elizabeth II, is considered to be his descendant. BEGINNINGS OF THE FEUDAL SYSTEM IN ENGLAND - To extinguish revolts which occurred after his ascendancy to the throne, William confiscated English land and distributed it to his Norman followers, who then imposed their feudal system. - Although Normans replaced the entire Anglo-Saxon aristocracy, William retained most of England's institutions and was greatly interested in learning about his new country - He ordered a detailed census to be made of the population and property of England: The Domesday Book (1086) - The book was the first attempt of a modern assessment roll or cataster. It was written in Latin. - The Domesday Book is the most complete record of preindustrial society, and an invaluable source of historical information. It is still kept in the Public Record Office in London. THE SCHISM OF 1054 - The 1054 East-West Schism marked the final separation between the Eastern Christian churches (led by the patriarch of Constantinople, Michael Cerularius) and the Western church (led by Pope Leo IX) - The Schism contributed to various religious wars between the East and West which lasted for centuries - ”Military Tourism” – the Western Europeans learned about the world by participating in the wars - The wars become a major theme for artists (painters, writers…) both in England and all over Europe CRUSADES 1095-1291 - Military ”expeditions,” organized by western European Christians in response to centuries of Muslim wars of expansion - Objectives: 1) to check the spread of Islam 2) to retake control of the Holy Land in the eastern Mediterranean 3) to conquer pagan areas 4) to recapture formerly Christian territories - 1202-4 – Crusaders sack Constantinople - The Crusades were seen by many of their participants as a means of redemption and expiation for sins. ENGLISH RULERS - After the death of William I the Conqueror, and three other Norman kings, the English throne goes into the hands of the Plantagenet family, who were largely absentee rulers as they were concerned with their continental (French) territory as well as the English one - Henry II (1154-1189) - a strong king who extended his rule over most of France as his marriage with Eleanor of Aquitaine brought him vast territory in the southwest of France - 1154, the year of his ascension, marks the end of Peterborough Chronicle, the last branch of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle - 1161- prostitution legalized and regulated - Henry II is also remembered for his quarrel with the archbishop Thomas Becket, who was murdered in Canterbury Cathedral in 1170 - Henry II believed that the church was subject to the law of the land, but Becket insisted that the Church was above the law CIVIL RIGHTS – 1215 MAGNA CARTA - On 15 June 1215 at Runnymede the barons compelled King John to sign Magna Carta Libertatum, the Great Charter of Freedoms, which reinstated the rights of all his subjects - the beginning of human (civil) rights in Anglo-American jurisprudence THE JEWISH MINORITY IN ENGLAND - English treatment and attitude to Jews is not merely a historical subject, but appears in literature as well - The Jews, mostly from Rouen in Normandy, begin to settle in England after they were actively encouraged to come by William I who was keen to foster trade between the two countries - Highly literate and numerate, especially compared to the general population of medieval England, they played a vital part in the economic life of the country as financiers and moneylenders, the main occupations they were permitted to practice (their opportunities for employment were restricted) and which were forbidden to Christians - Over the next two centuries they grew steadily in number, wealth and influence, but, as moneylenders, Jews were despised and came to be hated by the very people who relied upon their services - Legally they were the personal property of the king and had royal protection, so they could use the king’s highways and, as royally protected financiers, they participated to some degree in court affairs - They were also subject to heavy taxation (Jewish money financed the Crusades!) - Despite their major contribution to England’s wealth, the assaults on them escalate from the mid-twelfth century MARKING JEWS AS DIFFERENT - A new papal decree obliged Jews across Europe to wear an identifying badge to distinguish them from other citizens - In England, in 1217, it was ordained that “every Jew shall wear on the front of his dress tablets or patches of cloth four inches long by two inches wide, of some colour other than that of the rest of his garment.” This usually took the form of a white or yellow badge signifying the two tablets of Moses BLOOD LIBEL AND THE CHURCH’S ROLE IN THE PERSECUTION OF JEWS - Anti-Jewish hostility in medieval England also took the form of the blood libel: the accusation that Jews were murdering Christian children as part of their Passover rituals - The allegation was made for the first time in 1144 in Norwich, after the mutilated body of a young man called William was found in woodland near the city. No evidence was found to connect Jews to William’s death, nor were any Jews in Norwich found guilty of the crime CREATING MYTHS - In 1150, Thomas of Monmouth, a young monk at Norwich Cathedral, decided to make a martyr of William. In his book, The Life and Passion of William of Norwich, Thomas presented the Jews not just as William’s killers (despite not a shred of evidence to support this assertion) but as insatiable for Christian blood in general. - The myth of the blood libel rapidly took hold in Christian imagination from then on, and whenever a Christian child died accidentally or in some unexplained manner, the Jews were likely to find themselves accused. - In 1269 new laws were passed forbidding Jews from owning land or property other than their own homes or those rented to other Jews, and confiscating all their assets when they died. Jewish children were no longer allowed to inherit from their parents and, from 1275 on, Jews were banned from lending money -> no way to earn a living but to commit a crime “WHO IS LIKE YOU” POEM BY RABBI MEIR OF NORWICH expresses the dreadful plight of the Jewish community at this time: o Forced away from where we dwelt o We go like cattle to the slaughter o A slayer stands above us all. o We burn and die. (55-58) 1290 EXPULSION - The entire Jewish population was expelled from England in 1290, under the reign of Edward I. Any Jew found remaining in the country after All Saints’ Day (1 November) would be put to death. Between 4,000 and 16,000 Jews fled to the continent. - A small number remained, either by converting to Christianity or concealing their identity and religion - England was the first European country to expel its Jewish population but in the following centuries France, Spain, Portugal and others would follow suit. - Jews were officially banned from England for the next 350 years, until 1655-56 when Oliver Cromwell accepted the right of their readmission to the country LANGUAGE AND CULTURE French-speaking ruling-class in England created opportunities for excellent linguistic and cultural exchange -> four languages coexisted in Anglo-Norman England: o Latin: the international language of learning (theology, science, history) and (written and spoken) communication in church and newly founded universities o Anglo-Norman French as the language of the king and court o Middle English as the language of the masses (vernacular language) o Celtic language (different branches of Celtic language group) spoken in Scotland, Ireland, Wales, Cornwall and Brittany LITERATURE - Eleanor of Aquitaine brought to England her interest in poetry, music, and art -> early romances were written for her in France, and later in England too - The Anglo-Norman aristocracy was greatly attracted to Celtic legends that had been circulating orally for centuries -> the twelfth century poets Thomas of England, Marie de France and Chrétien de Troyes claim to have gotten their narratives from Breton storytellers, writing them down as lays and, later, romances. BRETON LAY – LITERARY FORM - A short, rhymed (predecessor of) romance recounting a love story. It includes supernatural elements, mythology transformed by medieval chivalry, and the Celtic idea of faerie, the land of enchantment. - Derived from the late twelfth-century French lais of Marie de France, it was adapted into English in the late thirteenth century and became very popular LAI – A MUSICAL FORM medieval poetic and musical form, cultivated especially among the trouvères (poet- musicians) of northern France in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries also known slightly earlier by the Provençal-language poets, the troubadours, and by the German Minnesingers, who called the poems Leich a long poem with non-uniform rhymed stanzas of about 6 to 16 or more lines of 4 to 8 syllables; text addresses the Virgin Mary or a lady, or sometimes it might be didactic. ROMANCE The principal narrative genre of the Middle Ages – a story about love and adventure containing fantastic elements love becomes the means of analyzing the individual’s relation to his or her society love competes with friendship, Courtly Love vs. Comitatus Code literary taste and judgement of noble women had a significant role in the rise of romance in France and Anglo-Norman England Frequently, a knight had to prove his worth through nobility of character and brave deeds rather than through noble birth -> romances reflect the aspirations of a lower order of nobility to rise in the world (as some of them did) CHRÉTIEN DE TROYES (1170-91) wrote chivalric romances about the knights of the Round Table Knightly adventures are not only displays of the knight’s martial prowess but also a means of exploring psychological and ethical dilemmas The court of King Arthur had a reputation (especially for French audiences) as the most famous center of chivalry. The reputation is due to the Latin book The History of the Kings of Britain by Geoffrey of Monmouth (1136-38) DEVELOPMENT OF COURTLY LOVE questions about love become very important both in the actual court life and even more so in medieval literature Andreas Capellanus: The Art of Courtly Love (De Amore) – also known as De arte honeste amandi (The Skill of Loving Virtuously) (ca. 1186 and 1190) Examples of some of the rules: 1. Marriage is no real excuse for not loving 13. When made public love rarely endures 16. When a lover suddenly catches sight of his beloved his heart palpitates 23. He whom the thought of love vexes eats and sleeps very little 31. Nothing forbids one woman being loved by two men and one man by two women COURTLY LOVE Whereas Anglo-Saxon literature is unmarked by romantic themes, the Anglo-Norman literature” invents” romantic love. More specifically, it invented the mode of eroticism known as courtly love that appears in many medieval texts. the medieval philosophy of love the love of knights for somebody else’s wife: it was intended to refine and ennoble the knight and to flatter the lady Sometimes seen as the other side of the coin of medieval antifeminism: it idealizes women and through that very act it designates their difference from the male standard COURTLY LOVE AS A LITERARY CONVENTION expressed in refined language, amorous looks, and flirting The lady is wooed (usually at a distance) by a knight who fights in her honour, devotes himself to her, and suffers pallor, chills and fever, insomnia, anorexia and other symptoms that will be the death of him unless he obtains her ”mercy” Was it chaste or adulterous? – debatable The notion of love as service uses various metaphors with which women are turned into erotic figures: o Of slavery (he is her thrall) o Of religion (he worships her and prays to her) o Of politics (he petitions, commits treasons; she is a tyrant) ALLITERATIVE REVIVAL (C. 1350 – 1500) late 14th century, a renewed flowering of alliterative poetry (which was typical for Old English poetry) in the north and west of Britain The most important works of the Revival include William Langland's Piers Plowman, the Alliterative Morte Arthure, and the works of the Gawain Poet: Pearl, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, Cleanness (Purity), and Patience. THE MIDDLE ENGLISH ALLITERATIVE LINE Alliteration spills over several lines Rhyme is introduced Bob and wheel: a group of typically five rhymed lines following a section of unrhymed lines, often at the end of a stanza. The bob is the first line in the group and is shorter than the rest; the wheel is the quatrain that follows the bob SIR GAWAIN AND THE GREEN KNIGHT ANGLO-NORMAN LITERATURE Three main elements: The appearance of romance as a literary genre The alliterative revival Fascination with old Celtic legends King Arthur and his knights SIR GAWAIN AND THE GREEN KNIGHT Written in the late-14th century (1375–1400) A single manuscript with four works preserved: Gawain + three religious poems (Pearl, Patience, and Purity) A contemporary of G. Chaucer, J. Grower, and W. Langland Northwest midlands between Chesire and Staffordshire The poet and the audience acquainted with the popular international culture of the Middle Ages, as well as with lesser known, folklore traditions “the finest Arthurian romance in English” the latest fashions in clothing, armor, and castle building OLD TRADITION IN GAWAIN The 13th century romances in general recognize Sir Lancelot as Arthur’s best knight, and his adultery with Guinevere as the central event BUT Arthur’s court is in its springtime Sir Gawain as Arthur’s nephew, the preeminent knight of the Round table The Beheading Game – a challenge in which a supernatural visitor offers to let his head be cut off in exchange for a return blow The motif belongs to the Middle Irish oral literature Found in several French romances as well as in English oral tradition THE GENRE OF ROMANCE A medieval (chivalric) romance o Popular in Europe from the 12th to 16th century o Displaced the earlier epics and heroic forms as the main literary expression A narrative in verse that involves supernatural adventures and moral testing Elevated diction and very formal choice of words Based on the ideals of courage, loyalty, and honour → the knightly behaviour Not a heroic age of tribal wars, but a chivalric age of high manners and civility ROMANCE Roman initially applied to a work written in the French vernacular Eventually, “romance” acquired the generic associations as a story about love and adventure The principal genre for late medieval readers An immense popular appeal among the English readers and listeners THE CODE OF CHIVALRY doughty deeds” and dignified style → proving knightly worth through character and deeds A combination of warrior and Christian ideals: o Loyalty (to God, one’s lord, and the lady) o Modesty o Bravery o Honour (keeping one’s word) o Courtesy WOMEN AND COURTLY LOVE ”love service” -> the knight serves his lady and loyally as his lord in the feudal society The language of courtly love: polite manners, praise, ”gentilesse” The woman controls the relationship, the knight owes her obedience and submission CHANGE OF AUDIENCE Largely made up of women from the court The Germanic epics centered almost exclusively on male warriors Fighting, male bonding, and vengeance love and issues connected to love In Real Life Not a truthful state of affairs at the time Medieval marriages were based on practical and dynastic concerns A woman’s only task was to bear (male) children Antifeminism in SGGK Morgan le Fay(e) – a witch and and enemy SIR GAWAIN’S SINS Treachery – breaking the oath of loyalty to the lord Breach of faith toward God Cowardice – fear of death MAGICAL OBJECTS IN ROMANCE A staple element of medieval romances Gawain puts his trust in the girdle as a replacement for his trust in God to save him from death Precisely because of it, he fails the challenge (superstition) SYMBOLISM IN SGGK The Green Colour o In the English folklore, the green colour symbolizes nature and its embodied attributes (fertility and rebirth) o In the medieval period, it is portrayed it as representing love and the base, natural desires of man (lust) o It is also connected to witchcraft and devilry for its association with faeries and spirits of early English folklore o Pentagle The Truth Not honesty, but honour, Christian faith, and purity - The Five Fives 1) Senses 2) fingers 3) Christ’s wounds 4) the five joys (Annunciation, Nativity, , Resurrection, Ascension, and Assumption) 5) (chivalric ideals) brotherly love, pure mind, and manners, generousness, and compassion THE GREEN KNIGHT Revival of knightly values Connection to the Devil Holly bob FELIX BRUTUS Origins of Rome and Britain related to the destruction of Troy Great-grandson of Aeneas and legendary founder of Britain MATURE CHRISTIANITY Strong religious character Many references to Christianity, and especially to the Virgin Mary “Christmastide” / Yule, between Christmas and New Year ELEMENTS OF HEROIC POETRY The heroic quest (the challenge) Feasting Clothing of the hero, going to bed, and waking up Magical objects used by the hero OTHER THEMES Hunting and seduction o A typical ”courtly love” challenge: the exchange o Day 1 – the deer and one kiss o Day 2 – a boar and two kisses o Day 3 – a fox, three kisses, and the lady’s girdle (kept secret) Nature and seasons The passage of life and decay ALLITERATIVE REVIVAL After the Norman Conquest, alliterative verse continued in oral poems The poet “pretends” that the romance is an oral poem and asks the audience to “listen” to a story which he has “heard” During the late-14th century, a renewed flowering of alliterative poetry that goes back to Anglo-Saxon England STYLE OF THE POEM Written in stanzas that contain a group of alliterative lines No pattern of stresses like Old English poetry (no caesura) “the wheels” -> a group of alternatively rhymed lines “the bobs” -> lines which come before the wheels The last word of the bob always rhymes with the second and fourth lines of the wheel THE FUNCTION OF THE ROMANCE Entertainment o tales of adventure, intrigue, and mystery A moral lesson o illustrations of how heroes react to dangerous situations and moral dilemmas o they reveal what character traits are valued by society MIDDLE ENGLISH PERIOD, MEDIEVAL DRAMA, LYRICS AND BALLADS THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY: A TIME OF WARS AND PLAGUE 1337-1453 was the period of the Hundred Years’ War (which, in fact, lasted for more than one hundred years).- It implied an intermittent struggle between England and France in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries over a series of disputes, including the question of the legitimate succession to the French crown. The complicated political relationship existing between France and England began with William the Conqueror, the first sovereign ruler of England, who also held fiefs on the continent of Europe as a vassal of the French king. Edward III’s claim to the French throne started the war, and Henry V’s grandiose conception of a dual monarchy by which the English king should rule two kingdoms on either side of the Channel perpetuated the idea that the English really have that claim. The war was both a period of flourishing chivalry and of its subsequent decline. It also led to the forging of two nations as they developed stronger national identities over the war-fraught period. HUNDRED YEARS' WAR: BATTLE OF CRÉCY 1346 Edward III of England defeated Philip VI of France ST. JOAN OF ARC – A FRENCH NATIONAL HEROINE "The Maid of Orléans,” Catholic saint a peasant girl who, believing that she was acting under divine influence, led the French army in a crucial victory at Orléans that repelled the English attempt to defeat France during the Hundred Years’ War A year afterward, Joan was burned to death by the English and their French collaborators as a heretic. THE BLACK DEATH OF 1348 The first and most virulent epidemic of the bubonic plague that wiped out between a quarter and a third of Europe’s population. The plague was spread by flea-infected rats (and infected individuals), apparently originating in the East (Central Asia); it travelled west along the trade routes across Europe and arrived on the British Isles from the English province of Gascony (France). The plague had reached London in the autumn, and by summer 1349 it covered the entire country. It died down by December of 1349. It is estimated that it killed between 40-60 per cent of the population. In 1361–62 the plague returned to England causing the death of around twenty per cent of the population. Following this, the plague continued to return intermittently throughout the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, in local or national outbreaks, its effect becoming less severe. One of the last outbreaks of the plague in England was the Great Plague of London in 1665–66. 1381 RURAL UPRISING (PEASANTS' REVOLT) The scarcity of labour (due to many deaths) resulted in the rise of wages. Unhappy with the rising wages, the English ruling class attempts to enforce wage controls and oppressive new taxes in 1381, which provokes a rural uprising in Essex and Kent. Some of the lower clergy sided with the rebels against their wealthy church superiors. The insurgents entered London, burned down the palace of the duke of Lancaster, and beheaded both the archbishop of Canterbury and the treasurer of England. THE RISE OF THE MERCHANT CLASS AND CIVIL SERVANTS the growth of international trade continued as did the influence of the rich merchant class The export of English wool to the Continent was very profitable, and the Crown imposed large taxes. Due to the Crown’s involvement in economic affairs, capable administrators were needed, who represented a new rank: educated laity (between the lesser nobility and upper bourgeoisie) -> Geoffrey Chaucer served both Edward III and Richard II in such a civil post. Chaucer’s character of merchant shows the roots of capitalism based on credit and interest. BEGINNINGS OF REFORMATION People resented the church because it was one of the most oppressive landowners and because it was wealthy, too worldly, and the higher clergy was much too venal. Moreover, as the church itself had proclaimed that Black Death was punishment for immoral behaviour, the higher death rate among the clergy led the people to lose faith both in the Church as an institution and in their morality – the clergy was seen as increasingly corrupt and focused on wealth. The anti-clericalism brought about the rise of John Wycliffe, a priest whose ideas paved the way for the Christian reformation in England (which will occur in 1530s). REFORMATION AND VERNACULAR Loss of faith in the church did not cause a loss of Christian faith; rather people began to long for a more personal relationship with God − unmediated by the Pope, Church or clergy. Private chapels were being erected and used both by the nobility and among the well to do (esp. the merchant class). In 1380 John Wycliffe finishes the first complete translation of the Bible into English, so that the ordinary people may read and understand the Scriptures on their own. He criticized the corruption in the church and suggested that wine and bread did not really turn into the body and blood of Christ during Eucharist. For this, he was condemned by the Church as a heretic. Wycliffe’s followers were called “Lollards.” THE RISE AND DOMINANCE OF ENGLISH Throughout the thirteenth and the fourteenth centuries, English begins to gain ground. Although French was still the principal language of Parliament, law, business, and high culture, most of the nobility is by now bilingual, and some cannot speak French. Children of the nobility and the merchant class begin to learn French as a second language. In 1362 English is first used in law courts and Parliament. Many educated people translate important texts into English (Wycliffe, Chaucer), and literature is being written in English as well. CHRIST’S HUMANITY EXPRESSED THROUGH AFFECTIVE PIETY Representations of Christ in medieval visual art and literature may seem too lurid or repulsive to modern observers, as they were intense bodily and emotional accounts of suffering divinity. Authors of such works attempted to show how greatly Christ suffered, creating visceral representations of tortured body, pain, blood, grief, and so on. Affective piety: highly emotional style of devotion in arts and life, focused on the humanity of Jesus, particularly in his infancy and his death, and to the joys and sorrows of the Virgin Mary. (It is designed to provoke an intense emotional response, rather than an intellectual one.) Later, Protestants banished visual representations altogether. CULT OF THE VIRGIN MARY Medieval literature abounds with two diametrically opposed stereotypes of women, one represented by Eve (the cause of humanity’s downfall) and the other by Mary (who bore humanity’s Saviour). The Fall was associated with Eve’s sexuality (“the whore”), the salvation with Mary’s virginity (“the saint”). In both cases, the focus on the female body is as evident as the woman’s removal from the general sphere of life. (She either belongs “in the gutter” or in Heaven, but the Earth is the realm of men.) WOMAN AS A SINNER OR SAINT: ROOTS OF MISOGYNY The medieval Church, which required its priests and monks to be celibate, promoted antifeminist literature to persuade men to renounce women. Preachers promulgated the view that women (wives in particular!) were promiscuous, luxury-loving, extravagant, loose-tongued, proud, quarrelsome, deceitful, domineering, and guilty of every vice or annoying disposition that men could think of. In the attempt to further detract men from women, the Church doctrine regarded feeling pleasure in sexual relations even between spouses as sinful. The purpose of sex was procreation and nothing else. The only respectable women were saintly and isolated from material life (nuns, abbesses, and so on). Medieval Genres Old English Epic Romance, Chivalric Romance Allegory (The Dream Vision) Satire Middle English Lyrics characterized by their brevity and emotionality demonstrate a continuity with later Renaissance song, as they were frequently accompanied by music religious (affective piety) or secular (lyrics about the joys of life or everyday situations: beer, women, infidelity, and so on; can be sarcastic, humorous, and even crude) Medieval Ballads narrative poems (stories in verse), intended to be sung with the accompaniment of music and dance, belong to popular oral tradition (common people) composed in vernacular (colloquial) language with words and stock phrases that are easily memorized; frequently the story is told in dialogue simple musical rhymed meter, short stanzas of two or four lines contains a refrain: a phrase or a line, which is repeated after a stanza performed / sung in the market square, in alehouses, or at fairs themes: love and death, desire and loss, battles, adventures/quests/journeys involving risk and crossing boundaries, lives of outlaws; often contain supernatural elements Medieval Drama a very vibrant genre, includes Mystery Plays, Folk Plays, Morality Plays, Interludes Mystery (Miracle) Plays: dramatized episodes from the Bible, written in cycles which covered the full range of scriptural events from Creation to the Last Judgment; festive and communal character Folk Plays: popular, secular form, involving a fight in which one of the combatants was killed and revived (cycle of death and rebirth) Morality Plays: allegorical plays in which main characters are personified abstract qualities and which present a lesson about good conduct and character; popular in the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries Interludes: the transitional form between medieval morality plays and Tudor plays; performed at court or at “great houses” by professional minstrels or amateurs at intervals between some other entertainment, such as a banquet, or preceding or following a play, or between acts; mostly of a nonreligious nature MAJOR MIDDLE ENGLISH WRITERS The Gawain-poet Geoffrey Chaucer: The Canterbury Tales John Gower: Confessio Amantis Sir Thomas Malory: Morte Darthur William Langland: Piers Plowman Julian of Norwich: A Book of Showings to the Anchoress Julian of Norwich Margery Kempe: The Book of Margery Kempe Robert Henryson: The Cock and the Fox GEOFFREY CHAUCER 1343-1400 ”father of English Literature” from a well-to-do merchant family (father – a wine merchant) associated with nobility (worked for the Crown, had a successful career), his wife Philippa was of higher birth translates Guillaume de Lorris’s Roman de la Rose into English (a thirteenth-century love allegory in the form of a dream), and Boethius’s Consolation of Philosophy 1372 - sent to Italy to negotiate a trade agreement, where he became acquainted with the works of Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio MEDIEVAL PILGRIMAGES Pilgrimage was initially seen as an exercise in penance, but very soon its worldly character prevailed. For many, a pilgrimage was either a kind of holiday, a medieval form of tourism, or an opportunity for lucrative commercial activity. Moralists of the time, especially the Lollards, strongly objected to pilgrimages precisely because of their dominant non-religious character THE CANTERBURY TALES THE CONTEXT Wars -> the Hundred Years’ War Black Death (1348 – 17th c.) Rise of the new middle class (merchants and tradesmen) Downfall of feudalism Church corruption Rise of the English language GEOFFREY CHAUCER, THE POET Before, English was the ordinary people’s language now it replaced Latin and French within the aristocratic and clerical circles Elevated the respectability of the English language (by proving its artistic legitimacy) Middle English o Combines the plain, straightforward Anglo-Saxon and the elevated French languages o The forerunner of the modern English language The Pilgrimage o St. Thomas Becket, the archbishop of Canterbury, a martyr o Allegedly, he had the ability to heal people with his hands Religious reasons intermingled with those of a worldly character The main theme of the CT: the interplay of the secular and the profane THE STRUCTURE The General Prologue + 24 tales (23 complete and one fragment) The Tabard Inn host, Harry Bailly (Bailey), suggests a storytelling game The best story earns a free meal upon return (another profane goal of the pilgrimage!) An ambitious project -> 30 pilgrims x 4 stories = 120 stories Unfinished, one of the greatest works in the English literary history THE GENERAL PROLOGUE, A FRAME NARRATIVE A story within a story (many stories) Similar to Decameron The GP o the most important and interesting part o No plot, descriptions and impressions of other pilgrims Characters Each pilgrim is a type – a broad representation of a particular group of people and is called by the occupation or station in society s(he) represents: a nun, a monk, a merchant, a plowman, a doctor etc. Physical features, manners of speech, and private possessions The Genres Romances or lays Burlesques Fabliaux Sermons Beast fables Tragedies Conflict between the Church and the state (religious and secular worldviews) The Narrator Only a character in the story Chaucer, the narrator -> naïve, does not see things as they really are BUT the real Chaucer is wise and wants you to see all the things his narrator does not see Irony, satire, and contradiction -> indictement of society problem Language and Style Middle English -> the most expressive and vibrant language up to that point in history Iambic pentameter with rhyming couplets (aa bb cc dd ee …) Most close to the rhythm and cadence of everyday speech A new way of writing in verse, Chaucer helped to popularized it THE MILLER’S TALE The Prologue The Miller’s lack of manners is confirmed by his actions in the Prologue and the content / language of his story: o Drunk, interrupts the Monk from telling his tale o Claims that he will tell even a better story than the Knight The narrator apologizes for his story -> not for the too moral audience The Story Nicholas Alison John Absolon The Genre: Fabliau A short comic, coarse, and often cynical tale in verse popular in the 12th and 13th centuries. Romantic or sexual shenanings Moral tricks Dramatic irony -> reader has important info not known by the character The Motifs Old jealous husband and a young beautiful wife The love triangle The tricks: ”the second Flood” and ”the kiss,” a burned arse Courtly love The Fate The most important theme in the Miller’s Tale The idea of getting what you deserve: o Nicholas – trickery – a burnt bottom o John – a wife who cheated on him, a broken arm o Absolon – “the kiss” and a fart Antifeminism Medieval stereotypes on women and marriage fostered by the Church Their lust and sexual appetite are insatiable All the men suffer, while she escapes with no consequences BUT Chaucer makes her charming and attractive Main Themes in The CT Social satire (includes all levels of the medieval society) Church corruption The rising middle class Courtly love and sexual desire The interplay of the religious and the secular worldviews THE RENAISSANCE/ THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY THE PRINTING PRESS Johann Gutenberg’s invention of the printing press in the 1450s brought about enormous cultural change. William Caxton was the first Englishman to learn to use a printing press, probably in Cologne, Germany. Between 1473-74, he translates from the French, prints and publishes the first book printed in English: The Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye (Stories about the Trojan War by Raoul Lefèvre). The book was published in Belgium, in either Bruges or Ghent WILLIAM CAXTON In 1476 William Caxton establishes the first English printing press near Westminster Abbey. He printed Chaucer’s translation of Boethius’s Consolation of Philosophy, Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales, Gower's Confessio Amantis and Malory's Le Morte Darthur. He printed more than 100 books in his lifetime, all known for their craftsmanship and careful editing. He was also the translator of many of the books he published, using his knowledge of French, Latin, and Dutch. LITERACY IN ENGLAND - In the early fifteenth century only thirty percent of the people could read, but, thanks to the invention of the printing press and the rise of Protestantism, by 1530 literacy rose to sixty percent. THE WARS OF THE ROSES 1455-1487 The second half of the fifteenth century was marked by the Wars of the Roses. This was a series of civil wars fought between the House of Lancaster, represented by a heraldic badge with a red rose, and the House of York, represented by a badge with a white rose, for the supremacy over the English throne. The Wars ended in 1485 when the earl of Richmond (of Tudor family) defeated Richard III at Bosworth Field. He was crowned Henry VII and married Elizabeth of York to unite the two houses. TUDOR DYNASTY 1485-1603 To signify the union, the Tudor rose has both red and white petals. The Tudor dynasty ruled England for over a century with six monarchs: Henry VII, Henry VIII, Edward VI, Lady Jane Grey, Mary I, and Elizabeth I. HENRY VIII 1509-1547 Henry VII was succeeded by his son, Henry VIII in 1509. Early in life, Henry VIII was a devout Catholic and in 1521 he published a treatise titled Assertio Septem Sacramentorum (Defence of the Seven Sacraments) for which he was given the title of Fidei Defensor (Defender of the Faith) by Pope Leo X. This was particularly significant as it occurred at a time when the Protestant Reformation was already well under way (Martin Luther nailed his 95 theses on the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg, Germany in 1517). THE ENGLISH REFORMATION However, his desire to annul his marriage to his wife Catherine of Aragon would lead Henry VIII to ultimately reject papal authority and thus initiate the English Reformation, making it more of a political than a theological affair. The Church of England broke away both from the authority of the Pope and the Roman Catholic Church, and Henry VIII was declared the Supreme Head of the Church of England. The monarch had final authority in doctrinal and legal disagreements and the papacy no longer received financial support nor appointed bishops. Conveniently, the act fit well within the context of the European Protestant Reformation, which flourished due to the invention of the printing press, increased circulation of the Bible, and the diffusion of new ideas among scholars, the educated upper and middle classes, and readers in general. THE DISSOLUTION OF THE MONASTERIES Between 1536 and 1541 Henry VIII disbanded monasteries, abbeys, priories, and convents in England, Wales and Ireland, appropriating their income, selling their assets, and even destroying many of them. Some of them were purchased and used as parish churches. Along with the destruction of the monasteries, the destruction of the monastic libraries was a major cultural loss caused by the English Reformation. THE FOUNDATION OF THE MODERN ENGLISH NATION In 1536, the Act of Union between England and Wales joined Wales and England into a state governed by English laws. The unification of Ireland was also achieved during his reign. He also increased the role of the Parliament, especially in relation to taxation. OTHER MONARCHS 1547 accession of Protestant Edward VI 1553 accession of Catholic Queen Mary I, who began prosecution of Protestants. In the period of 1555-56, around 300 leading Protestants were executed, and archbishop Cranmer was burned at the stake -> “Bloody Mary THE RENAISSANCE The period makes a conscious break with medieval culture and begins a revival of Ancient Greek and Roman culture, starting in Italy in the fourteenth century and spreading to England in the late fifteenth and the sixteenth centuries. This was a period that enabled the appearance of many phenomena of the modern world: the market economy, the individual subject, and the centralized state. English literature undergoes an extraordinary revolution after 1580 as a result of confluence of many different currents: humanism, Protestantism, the Italian Renaissance, the exploration of the New World, the decline of magic, the centralization of state power and so on. THE ROMAN INQUISITION In 1542, the Roman Inquisition began as part of the Catholic Church's Counter- Reformation against the spread of Protestantism. It was a less harsh affair than the previously established Spanish Inquisition. They prosecuted individuals accused of heresy, including Protestantism, sorcery, immorality, blasphemy, Judaism, and witchcraft, as well as for censorship of printed literature. Famously, they prosecuted scholars who, in line with the Renaissance spirit, offered new views of the world (N. Copernicus, G. Galilei, G. Bruno, and others). HUMANISM - “MAN, THE MEASURE OF ALL THINGS” Isocrates, Cicero, Petrarch – the forefathers of Humanism The word humanist comes from Italian umanista, a Latin teacher. In Cicero, humanitas means mankind/culture or liberal education. D. Erasmus, J. L. Vives and Thomas More influenced the development of Humanism in England – educational, religious, and political. Universities introduce a new curriculum – the humanities, including history, geography, poetry, and languages. Many writers begin to use vernacular languages instead of Latin. THE KEY CONCEPTS OF HUMANISM Most humanists attempted to reconcile classical ethics with the practical Christianity of the gospels. In their works, they attempted to imitate the style and language of classical authors. In education, they valued pragmatism. They disapproved of abstract, theoretical education, but rather valued knowledge as it could be used to promote the good life, to educate a complete person. The sense of duty was pronounced and they were quite determined to educate courtiers and politicians who would in turn be able to mould their princes (rulers) into humanists. EDUCATION OF THE CHRISTIAN PRINCE Humanist schools were founded and handbooks for the education of governors published. John Colet founded the first English humanist school, St. Paul’s, in 1510, and Sir Thomas Elyot wrote treatises on education. An example of the importance the period put on education is Roger Ascham’s The Schoolmaster. Ascham was tutor and Latin secretary to Queen Elizabeth (he tutored all three female Tudor monarchs: Lady Gray, Queen Mary I, and Queen Elizabeth), as well as English ambassador in Germany (1550-53). He passionately believed in the importance of study of Greek and Latin classics, but also in the promotion of the English language. In 1545, he wrote his first work, Toxophilus – in praise of archery. He wanted both to teach the art of shooting and create a literary work in proper English. THE AGE OF TRAVEL AND EXPLORATION the rise in knowledge evident in the period was also enabled by extensive travels and explorations. In 1492 Columbus sailed to West Indies, believing he has reached East Asia. Instead, he discovered the New World – islands around an unknown continent, North America. In 1504 Amerigo Vespucci published New World and Four Voyages about his exploratory tours. In 1519 Cortés invaded Mexico, conquering the Aztec Empire. The same year, F. Magellan begins his voyage around the world. SIR FRANCIS DRAKE (C. 1540–1596) participated in some of the earliest English slaving voyages to Africa and earned a reputation for his privateering, or piracy, against Spanish ships and possessions. Sent by Queen Elizabeth I to South America in 1577, he returned home in 1580 via the Pacific and became the first Englishman to circumnavigate the globe, receiving knighthood for this feat. In 1588, admiral Drake served as second-in-command during the great English victory over the Spanish Armada. The most renowned mariner of the Elizabethan Age, he died off the coast of Panama in 1596 and was buried at sea. SIR THOMAS MORE (1478-1535) More had a very respectable career; he was a Member of Parliament, under-treasurer of the Exchequer and Lord Chancellor of England. a close friend of theologian Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam, who dedicated his famous In Praise of Folly to More. The original title Moriae Encomium was a pun that created a second meaning: In Praise of More. He was a devout Catholic and opposed the Protestant Reformation (he wrote polemics against the theology of Martin Luther, Huldrych Zwingli, John Calvin and William Tyndale). He also opposed Henry VIII's separation from the Catholic Church, refusing to acknowledge Henry as the supreme head of the Church of England and the annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon. For this, he was executed in 1535. He is celebrated in the Catholic Church as Saint Thomas More. MORE’S WORKS in addition to poems and many religious polemics and treatises, he also wrote: o a translation of the biography of Pico della Mirandola (1510) o History of King Richard III (1513-18) – one of the first English historiographical texts o Utopia (1516) – published in Latin ▪ against the new economics of enclosure, commerce, and the exploitation of the poor for the benefit of the rich ▪ “our own cities, nations... to correct their errors.” THE ELIZABETHAN ERA/AGE The period is marked by the reign of the Protestant Queen Elizabeth I (1558–1603) and is taken to be a golden age in English history. It saw the height of the English Renaissance, and the full flowering of English literature and English poetry. One of the reasons for the period’s prosperity is that it was a period of relative internal peace (between the period of English Reformation, which entailed conflicts between Protestants and Catholics, and the battles between parliament and the monarchy that would dominate the seventeenth century). A FEMALE MONARCH IN A MALE WORLD Elizabeth I also had to resort to adequate rhetorical strategies in order to counter the widespread belief that women were unsuited to wield power over men. She presented herself as a God-appointed ruler, so any opposition was not only an act of political hostility but also blasphemy. As a (moderate) Protestant, she was excommunicated by the pope in 1570, and in 1580 he declared that assassinating her would not be a mortal sin. This led to an increased tension between the country’s Protestants and Roman Catholics, and ended in the execution of Mary Queen of Scots in 1587, who was apparently involved in a plot against Elizabeth. In 1588, England defeated the Spanish Armada (who were weakened due to violent storms) in a crucial naval victory which made England a worldclass power. The battle introduced effective long-range weapons into naval warfare for the first time, ending the era of boarding and close-quarter fighting. UTOPIA Utopia (1516) A culmination of the humanist study of classical text to alter contemporary thinking, and a delight in rhetoric, satire, and wit A frame narrative (a letter to a friend) about a fictional island society and its religious, political, and social customs An influence on political philosophy and literature Truth vs. Fiction A wordplay on the Greek terms: o ou (not) and topos (place) -> No Place o eu + topos -> Happy Place Geography similar to England/London, yet the organization is completely the opposite Characters o Real-life people: Thomas More, Peter Giles, John Morton, John Clement etc. o Fictional: Raphael Hythloday, the Utopians The Narrator Supports the Tudor hierarchy Writes off Hythloday’s perspective as absurd Ironical device -> distancing the real author from politically dangerous thought The real Thomas More ~ Raphael Hythloday Challenging the Tudor society and standards in an unprecedented way Raphael Hythloday Hythlos + daiein; “the distributer of nonsense Well-versed in Latin and Greek, passionate about philosophy Travelled with Amerigo Vespucci Acquainted with the island of Utopia and its organization Book 1 Sociopolitical dialogue among Thomas More, Robert Giles, and Raphael Hythloday on: o Punishment for theft o The question of whether intellectuals should take part in politics Book 2 Hythloday’s account of Utopia’s structure and organization: o Geography and cities o Social relations and occupations o Travel o Slaves and military practices o Religion Criticism of England Lots of poverty and beggars, why? The lazy -> idle nobility and their retainers, priests, servants Farmers displaced from the land by the “enclosure” for more profitable trade (sheep rearing) Farming is in a state of decay Praising of Utopia A well-ordered political democracy, how? Education is free and universal Everyone works, yet no one is overburdened Prosperous collective farms (no oppressed peasants) Cities are not overpopulated, they have free hospitals and child care Time for leisure and the pleasures of the mind and the body Private Property and Money More contradicts this idea -> a man will rely on others and become lazy, turmoil and bloodshed will take place if one cannot protect what he gained Gold and Silver Used to “punish slaves, shame wrongdoers, or pacify infants” Pearls and diamonds -> given to children, who abandon them when they grow up Military and Wars Mercenaries -> more preferable to their own citizens fighting in wars Geography and the Government A crescent-shaped island, founded by King Utopus Fortified harbours, trenches, moats -> protected from strangers 54 cities (the capital is Amaurot) 30 households -> 1 phylarch (syphogrant) 10 phylarchs -> tranibor (head phylarch) 200 phylarchs -> the Senate electing the governor (for life) Family and Marriage A family: 10-16 adults (no. of children not limited) Transferring where too many or too few Women married at 18, men at 22; shown naked to each other Adultery is punished by enslavement Divorce is not available in general, to prevent promiscuity Labour Both men and women work -> no idleness, but no exhausting oneself either (6 hours per day) Intellectual activity or extra time for one’s trade Agriculture is a universal trade One special trade (wool-working, linen-making, masonry, metal-work, or carpentry) Shared communal property makes theft unnecessary The Sick and Injured “Tender and watchful care”, the first ones to get the food Euthanasia Religion Many different religions, all agree on the existence of a supreme being Soul of man is immortal and by God’s goodness born for happiness Belief in the afterlife -> atheism is frowned upon Happiness Hedonistic attitude 1) “[L]ove and venerate the Divine Majest to whom we owe our existence and every happiness of which we are capable.” 2) “[L]ead a life as free of anxiety and as full of joy as possible, and to help all one’s fellow men toward that end.” True Pleasures of Mind and Body* Knowledge and the delight from contemplating truth Gratification of looking back on a well-spent life and the coming happiness Practice of virtues and the consciousness of a good life Immediate delight (hunger, eliminating excess, generating children, scratching an itch, music) Health -> the greatest of all bodily pleasures Travel A special permit is needed If staying for more than one day, they need to work If those travelling without permission are caught, they are treated with contempt and punished On the second offence, they are enslaved Slaves The poor from the neighboring countries voluntary slaves Condemned criminals Criminals charged of heinous offences: o Travelling twice without a permit o Adultery o Seducing a woman o Pre-marital intercourse etc. A Not-So Perfect Place? Slavery No variety nor privacy, under constant observation Nominal freedom of though and religious practices Racism and xenophobia Utopia Egalitarian No private property Order and discipline Rational social arrangement Religious tolerance Dystopia Totalitarian No privacy Strict rules and observation No familial relationships No freedom of thought Contemporary Influences Emerging market societies and the decay of agriculture (capitalism to feudalism) Emphasis on education and social mobility (over hereditary privilege) Dislike of the old warrior aristocracy The travels (Vespucci, Columbus, Cortés) Critique of the Tudor England Enclosures (farmers losing jobs to more profitable trades; feudalism to capitalism, privatization) Severe punishments for petty crimes (stealing when hungry) Nobility relying on the past glory and heritage Laziness, pride, vanity, greed THE SCHOOLMASTER Roger Ascham (1515-68) Tutor and Latin secretary to Elizabeth I Went to Cambridge, a humanist -> Greek and Latin classics for moral values and political activity A learned man who was eager to influence his countrymen Toxophilus (1545)– dialogue praise of archery “The Schoolmaster” (1570) Published posthumously, a pioneer in the field of pedagogy Opposes the use of physical punishment in schools Instilling a love of learning rather than fear Teaching Latin by “double translation” POETRY AND THE SONNET - The sixteenth century poetry was diverse: on the one hand, poets tried to emulate the elevated and ornamental style favoured at the court, and on the other hand, they wrote poetry that was more locally grounded, without mythologization and refinement. - Tottel’s Miscellany (Songes and Sonettes) – an anthology of English poetry published in 1557 and dedicated to Earl of Surrey, contained ninety-seven poems by Sir Thomas Wyatt and forty poems by Earl of Surrey - The anthology marks the beginning of modern English verse. It helped establish a vernacular lyric tradition in print and served as a model for future anthologies of English verse. - It contributed to popularising the sonnet: Wyatt and Surrey were the earliest writers of the sonnet in English. John Skelton (c. 1460-1529) A tutor to the young Henry VIII, he was appointed King’s Orator. a Catholic priest, yet he criticized Cardinal Wolsey in his works and wrote harsh satires about both him and the life in court. Wolsey had him imprisoned, only to hire his services for himself afterward. His poetry was quite unique: the influences on his writing are hardly traceable, and no one continued in his tradition. He represents a kind of ”medieval Renaissance”; he rejected the imitation of foreign (classical) models and wrote local, unrefined, unpolished poetry that was English in spirit and language. Satires: Speak, Parrot, Colin Clout, Why Come Ye Not to Court Skeltonic Verse (Tumbling Verse, Skeltonics) irregular dipodic meter with a tumbling rhyme. Often humorous in tone, there are no specific rules for subject or length. The type of verse is named after Skelton as he invented and popularized it. He frequently tackles bawdy themes. Although he mixes high and low styles, Skelton mostly rejects the typical ornate rhetorical devices and elevated language used in the period’s more ambitious poetry. The lyrical narrator speaks with urgency; the rhymes continue until there are no more possibilities and then a new one begins (very similar to contemporary rap songs). Adultery and Sex as Themes ”With lullay, lullay, like a child”: a woman lulls her husband to sleep and goes away to meet her lover ”Mannerly Margery Milk and Ale”: a clerk seduces a barmaid The Sonnet Due to the fact that the Renaissance first began in Italy, the Italian influence was strong both in themes and conventions of literary works. The sonnet (Ital. “a little song”) is a fourteen-line poem with a variable rhyme scheme originating in Italy and brought to England by Sir Thomas Wyatt and Henry Howard, earl of Surrey in the sixteenth century. It traditionally reflects upon a single sentiment, with a clarification or “turn” of thought in its concluding lines. There are different types of sonnet, but three are major ones Petrarchan sonnet conventions exultation of neo-Platonic ideal beauty and mythologization of love the relationship of the lover and his lady are based on the feudal relationship of courtly love or of the lord and his subject: o the lady is impossibly beautiful; she is almost a goddess, not an ordinary human being, but is cruel and cold o the lover is suffering; he is a weakling, gets pale, thin, cannot eat. He rarely reveals his love to the lady, but rather cries and mourns the fact that they cannot be together. The English ”twist” Wyatt and Surrey give a different type of lover (an English lover) – he is in love, suffers, but finally concludes that there are other women too. Wyatt in particular departs from the idea of transcendent love and colours his sonnets with embitterment, anger, cynicism and even traces of misogyny. A sonnet sequence is a group of sonnets sharing the same subject matter and sometimes a dramatic situation and persona (for example, Sir Philip Sidney’s Astrophil and Stella). The Spenserian sonnet is developed by Edmund Spenser in his Amoretti, that varies the English form by interlocking the three quatrains (ABAB BCBC CDCD EE). Sir Thomas Wyatt (1503-42) He was a renowned courtier and well-versed in the dangers of courtly life. He embodied the idea of Renaissance versatility: a handsome athlete, swordsman, soldier, astronomer, poet, and musician. During the1520s he was sent on a diplomatic mission to Italy, and in 1527 he returns from Italy and brings to England the Petrarchan sonnet convention. Wyatt: “The long love that in my thought doth harbor” This is Wyatt’s version of Petrarch’s poem 140 from Il Canzoniere The idea of authorship or intellectual property (author’s copyright) was not existent at the time, so translations were accepted as original works. Thus, Petrarch’s sonnets translated by English poets came to be accepted as English originals. Being a translation, the sonnet exhibits the ideas of Petrarchan unfulfilled love: Love is personified as a knight who takes shelter in the speaker's thoughts and heart, appearing on his face (he blushes: "spreading his banner"). The lover is a victim of love; he is passive and "conquered" by love. Ultimately, Love hides from the lover's face to please the lady, but the lover accepts being mastered by it and concludes that he must serve Love faithfully until death Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey (1517-47) T. Wyatt’s friend; a potential claimant to the throne and known for his unruly behaviour, he was executed for treason as Henry VIII’s last victim. popularized the final couplet in the English sonnet, and was the first English poet to publish in blank verse (unrhymed iambic pentameter) – namely, he translated two books of Virgil’s Aeneid into blank verse. The verse form became so popular in the following centuries that it has come to be regarded as practically indigenous to the English language. His sonnets show a deeper responsiveness to the beauty of the English countryside; the represented emotional bond between the speaker and natural scene has no precedence in English poetry. Petrarch’s mythologized nature is replaced by actual nature Surrey: “The Soote Season” A free adaptation of Petrach’s poem 310 from Rime sparse. A poem about the arrival of summer, as the ”sweet” season [it encompasses both spring and summer] where everything buds and wakes. The harms of Winter are gone; the joys of Summer abound. However, the couplet reveals that his feelings of sorrow/unrequited love are in contrast with the lively and beautiful nature. In addition to Wyatt and Surrey, the sixteenth century saw many other major poets: o Sir Philip Sidney o William Shakespeare o Edmund Spenser ▪ Spenser’s unfinished The Faerie Queene is an epic poem written in praise of Queen Elizabeth I and aims to offer a kind of mythology for England, with its use of Arthurian legend and Red-Cross Knights Petrarch Elizabethan 4-quatrains 4 4- 4 3-> 4 3-> tercets 2-couplet The poet in love Unattainable love/woman-almost a goddess SIR PHILIP SIDNEY -the most important Elizabethan person - a scholar, soldier, poet - a great influence on literature and literary criticism: -Astrophil & Stella -Arcadia -The Defense of Poezy or An Apology for Poetry ASTROPHIL & STELLA -108 sonnets, 11 songs - a story of Astrophil’s frustrated love for his beloved Stella - a speculation: based on Sidney’s unrequited passion for a married woman, Penelope THE GENRE - One of the 1st Elizabethan sonnet sequences - Petrarchan convections: lover’s contradictory feelings(hope and despair; tenderness and bitterness) - Astrophil protests that his verse is original and comes form the heart - Lively and original due to Sidney’s ability to dramatize NEOPLATONISM - A renaissance philosophy that emphasizes spiritual over physical love - PLATO’S TWO WORLDS: 1)Spiritual- world of ideas and forms, stable and eternal 2)world of Appearance- gathered through our senses, only a copy of the real world, in constant change -bodily beauty is only the manifestation of the soul, which is the true beauty of God 10- Astrophil is arguing with Reason - Reason VS, passion (bodily love) - Reason’s efforts to make Atrophil see what is right are entirely futile 52- Virtue is preventing Stella form loving Astop. - BODY VS. SOUL - Astrop. Is aware of the importance of virtue(loving his soul), yet he can’t suppress his urge for bodily love WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE -popularized the Elizabethan sonnet - 154 sonnets- a story should be read in a sequence - metaphors, word puns ambiguity - Topic not relegated to Renaissance lover’s hope and despair, but delight, lust and pride 3.- procreation(fatherhood) - addressing the beaut. Young man; his face will be reflected in his children - if he doesn’tprocreate he will die forever-> passage of time 20. -addressed to Master Mistress - plays on the convection and audience’s expectations of heterosexual love - praises the male addressee in female terms 18. -among the most celebrated accounts of love it’s tenderness and authenticity - a profound meditation on time, change and beauty - human life beauty are temporary, but poetry is forever 116.- also addressed to the young man - the nature of true love - true love transcends time 130.- addressed to the Dark Lady - read as the denigration of the mistress - Anti- Petrarchism- criticism of the hyperbolic of female beauty - real human beauty is better than the divine, unattainable one The groups of sonnets in Shake.’s book: 1-17-> written to a beaut. Young man upbringing him to marry and have children 18-126-> destructive power of time, nothing is permanent 127- 152-> written to the poet’s mistress, expressing love - The Dark Lady is alluring, promiscuous - Other topic: love triangle, rival poet -the last 2 sonnets are love allegories based on a Greek poem about Cupid ELIZABETHAN DRAMA -Please, note the difference: DRAMA = genre (a body of works intended for performance on the stage) PLAY = a single work intended for performance on the Stage FROM MYSTERY PLAYS TO SECULAR DRAMA - Queen Elizabeth I’s reign is sometimes referred to as the Golden age because of Britain’s relative political and religious stability and because the period produced some of the major literary works - In addition to the flourishing of poetry, the period also saw the rise and success of drama Plays were intensely written and performed, and many authors of the period, Shakespeare in particular, have become both English and world classics - The period saw a major decline of Roman Catholicism 1585 5 %Catholic, 15% Puritan, the rest of population is Anglo Catholic THE DECLINE OF RELIGIOUS DRAMA - Developing from the cycles of Catholic mystery plays, which began to be suppressed in the sixteenth century by the Protestant authorities, theatre began to flourish by introducing different themes. The writers turn to secular, less controversial, topics. 1572 – The Act restraining the vagabonds, including wandering entertainers unless they had a patron orcity. Companies of players travelled from town to town under noble patronage. Their life was precarious, and they served to enhance the prestige of the patron who protected them and whose livery they wore. 1569 –The York cycle last performed in London 1575 –The Chester cycle 1576 –The Wakefield cycle officially condemned - The queen was a great admirer of plays, performances, and spectacles which were frequently held at her royal residences - In fact, she actively sponsored artists and playwrights, using theatre as an additional medium to project her own glory and that of her family, the Tudors Elizabeth carefully managed her image as the Virgin Queen who had sacrificed her personal life to better concentrate on the good of her people - The first professionally licensed troupe of actors belonged to Elizabeth’s court favourite Robert Dudley, 1 st Earl of Leicester - They got their license in 1574 and were called ”Leicester’s Men” PUBLIC THEATRES - Elizabethan plays were performed by professional actors this was their only means of earning for a living who belonged to the touring troupes performing plays of blank verse with entertaining non-religious themes - The first purpose built permanent theatre in England dates from Shakespeare’s own lifetime James urbage’s playhouse The Theatre was established In London in 1576 - Prior to that, a London playhouse, The Red Lion is mentioned in 1567 Others quickly followed making entertainment drama a flourishing industry - Theatres showing plays daily led to permanent acting companies which did not have to tour and could invest more time and money into perfecting the production of their plays ( performance, stage) - Due to the frequency of performances, the need appeared for professional playwrights THEATRE COMPANIES -writer(s) - 12 or more permanent actors - small part players (boys) - Musicians, artists and copyists -until the 2nd half of the 17th c. only men could perform -the audience included both sexes and social classes THEGLOBE THEATRE In1599. Shakespeare’s Globe Theatre was established in London by the Lord Chamberlain’s Men, a playing company for which Shakespeare wrote. In1997, are construction of The Globe was opened some 230 metres from the site of the original theatre. Theatre buildings were circular in form, and open at the top for daylight. CONVENTIONS OF ELIZABETHAN DRAMA: Playwrights were concerned with what works on stage: elaborate costumes (also, disguise was a frequent device due to which actors changed costumes) bare stage with minimal props (this was compensated by dialogues with rich imagery) technical innovations: lowering actors on wires from a balcony, or having them appear or disappear through a trapdoor in the stage floor mixing of tragedy and comedy (often in the form of a subplot that mimics the main plot and provides comic relief) music and dance THEMES - Human humours”” (temperament, character) Elizabethan psychology relied on the theory of four bodily humours blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile, which had to be in balance If one prevailed, it dominated a character’s behavior - Revenge betrayal - honour passions - The supernatural - Anti-Semitism - History STYLE - Aside a brief comment spoken privately to another character or directly to the audience They are not heard or noticed by the rest of the characters onstage - Blank verse iambic pentameter rhymed couplets - Insults name calling was an art form during the Elizabethan Age characters often engage in verbal dueling throwing creative slurs at one another, hoping to get the upper hand or have the last word by delivering the best insult Wordplay puns in particular Play within a play CLASSICAL CONVENTIONS IN ELIZABETHAN TRAGEDY For the most part, violent acts occur offstage and are reported onstage by one character. However, in the so-called "blood tragedy" (or revenge tragedy), acts of violence are performed onstage, in full view of the audience (e.g. Thomas Kyd's The Spanish Tragedy, also Webster's The White Devil and The Duchess of Malfi). focuses on the rise and fall of the main protagonist Hybris–overweening pride and excessive anger as the causes of tragedy Hamartia MAJOR ELIZABETHAN PLAYWRIGHTS William Shakespeare Christopher Marlowe Ben Jonson Thomas Dekker Thomas Kyd Thomas Heywood Robert Greene John Webster THE TRAGICAL HISTORY OF DR. FAUSTUS CHRISTOPHER MARLOWE - Notorious figure - Accused of atheism and treason - Died under strange circumstances - The only Elizabethan playwright with a diploma - “father of English tragedy” - Influenced Shakespeare and Milton MARLOWE’S CONTRIBUTION - Introduced blank verse, “Marlowe’s mighty line” - Different types of plays-> controversial topics and complex characters - Bibliography: Tamburlaine I, II - The yew of Malta - Edward II DOCTOR FAUSTUS - Based on German legend of “Faustbuch” - The 1st dramatic revision of the Faustian deal with the devil - Difficult to establish the true text of the play STRUCTURE AND STLE - 13 scenes - 1. The deal w the devil - 2. The tricks and pranks - 3.the death - Blank verse+ prose - Chorus->taken from the ancient Greekplays - Soliloquys-> monologues in which we learn about character’s emotions FAUSTUS - A typical protagonist of Mrlowe’s tragedies(striving for power) - A doctor-turned-magician - Sells his soul in exchange for knowledge and power DR FAUSTUS, AN ELIZABETHAN PLAY - Written during the Elizabethan period - Centers around the rise and fall of the main prota. - An exceptional individual with a tragic flaw(hamartia), ambition for the forbidden knowledge - Hubris-> excessive pride and arrogance FAUSTUS’ HUBRIS - An “overreacher”, an overly ambitious Renaissance humanist - Seeking power that comes from forbidden knowledge no matter the end->fatal - Faustus aspires to be a demigod or deity - Icarus, Lucifer MORE ON F’S FLAWS - Sure of his conjuring of Mephastophilis - Rejects the existence of Hell - Doesn’t see that he is only doing unimportant tricks, never anything of value WARNING TO FAUSTUS - Mephastophilis’ unpleasant appearance - F’S blood congeals - Homo fuge! - The good angel, scholars - The old man MORALITY PLAY - Temptation, fall and death - Morality figures: the good and bad angel - 7 deadly sins - Lucifer, Mephastophilis - The fight between good and evil with a moral Morality plays VS. DR. Faustus -serious tone -serious and comic tone - figurative characters -fig. charac. Have a comic effect -temptation, fall and death of one charc. -the protago. Is an exceptional man Who represents all humans THEMES - Knowledge vs. wisdom - Power vs. conscience - Magic vs. religion - Salvation vs. death - Free will vs. destiny GRAY CHARACTERS - Faustus-> presented as intelligent yet does foolish things - Mephastophilis-> not convicting F to make the deal - Lucifer-> ultimate evil, but was once favoured by God CRITICISM OF CATHOLICISM - Rejection of heaven and hell - Mephastophilis disguised as a friar - Mocking the Pope GREEK MYTHOLOGY - Icarus- hubris - Helen of troy - The relationship between the Greek and Christian COMIC RELIEF - Humorous characters, incidents, scenes, relevant to the tragic plot

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