Non-Alignment Movement (NAM) - History & Principles PDF

NON-ALIGNMENT Meaning and Definition No clear and comprehensive definition of Non-Alignment has so far been formulated. Non- Alignment does not stand for isolation or neutrality. It is the policy of keeping aloof from the power blocs. It is a...

NON-ALIGNMENT Meaning and Definition No clear and comprehensive definition of Non-Alignment has so far been formulated. Non- Alignment does not stand for isolation or neutrality. It is the policy of keeping aloof from the power blocs. It is a principle that lays emphasis on international peace and security. It pleads for non- involvement in Cold War and military pacts. Appudorai thinks that not joining any military pact especially with either the western or Soviet bloc According to M.S. Rajan it stands for ad hoc decision on international problems keeping their own interests in view. Formation of NAM After the World War the world was divided into two blocs, one led by America and the other by Soviet Union. The newly independent Asian countries were unwilling to join either of these of these groups. They decided to remain non-aligned. Several Asian and African countries subscribed to this concept. Jawaharlal Nehru, Abdel Nasser and Marshall Tito strengthened this concept. Asian Relations Conference The antecedents of NAM can be traced back to the early post-war years. The leaders of the Indian freedom movement convened the Asian Relations Conference in March 1947 in Delhi. At this Conference, Jawaharlal Nehru who was to become the first Prime Minister of India in a few months made the following declaration, “ The countries of Asia can longer be used as pawns by others: They are bound to have their politics in world affairs……In this atomic age Asia will have to function effectively in maintenance of peace”. Panchasheel By the end of the 1940s, the Western countries had set up their military alliance known as NATO. In the early 1950s military alliances had begun to be formed in Asia. The Cold War was being extended throughout the world leading to tensions and conflicts. In this context Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai enunciated the Panchasheel or the five principles of peaceful co- existence on 29April 1954. This Agreement stated five principles. Mutual respect for each other's territorial integrity and sovereignty. Mutual non-aggression. Mutual non-interference in each other's internal affairs. Equality and cooperation for mutual benefit. Peaceful co-existence. These principles became integral in the formation of the Non-Aligned Movement. 1 Colombo conference The policy of Panchsheel gathered strength in the world. The Colombo Conference of 1954 further accelerated the process of confidence and peace. The conference was attended by the Asian nations of India, Pakistan, Srilanka, Burma and Indonesia. It decided to convene an Afro-Asian conference at Bandung in Indonesia. Bandung Conference In 1955, Ahmed Sukarno of Indonesia hosted a conference of Asian and African countries at banding from 17 to 24 April. The conference was attended by 29 Asian and African countries. Among outstanding leaders who participated in this conference were Jawaharlal Nehru, China’s Prime Minister, Chou En Lai and Gamal Abdel Nasser, the then Prime Minister of Egypt. The conference was attended by many countries including Pakistan, Iran, Iraq, the Philippines, Turkey and Thailand who were members of US sponsored military alliances. But they also signed the communiqué unanimously adopted at this conference. This communiqué clearly stated the ideas which expressed the principles of non-alignment. The Bandung conference was a major mile stone in the history of the Non-Aligned Movement. Belgrade Conference (First NAM Summit) On 14 December 1960, the United Nations Organisation adopted the “Deceleration on Granting Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples”. This session of the UNO was attended by leaders of five leading non-aligned nations- Jawaharlal Nehru of India, Sukarno of Indonesia, Nasser of Egypt, Tito of Yugoslavia and Nkrumah of Ghana. They took the historic decision of convening a conference of all non-aligned countries in the following year. The Non-Alignment Movement was formally set up in 1961 when the first Conference of the heads of state or government of non-aligned countries was held at Belgrade, Yugoslavia from 1 to 6 September 1961. It was attended by 25 countries as full members. These member countries were Afghanistan, Algeria, Burma, Cambodia, Sri Lanka, Republic of Congo, Cuba, Cyprus, Ethiopia, Ghana, India, Indonesia, Iraq, the Lebanon, Mali, Morocco, Nepal, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan, Tunisia, United Arab Republic ( then comprising of Egypt and Syria), Yemen and Yugoslavia. Algeria had not yet become independent but the provisional government set up by the FLN was admitted as a full member. Later SWAPO and PLO were admitted as full members. The conference adopted a declaration. It contained the following statements. 1. The principles of peaceful co-existence are the only alternative to the Cold War and to possible general catastrophe. 2. Lasting peace would be achieved only in a world where the domination of colonialism, imperialism and neocolonialism in all their manifestations are radically eliminated. The Conference also addressed letters to Nikita Khrushchev, the Prime Minister of the Soviet Union and John F. Kennedy, the President of the United States, and urged them to resume negotiations aimed at reducing the risk of war and ensuring peace. Founding Principles of the NAM 2 The first Conference of the Non-Aligned Nations set out the following pre-requisites ( Founding Principles of the NAM) for joining this movement. 1. Respect for fundamental human rights and for the purposes and principles of the Charter of the United Nations. 2. Respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of all nations. 3. Recognition of the movements for national independence. 4. Recognition of the equality of all races and of the equality of all nations, large and small. 5. Abstention from intervention or interference in the internal affairs of another country. 6. Respect for the right of each nation to defend itself singly or collectively, in conformity with the Charter of the United Nations. 7. Refraining from acts or threats of aggression or the use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any country. 8. Settlement of all international disputes by peaceful means, in conformity with the Charter of the United Nations. 9. Promotion of mutual interests and co-operation. 10. Respect for justice and international obligations. Objectives of the Non-Aligned Movement. The basic objectives of the Non-Aligned Movement were laid down at the first conference itself. Some of these objectives were later elaborated and made more specific. The following are the main objectives of the NAM. 1. Safeguarding of the independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity of States 2. Exercise of self-determination and sovereignty of the non-aligned and other developing countries 3. Achievement of disarmament, especially nuclear disarmament. 4. An end to colonialism and all forms of subjugation, eradication of racism and all forms of racial discrimination, especially apartheid. 5. Peaceful co-existence among States 6. Democratization of inter-State relations 7. Peaceful settlement of regional conflicts 8. Attainment of developmental goals by all developing countries. 9. Protection of human rights, especially their social and economic dimensions. The Second NAM Conference After the first summit, India was subjected to a war with China in 1962. Nehru died in 1964.In the Second NAM Conference held in Cairo in 1964, India was represented by Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri. Forty Six countries attended this conference and 11 sent their observers. It adopted a Plan for Peace and International Cooperation. It demanded abolition of colonialism, imperialism and neo- colonialism. The Conference supported the concept of freedom, equality and justice. A proposal to hold the next Conference at Algiers was dropped after the fall of Ben Bella, the first Prime Minister of Algeria and due to increasing conflict between China and Soviet Union. Therefore it was thought proper not to hold any conference at that time. 3 The Third NAM Conference The Third Conference was held in Lusaka ( Zambia) in 1970. The Indian delegation was led by Indira Gandhi. It was attended by 54 countries and 9 observers. It was suggested that all countries should resolve their conflicts through peaceful means. They decided to break relations with Portugal and South Africa because they still supported colonialism and apartheid. The Conference called for the withdrawal of US troops from Vietnam. It was decided to boycott Israel as that country felt as the villain of peace in the Middle East. A general announcement entitled, ‘Non-Alignment and Economic Development’ was adopted. The nature of NAM had begun to change after the Lusaka Conference. Some of the NAM countries began to move closer to super powers. Many of the members were more interested in their economic development rather than only political independence. Fourth NAM Conference The Fourth NAM Conference was held in Algiers in 1973. It was attended by 75 member countries and 8 observers. The Conference wholeheartedly welcomed the détente in the East West relations. It insisted on increasing economic, trade and technical cooperation among the member countries. It also decided to exert pressure on developed countries to consult them while framing economic and political policies for the world. Fifth NAM Summit Conference The Fifth NAM Conference was held in Colombo in 1976 and representatives of 88 countries participated in it. It discussed the problems of African and Latin American countries. It demanded the abolition of Veto power of the Security Council and the establishment of a New International Economic Order (NIEO). The conference called for an overhaul of the world monetary system so as to serve the interest of the Third World Countries. It also called for Indian Ocean to be declared a Zone of Peace. The member countries sought cooperation from the developed countries for their economic development. Sixth NAM Summit Conference The Sixth NAM Summit Conference held at Havana ( Cuba) in 1979 was attended by 92 countries. India at that time had a caretaker government under Prime Minister Charan Singh and the foreign minister attended it. The Cuban President Fidel Castro who presided over the Conference suggested mutual friendship between NAM and the Soviet Union. Burma, one of the founder members of the NAM left the movement because of its leaning towards USSR. Pakistan was admitted in the NAM. A controversy arose while considering the détente in Cuba and Vietnam. Countries like Zaire and Singapore insisted on having closer relations with western countries. Finally it was decided that the NAM should maintain statuesque. The Havana Summit strongly opposed colonialism, imperialism, neo-colonialism and apartheid. Seventh NAM Summit Conference The Seventh NAM Summit Conference was originally scheduled to be held at Baghdad in 1982 but because of Iran - Iraq War the venue was shifted to New Delhi. The conference was held in 1983 in Delhi under the leadership of Indira Gandhi. It was attended by 101 countries. The Conference insisted 4 on a more balanced role of NAM. India hesitated to criticize Soviet occupation of Afghanistan. Vietnam, South Yemen, Syria and Ethiopia supported the Soviet Union. A Declaration was signed in the conference which called for peace and disarmament. Singapore, Nepal, Pakistan and Egypt criticized Soviet Union. Eight NAM Summit Conference In the Eighth NAM Summit Conference was held at Harare in 1986. It was attended by 101 countries. Greece, Mongolia and Australia attended as observers. It was the silver jubilee year of the NAM. The Conference set up AFRICA FUND ( Action for Resistance against Imperialism, Colonization and Apartheid Fund) under the leadership of Rajiv Gandhi to support the frontline African countries against Pretoria government. The Conference asked the UNO to take necessary steps against South Africa and to call a special session for the liberation of Namibia. A committee was constituted to raise the question of Namibia in the UNO. Another committee was constituted to visit America, Britain, West Germany and Japan and persuade these governments to impose sanction against South Africa. Finally the Harare Summit also demanded a New International Information and Communication Order, NIICO. Ninth NAM Summit Conference The Ninth NAM Summit Conference was held in Belgrade ( Yugoslavia) in 1989 and it was attended by 102 countries. The Conference insisted on holding free and fair elections in Namibia and sort out Afghanistan crisis. It raised the demand for an international peace conference to resolve the Western Asian Crisis. It insisted on the principle of self-determination. The conference resolved to fight against international terrorism, smuggling and drug trafficking At the end of the Belgrade Conference, a joint declaration was adopted. It urged all member countries to work jointly in six priority areas. 1. Nuclear disarmament. 2. Reduction of global economic disparities. 3. Total decolonization. 4. Protection of environment. 5. Protection of human rights 6. Strengthening the United Nations. Tenth NAM Summit Conference The Tenth NAM Summit Conference was held at Jakarta in 1992 and 108 countries attended in it.India was represented by Prime Minister P V Narasimha Rao.It was apprehended that NAM might be abolished but it was concluded successfully. President Suharto called for south-South cooperation in the areas of food, trade, finance, security, education, science and technology. The Summit demanded the restructuring of the UN system ensuring greater democratization. The final documents signed at the Summit included three issues- global, political and economic. The Summit called for the revival of New Economic Order. The Jakarta Summit sought South-South cooperation and better terms of trade and aid for developing countries. Thus the Jakarta Summit adopted a twofold a two-fold strategy of early North- South dialogue and South-South cooperation. Another significant achievement of the Conference was that Myanmar applied for its membership after 12 years of exclusion and China participated as an observer for the first time. Eleventh NAM Summit Conference 5  The Eleventh NAM Summit Conference was held at Cartagena in Columbia 1995 and it was attended by 118 members. Forty four heads of government besides Indian Prime Minister Narasimha Rao were present in this conference. It was presided over by the Columbian President Ernesto Samper Vizano. There was a clash at the Summit between India and Pakistan on the Kashmir and nuclear non- proliferation. The conference adopted the Cartagena Declaration. The main points in this declaration were the following. 1. NAM should play an active role for the establishment of a new world order based on democracy, equality and justice. 2. It demanded for the creation of nuclear free zones for terminating weapons of mass destruction. 3. It agreed with Pakistan’s proposal regarding the method of resolving disputes referring to the coordination bureau. 4. It strongly opposed giving political, diplomatic, economic and moral support to terrorist activities outside their boundaries. 5. It condemned trade sanctions imposed on developing countries by developed nations. Twelfth NAM Summit Conference The Twelfth NAM Summit Conference was held in Durban ( South Africa) in 1998. It indicated that the leadership of the third world would soon pass into the hands of African countries. The 113 member summit was attended by India’s Prime Minister Atal Behari Vajpayee. For the first time some Western countires like US attended as observers. By commenting on the Kashmir problem, Nelson Mandela, the new President of the NAM tried to put bilateral issues on an international forum. The declaration of the summit insisted on complete eradication of nuclear weapons. The three main issues were discussed at the Durban Summit nuclear disarmament, fight against international terrorism and the marginalization of developing countries in the process of globalization. It stressed the need for CTBT (Comprehensive Nuclear -Test -Ban Treaty) to be signed and signed by all countries. It condemned the US attack on Sudan and committed its support to a conflict free Afghanistan. Thirteenth NAM Summit Conference The Thirteenth Summit Conference of NAM was held on February 24-15, 2003 at Kuala Lumpur. It was chaired by the Malaysian Prime Minister. It was attended by the delegates of 116 member countries. Timor Leste and Granada Islands were duly admitted members of the NAM. The declaration of the summit insisted on promoting a multi - polar world and maintaining peace therein through negotiations and political means. It laid stress on the immediate resolution of Iraq crisis through the mediation of the UN. It demanded lifting the sanctions imposed on Iraq during the Gulf War. The conference resolved to promote the multi-polar world to meet the challenge posed by the international terrorism. A Nine-Point strategy was formulated to revitalize the NAM. President of Pakistan Pervez Mushrraf alleged that the State of Jammu and Kashmirhad been forcibly occupied by India. But Prime Minister of India, Atal Behari Vajpayee said that the State of Jammu and Kashmir legally acceded to India and is an integral part of India. He also pointed out that it was Pakistan which has illegally occupied one-third of the State. Fourteenth NAM Summit Conference Fourteenth NAM Summit Conference was held at Havana in Cuba from 11 to 16 September 2006. It was attended by 118 member countries. It was chaired by Fidel Castro Ruz, President of Cuba. 6 Prime Minister Man Mohan Singh represented India. The Heads of Governments reaffirmed the Founding Principles and decisions, the UN Charter and international law. It demanded that globalization must be transformed into a positive force for change for all peoples. It called on forthcoming annual Summits of the Group of Eight to take into account the interests and concerns of developing countries. It also condemned the relentless Israeli aggression against Lebanon. The Conference discussed the issue of reforming the UNO, particularly the restructuring of Security Council. Fifteenth NAM Summit Conference The Fifteenth NAM Summit Conference was held at Sharm el Sheikh, Egypt from 11th to 16th of July 2009. It was attended by 118 members. The declaration welcomed the initiative by Egypt to convene the NAM First Ladies Summit on “the Role of Women in Crisis Management”. The Summit demanded a just and comprehensive peace in the Middle East. It reaffirmed the establishment of independent State in Palestine with East Jerusalem as its capital. It rejected the unilateral sanctions imposed on some NAM countries. It also decided to extend support to the countries to prevent H1N1 and other pandemics. Lastly, it declared to strengthen NAM solidarity in combating terrorism in all its forms and manifestations. Sixteenth NAM Summit Conference The Sixteenth NAM Summit Conference was held at Tehran from 26 to 31 August 2012. It was attended by 120 countries. The conference was presided over by Dr. Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, the President of the Islamic Republic of Iran. India was represented by Prime Minister Manmohan Singh. The Heads of Governments called for urgent efforts to resume peace in the Middle East based on Security Council resolutions. They condemned Israel’s military occupation of the Palestinian Territory.. They expressed their deep concern over the deterioration of the humanitarian situation in the occupied regions of Mali, as well as in the neighbouring countries which hosted Malian refugees. They urged the Government of France to abolish the so called “Balladur Visa”. The conference expressed their deep concern over the continued high level of violence in Afghanistan. The summit strongly condemned the terrorist and criminal acts committed by the Taliban, Al-Qaida and other extremist groups. It reiterated their call to the Government of the United States of America to put an end to the economic, commercial and financial embargo against Cuba. The Conference expressed the need to encourage greater direct investment. It concurred on the importance of strengthening and consolidating the work of the NAM News Network (NNN) Seventeenth Summit ( 17-18 September 2016) 17th NAM Summit was held in Margarita island in north of Venezuela on September 17-18. President Hassan Rouhani handed over NAM presidency for a period of four years to his Venezuelan President Nicolas Maduro. The theme of the Summit was “Peace, Sovereignty and Solidarity for Development”. One notable absentee was Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi. This is only the second time in 55 years that the country’s head of state has missed the summit. Vice President Hamid represented India. He stated that terrorism is the biggest threat to International peace and the major impediment to development. He emphasized that the NAM should address this menace. ”. The Summit released a 21- article final declaration in which the participants reaffirmed their commitment to promotion of human rights and disarmament of weapons of mass destruction and recognized the importance of interreligious and intercultural dialogue. They also urged the need 'to establish alternative, free, pluralistic and responsible media and communication sources that reflect the realities and interests of the peoples of the developing world. They reiterated that their will to work towards the full implementation of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. They recognized the threat posed by terrorist groups such as the Taliban, Al-Qaida, ISIS and its affiliated entities. 7 Eighteenth Summit (25-26 October 2019) The 18th Summit of the heads of state and government of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) was held on 25-26 October 2019 at Baku, Azerbaijan. The two-day summit brought together dignitaries and representatives from nearly 160 countries and international organizations. Azerbaijan took over the presidency of the movement from Venezuela for a three-year term from 2019 to 2022. The theme of general debate of the 18th NAM is “Upholding the Bandung Principles to ensure concerted and adequate response to the challenges of contemporary world”. Azerbaijan’s President Ilham Aliyev inaugurated the two-day summit. He called all to uphold the spirit of the forum and strengthen cooperation among its member states of NAM. India was represented by Vice- President Venkaiah Naidu. He called upon the NAM partners to join hands to fight terrorism. He said that Pakistan is the epic centre of terrorism and India has been the victim of its cross border terror. The member states called for strengthening multilateralism with the United Nations (UN) at the core. In the final Baku Declaration, the group stressed the need to revitalize the UN General Assembly and strengthen its authority. The heads of states and governments affirmed their commitment to make efforts to strengthen NAM's solidarity in combating terrorism in all its forms and manifestations in accordance with the principles of the Charter of the United Nations, international law and relevant international conventions. The Movement also expressed concern about "the increased adverse impacts of climate change, particularly on developing countries, which are severely undermining their efforts to eradicate poverty and achieve sustainable development". Organizational Arrangement of NAM The Non-Aligned Movement was launched without any permanent office or organizational structure. At the Lusaka Conference in 1970, it was decided that the future summits should be held after every three years. The host country of a summit would continue to be the Chairman of the Movement till the next Conference. The Chairperson would maintain contact with the member-states. Later the Foreign Ministers decided that every two years economic issues of mutual concern would be reviewed. Four member countries chosen on regional basis would coordinate the cooperation on economic issues. In 1970, a Standing Committee of 16 members was constituted to prepare for the next Conference. At Algiers, the Standing Committee was replaced by a Coordinating Bureau. The Bureau is responsible for coordinating all activities of the Movement during the period intervening the two conferences. Its members are chosen by the Summit leaders on geographical basis. A proposal for a permanent secretariat was rejected. The permanent representatives of the non-aligned countries at the UN meet once in every month. They try to evolve common strategy and often present united stand in the UNO. Membership As of August 2012, the organisation consists of 120 member states, including the non-UN member state of Palestine and 21 other observer countries. Achievements of NAM The NAM was born at the backdrop of the Cold War tension between the two super power- USA and USSR. It worked for peace, security, disarmament, independence, development and cooperation among the nations. NAM’s contribution can be ascertained in terms of six Ds – Decolonization, Détente, Disarmament, Development, Democratization and Dissemination. 8  From its inception, the movement primarily focused on peace and disarmament. The NAM extended strong support to the freedom struggles against the colonial rule in Algeria, Angola, Tunisia, South Africa and Oman. The movement vehemently criticized the apartheid in South Africa. It went even to the extent of breaking off of diplomatic ties with South Africaa. But the process of decolonization became irrelevant as vast majority of colonies gained independence. In the economic front, the NAM drew attention to the rising neo-colonialism. In the Lusaka Summit, it was stated that classical colonization was trying to perpetuate itself in the garb of neo- colonialism. It was pointed out that neo-colonialism was in no way a less dangerous means of economic and political domination over the developing countries. Therefore the NAM demanded a revision of the unequal global economic structure with a New International Order based on equity and justice. The NAM countries learnt the lesson to stand on their own strength which in turn led to greater South-South Cooperation. A resolution was adopted in the Colombo Summit for instituting a Coordinating Bureau. A Press Agencies Pool of Non-Aligned countries was set up to foster Co-operation in the field of information and mass media. The NAM was also set up a New World Information and Communication Order ( NWICO). It is also known as New International Information Order. The NAM also highlighted the need for collective self- reliance among the developing countries. This would help in the achievement of the New International Economic Order (NIEO). In other words, it sought a South- South Cooperation The first UN Conference on Trade and Development ( UNCTAD) in 1964 was largely the result of the efforts of the Non-Aligned countries. The Non- Aligned group in the UNO has been able to place many importance issues on which the UNO system could concentrate its attention. Non-Aligned Movement has increased the chances of peace in the world. It made valuable contributions to the end of cold war. NAM succeeded in changing the nature of international politics and composition of UNO. With decolonization, the number of members n the UNO increased four times compared to the figure after the Second World War. It was no longer possible to ignore the wishes of the people of Asia, Africa and Latin America. It made the world realise that the continued deprivation of the third world would affect the economy of the world and the prosperity of the North. It has successfully turned the attention of the world to the role that the multinational corporations are playing and the problems caused by them for the third world. Limitations However, the achievements of the NAM have not been in proportionate to the efforts taken by it. Except in the area of decolonization, there was little response to the resolutions adopted from time to time. NAM failed to put pressure on the Big Powers. Even smaller countries like Israel did not care much about condemnation by the NAM. Efforts to develop closer cooperation among the Non-Aligned countries have met with mixed success. There were also differences among the member countries on several international and regional issues such as the Iran-Iraq war and problems in Kampuchea, Afghanistan, Lebanon, Central America, South Africa, Namibia and others. 9  NEO-COLONIALISM Neo-colonialism or neo-imperialism is the geopolitical practice of using capitalism, business globalization, and cultural imperialism to influence a country, in lieu of either direct military control or indirect political hegemony. Kwame Nkrumah, the leader of the newly independent Ghana, , in his book, ‘The last Stage of Imperialism’, published in 1965 defined the term Neo-Colonialism as “ The essence of neo-colonialism is that the state which is subject to it is, in theory, independent and has all the outward trappings of international sovereignty. In reality, its economic system and political policy is directed from outside”. According to him Neo-Colonialism is the worst form of imperialism. For those who practice it, it means power without redress. The term is used to refer to the continuing dependence of former colonies on foreign countries. The idea was popularized by the scholars and teachers of the newly independent states of Africa and the Pan-African Movement. The ideology and praxis of neo-colonialism are discussed in the works of Jean-Paul Sartre (Colonialism and Neo-colonialism, 1964) and Noam Chomsky (The Washington Connection and Third World Fascism, 1979). The All-African Peoples Conference (AAPC) meetings of the late 1950s and 1960s spread the critique of neo-colonialism. The Tunis Conference of 1960 and the Cairo Conference of 1961 also opposed neo-colonialism. The NAM as well as organisations like the Organisation of Solidarity with the people of Asia, Africa and Latin America defined Neo-colonialism as a primary collective enemy of these independent states. The NAM countries were the pioneers in the struggle against colonialism and Neo- colonialism. In the late twentieth century the western countries, especially USA were often charged for the penetration of neo-colonialism. The Third African people’s Conference held in Cairo in 1961, made a comprehensive summary of manifestations of neo-colonialism. The manifestations of neo-colonialism as highlighted by the Cairo Conference are the following. 1. Puppet governments. 2. Regrouping of states before and after independence. 3. Balkanization of states 4. Economic dependence 5. Colonial economic blocks 6. Economic infiltration. 7. Direct military dependence 8. Military bases. Mechanism or Tools of Neo-Colonialism The mechanism of neo-colonialism may be Political Interference, Multinational Corporations (MNCs), Foreign Aid, Treaties and Agreements, Military Intervention and Cultural Devices. 1. Political Interference Political interference is an important mechanism employed for establishing neo-colonialism. The Third World countries are often faced with internal political crises, including instability of elected governments. Theses crises are sometimes generated by the secret agencies of developed countries such as the American Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). Democratically governments are overthrown if they do not obey colonial powers. Huge sums of money are spent for political destabilization. Invisible foreign 10 hand often operates to install puppet regimes and pull down uncomfortable governments. In some cases even national elections are manipulated to serve the interests of colonial powers. In 1954, Jacobo Arbenz Guzman, the President of Guatemala was ousted in a coup by CIA. He was replaced by a military junta headed by Col. Carlos Castillo Armas. 2. Multinational Corporations. Multinational Corporations (MNCs) are well known agents of neo-colonialism. MNCs enter the Third World countries with the consent of the government of the host country. They offer better quality products to earn maximum profit. In India, there were a number of multinational corporations after the introduction of liberalization. The giant MNCs are mostly incorporated in one of the western countries. Among these largest multinational corporations are the Exxon, Shell International, General Motors, Ford, Gulf Oil, Unilever and Hitachi. It was estimated that at the beginning of 1990s 300 large multinationals were in control of 80 percent of the world’s manufacture assets. According to Barnet and Muller the MNCs employ management and knowhow from industrialized countries, especially, the USA. Then they locate plants in the areas where cheap labour is available. Gradually, MNCs secure most of their finance capital in the host countries. These corporations appear to create new jobs and stimulate the economy. But gradually they begin to buy up or drive out smaller local business establishments and producers. Multinationals often carry out massive and seductive advertising campaigns and thereby influence the tastes and styles of the Third World inhabitants. They seek to turn luxuries into necessities. Socially, vital issues such as nutrition, clear air and public health are neglected. MNCs ignore environmental pollution and living standards of the working class. The protagonists of MNCs argue that the corporations are powerful agents of world modernization and peace. But they neither help the poor masses nor agree to transfer the technology. The peace that the MNCs offer to the world appears to be an idealistic dream. As Barnet and Muller argued, these MNCs are the most powerful of the human organisations yet devised for colonizing. In fact, the multinational corporations have been rightly compared to “absentee landlords” who are concerned with only increasing their profits. 3. Foreign Aid Foreign assistance given to the developing countries is a strong weapon of neo-colonialism. The American PL 480 or Food for Peace given to the Third World countries including India was nothing but a US plan to dump their agricultural surpluses in the name of aid. It also opened up opportunities for future commercial markets for the US agriculture. Food aid is also intended to discourage local production and self-sufficiency. The IMF and World Bank grant loans to the Third World Countries based on some structural programmes. The programmes include privatization, currency devaluation, reduction of budgetary deficit, restrictions on domestic credit and cut in subsidies. This will result in the deterioration of health, education, inability to develop infrastructure and low living standards. This may also cause political disturbance which will result in toppling of the government. In Ghana, the local poultry industry collapsed as the market was flooded with cheap frozen chicken from the EU and the U.S. The Sub- Saharan countries are suffering due to the IMF and WTO conditionality of structural adjustments. 11  The World Bank and IMF are largely financed by the U.S and other western countries. The loan is generally given on a high rate of interest and it is used in non-productive sectors. The developing countries are often forced to seek fresh loans from other countries to pay back the loans or at least pay interest on these loans. When the Indian economy had to face a serious crisis in mid 1991, the government was asked to devalue the rupee twice within one week. India also had to accept several other conditions including liberalization of her economy. In short, the economies of the recipient countries are controlled by western countries, international organisations and MNCs. 4. Treaties and Agreements The Global North tries to endure its control over the developing countries through formal treaties and agreements. They may be the bilateral treaties like the Indo-UD Nuke Deal or multilateral treaties such as NPT or CTBT. The US had been pressurizing India for over a decade to sign the Nuclear Non- Proliferation Treaty. Late in 1995, USA announced that India was going to test to a nuclear bomb. India had categorically announced that manufacture of nuclear weapons is not on its agenda. Still USA threatened to apply sanctions if India conducted a test. Such threats are tactics of continuing with oppression of Third World Countries. Sometimes direct military intervention is also resorted to. 5. Military Intervention When economic and political interferences fail to serve the desired purpose, the colonial powers resort to military intervention in the Third World countries. Traditional military conquest, aggressions and wars are now avoided. Military assistance is offered and even provided to the Third World countries on the terms and conditions that serve the interests of western powers. Threats of military action, stoppage of assistance, discontinuation of economic or military support are some of the measures adopted towards the Third World countries. 6. Cultural Devices A theory suggests the existence of cultural colonialism. Wealthy nations try to control other nations’ values and perceptions through media, language, education and religion. They use the latest innovations in information technology, mass media, internet and other devices to impose a kind of cultural domination on the people of the Third World countries. Thus Neo-colonialism is assuming its old character of colonialism but in a new garb. The American and some other western academicians refer to the new manifestation of colonialism as Post- Modern Imperialism. Their aim is to create a New Imperial order to rescue the Failed States. The USA is interested in establishing a form of international government. It may be described as neo-trusteeship or post-modern imperialism. The signs of such post-modern imperialism were seen in Bosnia, Kosovo, East Timor, Sierra Leone, Afghanistan and Iraq. 12  GLOBALIZATION Globalization is the process of international integration arising from the interchange of world views, products, ideas and other aspects of culture. Advances in transportation, such as the steam locomotive, steamship, jet engine, container ships, and in telecommunications infrastructure, including the rise of the telegraph and its modern offspring, the internet, and mobile phones, have been major factors in globalization. While some scholars place the origins of globalization in modern times, many others trace its history long before the European Age of Discovery and voyages to the New World. There are also many writers who even trace its origins to the third millennium BCE. The term globalization is derived from the word globalize, which refers to the emergence of an international network of economic systems. Economist Theodore Levitt is widely credited with coining the term in an article entitled "Globalization of Markets", which appeared in the May–June 1983 issue of Harvard Business Review. However, the term 'globalization' was in use well before (at least as early as 1944) and had been used by other scholars as early as 1981. Levitt can be credited with popularizing the term. Sociologists Martin Albrow and Elizabeth King define globalization as: “all those processes by which the peoples of the world are incorporated into a single world society. In The Consequences of Modernity, Anthony Giddens defined globalization “as the intensification of worldwide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice versa”. Economist Takis Fotopoulos defined "economic globalization" as the opening and deregulation of commodity, capital and labor markets that led toward present neoliberal globalization. He used "political globalization" to refer to the emergence of a transnational elite and a phasing out of the nation- state. "Cultural globalization", he used to reference the worldwide homogenization of culture. Other of his usages included "ideological globalization", "technological globalization" and "social globalization". According to Amartya Sen “Globalization is a complex issue, partly because economic globalization is only one part of it. Globalization is greater global closeness, and that is cultural, social, political, as well as economic”. In the words of Noam Chomsky the term 'globalisation' is conventionally used to refer to the specific form of investor-rights integration designed by wealth and power, for their own interests. According to Robert Cox an American political scientist, “ The chief characteristics of globalization trend include the internationalization of production, the new international division of labour, new migrating movements from South to North, the new competitive environment that accelerates these processes, and internationalizing of state”. Deepak Nayyar defines“ Globalization is a process associated with increasing economic openness, growing economic independence and deepening economic integration between countries of world economy”. Global Cities Institute at RMIT University, identifies four main empirical dimensions of globalization: economic, political, cultural, and ecological, with a fifth dimension - the ideological - cutting across the other four. Globophobia has been used incorrectly to refer to the fear of globalization. 13  Thomas L. Friedman divides the history of globalization into three periods: Globalization - I (1492–1800), Globalization - II (1800–2000) and Globalization -III (2000–present). He states that Globalization -I involved the globalization of countries, Globalization –II involved the globalization of companies and Globalization- III involves the globalization of individuals. Gobalisation has gone through different phases. The first was Germinal Phase (1400-1750). The growth of national communities, the concepts of the individual and of ideas about humanity the acceptance of the heliocentric theory and the beginning of modern geography can be considered as the beginning of globalization. The second ( 1750-1875) was the Incipient Phase of the nation-state and the preliminary phase of internationalism and universalism in Europe. The third (1875-1925) was the Take Off Phase of the conceptualization of the world as a single international society. The twentieth century witnessed the fourth phase ( 1925-1969) of the Struggle-for-Hegemony in the Cold War, the emergence of the League of Nations and the UNO and the materialization of the Third World. The fifth phase (1969- 1992) was the Uncertainty of Phase of space exploration, an awareness of environmental issues and the global mass media. The ongoing phase is the Consolidation Phase. This phase is characterized by deregulation, privatization and more rigorous communication including the evolution of a unique global media culture. Archaic globalization. An early form of globalized economics and culture, known as archaic globalization, existed during the Hellenistic Age. Then the commercialized urban centers were focused around the axis of Greek culture over a wide range that stretched from India to Spain. Jewish and Muslim traders and explorers established a sustained economy across the Old World resulting in a globalization of crops, trade, knowledge and technology. The advent of the Mongol Empire greatly facilitated travel along the Silk Route. These pre-modern phases of global or hemispheric exchange are sometimes known as archaic globalization. Proto-globalization. The next phase is known as proto-globalization. The Age of Discovery brought a broad change in globalization. Eurasia and Africa engaged in substantial cultural, material and biologic exchange with the New World. Global integration continued with the European colonization of the Americas. There was an enormous widespread exchange of plants, animals, foods, human populations (including slaves), communicable diseases, and culture between the Eastern and Western hemispheres. Modern globalization Great Britain becomes the first global economic superpower in the 19th century, because of superior manufacturing technology and improved global communications such as steamships and railroads. The 19th century witnessed the advent of globalization approaching its modern form. The global trade in the 20th shows a higher share of trade in merchant production, a growth of the trade in services and the rise of production and trade by multinational firms. Planetary Age and Global Village The two terms generally related to globalization are “Planetary Age” and “Global Village”. Some thinkers speak of the new “Planetary Age” that is dawning in which we are becoming citizens of te entire globe rather than that of a particular country, culture or religion. In a book published in 1958. Marshall 14 MC Luhan described the world as a “Global Village”. MC Luhan argued that the medium of communication determines the characteristics of an age in history. Features of Globalization Globalization is described by many as a new version of colonization. It is a Whiteman’s invention to compensate their loss of resources from the old colonial empire. As the colonies became free, the imperialist powers now wanted to find out new resource bases to compensate the loss. So they put forth a system that facilitated the enlargement of their markets and free flow of wealth. Thus globalization is nothing but colonization in disguise. Globalization is essentially linked with the world capitalism. The globalizing urges of capitalism grew powerful during 1990s. It started a ruthless penetration on economies throughout the world particularly those of the Third World. The collapse of the East European Socialistic systems, the reorganization of the World Bank and IMF on the philosophy of free market economy and the emergence of new capitalist powers like Germany and Japan created a favourable climate for the global expansion of capitalism. The important elements of globalization like liberalization, privatization, free market economy etc were essentially capitalistic. They are designed to serve the interests of capitalism. So globalization can be considered a logical and inevitable product of world capitalist system. Globalization generally accompanied by dominance of multinational corporations (MNCs).There has been a proliferation of multinational enterprises, especially in the 1970s. they set up production units in places where their goods are in demand. They take advantage of the available raw materials, cheap labour power etc. As a result a new era of global production based on international division of labour emerged. The MNC Family have more than 40,000 peasant parent firms in the developed countries and above 2, 50,000 affiliates located mainly in the developing countries. This gave them the leverage to convert the global commerce into a means of accumulating huge profits. A more distinctive consequence of the entry of MNCs in a country can be found in the capture of domestic markets. Globalization is not merely an economic project. It involves globalization of culture and idea. It is marked by the capitalist strategy of colonizing the mind and ideas of the people. In the words of Amartya Sen, “ The goal of globalization cannot be concerned only with commodity relations, while shunning the relations of minds”. The internal or international colonization is achieved through the media. There is a continued projection of western and European civilization and its values. The North American culture is termed as “ethnic” which has replaced the term “native” of colonial days. Thus globalization is westernization or to be more precise, Americanization. Another aspect of the cultural project of globalization is the conditioning of human mind to the interests of consumerism. This process is also achieved through the media. Each country is being flooded with unnecessary luxury goods by the MNCs. They bring an undesirable distortion of the life styles through the media. An impression is created that what the country needs today is more soap and detergents, better soft drinks and smarter garments. Global consumerism creates a craze for material luxuries, sensual pleasures and accumulation of wealth through fair or foul means. Impact of Globalization 15  Globalization has brought radical changes in all walks of life. It broke the boundaries between markets and nation states. It has globalised the economies of the world. it has revolutionized the production process by shifting industry from the rich countries to the countries of cheap labour. Globalization has benefitted most of the industrialized countries. A greater variety of consumer goods are made available to the people. It has opened up new possibilities of global communication, global travel and global products. However globalization has not produced a unified world. it created large scale inequalities between the industrialized and developing countries. The lending policies of the World bank and IMF have resulted in food riots, unemployment and increasing poverty in these countries. The mechanisms of free trade led to inflation and recession. An important consequence of globalization is labour migration. This large scale migration to the industrialized countries of the west and oil producing countries of the Gulf in search of jobs has created many social conflicts. Racism in Germany and resentment against immigrants in the Gulf by the local people are examples of this. Globalization has caused fragmentation of societies and the rise of ethnic religious problems. Again, the process of globalization is against the interests of the states. Therefore, the states are asserting their interests over global interests. This tends to produce global insecurity and inter-state tensions. In short, globalization has created many social divisions and conflicts. Scholars like Anthony Giddens have argued that the world does not have any options in the case globalization. No economy can remain uninfluenced by the rest of the world. Even the most closed societies cannot escape the influence of the ides of globalization. The thing is endure it, adopt it to our deeds and to learn to live with it. a good number of writers have expressed the same view. Amartya Sen wrote, “Opponents of globalization may see it as a new folly , but it is neither in particular new, nor in general, a folly” EMERGENCE OF THE THIRD WORLD The term ‘Third World’ was coined by the French demographer Alfred Sauvy in 1952. Franz Fanon, the author of “The Wretched of the Earth” used the word “third world” to refer to the former colonies of Africa, Asia and Latin America which were emerging as newly independent states. Calvocoressi pointed out, “ It was a Third World because it rejected the notion of a world divided into two worlds in which only the United States and the USSR counted and everybody else had to declare loyalty for the one or the other”. Mao Tse Tung said “ The United States and the Soviet Union formed the First World. Japan, Europe and Canada the middle section which belong to the Second World. We are the Third World. The Third World has a huge population. With the exception of Japan, Asia belongs to the Third World”. Irving Horowitz defined Third World in terms of development in his book. “Three Worlds of Development” published in 1966. According to him “ The Third World was made of those 16 newly independent countries of Africa, Asia and Latin America” According to Kegley and Wittkopf. “ The Third World comprises the poorer, economically less developed countries of the world” Eric Toussaint draws attention to the various terms used to refer to the countries belong to the Third World. Under developed is the oldest term used and now it has become obsolete. Developing countries poor countries, countries of the South, Peripheral c\Countries, emerging countries or countries in transition are some of the popular terms used to refer to the Third World Countries. The emergence of the Third World was the most outstanding contribution of decolonization. Morton Kaplan used the term “loose bipolar system for the post Second World War cold war situation. The world war divided the world into two power blocs- one led by the United States and the other by the former Soviet Union. But several newly independent states decided to keep away from both the blocs. The First World consisted of western liberal democracies or the capitalist countries and was under the control of the United States. The First World was also called the Democratic Bloc or Capitalist Bloc or American Bloc. The Second World was made up of East European socialist countries that were in the Soviet Bloc. It was also known as the Socialist Bloc, Eastern Bloc or the Totalitarian Bloc. The newly independent countries which were keen on their political independence and economic development came to be known as the Third World, Non-aligned or developing countries. Peter Calvaocoressi pays complements to the role of Jawaharlal Nehru in the emergence of Third World. Nehru had realised that bloc politics would be dangerous for the newly independent countries. So he never advocated the formation of the Third Bloc. Thus the concept of Third World was different from a ‘third bloc’. It was group of countries which had come out of colonization and wanted to have an independent foreign policy and aimed at economic development. The term Third World soon figured in the Bandung Conference of 1955, which laid the foundation of the Non-Aligned Movement. Paul Johnson uses the term “Bandung Convention” for the sponsors of the Third World. The Third World is not a homogenous group. It includes peoples from three continents. They belong to different cultural background and are part of different political systems. Even their level of development is not uniform. South Korea and Taiwan are moving fast in the direction of industrialization. India is certainly more developed as compared to Nepal and Somalia. Countries like Egypt, Nigeria and Argentina possess significant economic potential. But there are courtiers like Bangladesh, Haiti and Chad which suffer due to acute economic hardships. There are numerous religious and ethnic conflicts in many of the developing countries. Some countries like Vietnam, Afghanistan and North Korea were closely aligned with the former Soviet Union. Some others like Pakistan and Thailand were very close to Unites State. But all these countries called themselves non-aligned. The Third World countries cooperate with each other for the solution of their problems and achievements of their goals. Features of the Third World Countries 1. Colonial Past The Third World countries have common history of European colonial subjugation. The European powers had converted the colonies in Africa, Asia and Latin America into “raw material appendage “in order to feed their economies. The prosperity of the European countries was at the cost of the exploitation of these colonies. The colonial exploitation gave rise to nationalist struggles which ultimately forced the European powers to grant them independence. This colonial legacy prompted the Third World Countries to guard their independence and gear up the development. 17  2. Poverty and Underdevelopment Poverty and underdevelopment linger in the south. Limited resources, huge population growth and low economic growth contribute to poverty. The North’s tactics of trade and aid, WTO and IMF’s structural programmes, world price fluctuation, instability in global stock markets, global financial crisis (2008), protectionist regime of the North and the MNCs have increased underdevelopment in the Third World countries. The World Bank has produced a list of 140 Failed States. These states are either developing countries or former socialist countries, but with huge natural resources. This has given the North another opportunity to intervene in these developing countries. They justify their activities as efforts to save the failed states and spread democracy so that they do not become the breeding ground of international terrorism. 3. Debt Crisis There was huge debt for the Third World Countries in 1980s from which the Third World found it very hard to reemerge. The developing countries were encouraged to borrow loans. Taking out external loans would result in permanent debt for the Third World countries. 4. Dependence and Neo-Colonialism The collapse of colonial empire had put an end to the colonial domination of the European powers. But it did not ensure economic independence. T he former colonial countries were underdeveloped. This made them dependent on the former colonial masters for finance, aid, technology transfer, research and development. The former colonial masters devised means of utilizing this opportunity to serve their interests. The colonies were important sources of raw materials and markets for finished products. They sought new methods to establish their domination over them. This new form of colonial domination is referred to as neo-colonialism. USA was not a former colonizer. But this sort of relationship exists in the relations between the Third World and the USA, and in North-South relations. 5. A United Force: Resistance to Inequitable International Order The common problems of the Third World inspired them to form a united front to fight for a just and inequitable international political and economic order. They had changed the international relations since 1960s. They had bargained collectively since the 1970s for a New International Economic Order (NIEO). They have also demanded A New International Information and Communication Order (NIICO). They have also evolved the Non-aligned Movement. The NAM has gave them a platform to fight for the NIEO and fight for the NIEO and crusade against neo-colonialism and initiate a North-South Dialogue. They have also forged a common front with the creation of Group of 77. The Third World has played a commendable role in mobilizing world opinion and exploring an alternative to the existing international order The Third World countries innovated the process of liberating the mind of the people from the colonial and cultural values. This may be called the “cultural decolonization”. The Third World countries were able to advance their anti-imperialistic stand, resistance to neo-colonialism, and collective effort tot get their grievances redressed helped them to emerge as a powerful force in the world politics. The Third World countries have constantly resented the intervention of both capitalist and communist blocs in their internal affairs. The Third World countries strived hard to defend their land from foreign intervention. Perhaps the most important contribution in the world politics was the making of the Non-Alignment. 18  THE SOUTH ASIAN ASSOCIATION FOR REGIONAL COOPERATION (SAARC) The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) is a regional intergovernmental organization and geopolitical union in South Asia. Its member states include Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, the Maldives, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. SAARC was founded in Dhaka in 1985. Its secretariat is based in Kathmandu. The organization promotes development economics and regional integration. It launched the South Asian Free Trade Area in 2006. SAARC maintains permanent diplomatic relations at the UN as an observer and has developed links with multilateral entities, including the EU. However, the organization continues to face many challenges. Disputes between India and Pakistan have often clouded the union's potential and progress. Formation The idea of co-operation in South Asia was mainly in three conferences- the Asian Relations Conference held in New Delhi in April 1947, the Baguio Conference in the Philippines on May 1950, and the Colombo Powers Conference held in Sri Lanka in April 1954. In 1970s Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka agreed upon the creation of a trade bloc and to provide a platform for the peoples of South Asia to work together. President Ziaur Rahman later addressed official letters to the leaders of the countries of the South Asia, presenting his vision for the future of the region. During his visit to India in December 1977, Rahman discussed the issue of regional cooperation with the Indian Prime Minister, Morarji Desai. In the inaugural speech to the Colombo Plan Consultative Committee which met in Kathmandu also in 1977, King Birendra of Nepal gave a call for close regional cooperation among South Asian countries in sharing river waters. After the USSR's intervention in Afghanistan, the efforts to establish the union were accelerated in 1979. Responding to Rahman and Birendra's convention, the officials of the foreign ministries of the seven countries met for the first time in Colombo in April 1981. The Bangladeshi proposal was promptly endorsed by Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, and the Maldives. But India and Pakistan were skeptical initially. However, after a series of quiet diplomatic consultations between South Asian foreign ministers at the UN headquarters in New York from August to September 1980, it was agreed that Bangladesh would prepare the draft of a working paper for discussion among the foreign secretaries of South Asian countries. The foreign secretaries of the inner seven countries again delegated a Committee in Colombo in September 1981. It identified five broad areas for regional cooperation namely, Agriculture; Rural Development; Telecommunications; Meteorology; and Health and Population Activities. New areas of co-operation were added in the following years. In 1983, the international conference held by Indian Minister of External Affairs P.V. Narasimha Rao in New Delhi, the foreign ministers of the inner seven countries adopted the Declaration on South Asian Association Regional Cooperation (SAARC). It formally launched the Integrated Programme of Action (IPA) initially in five agreed areas of cooperation. Officially, the SAARC was established in Dhaka..The first SAARC summit was held in Dhaka on 7–8 December 1985. It was hosted by the President of Bangladesh Hussain Ershad. A declaration was signed by King of Bhutan Jigme Singye, President of Pakistan Zia-ul-Haq, Prime 19 Minister of India Rajiv Gandhi, King of Nepal Birendra Shah, President of Sri Lanka JR Jayewardene, and President of Maldives Maumoon Gayoom. Objectives The following are the objectives of the SAARC 1. Promote the welfare of the peoples of South Asia and improve their quality of life; 2. Accelerate economic growth, social progress and cultural development in the region by providing all individuals the opportunity to live in dignity and realise their full potential; 3. Promote and strengthen collective self-reliance among the countries of South Asia; 4. Contribute to mutual trust, understanding and appreciation of one another’s problems; 5. Promote active collaboration and mutual assistance in the economic, social, cultural, technical and scientific fields; 6. Strengthen co-operation with other developing countries; 7. Strengthen co-operation among themselves in international forms on matters of common interest; 8. Cooperate with international and regional organisation with similar aims and purposes. Members The member states are Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. SAARC was founded by seven states in 1985. Afghanistan joined SAARC as its eighth member state in April 2007. Observers States with observer status include Australia, China, the European Union, Iran, Japan, Mauritius Myanmar, South Korea and the United States..Potential future members Myanmar has expressed interest in upgrading its status from an observer to a full member of SAARC. Russia has applied for observer status membership of SAARC. Turkey applied for observer status membership of SAARC in 2012. South Africa has participated in meetings. Secretariat Secretariat of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation is in Kathmandu, Nepal. The SAARC Secretariat was established in Kathmandu on 16 January 1987 and was inaugurated by Late King Birendra Bir Bikram Shah of Nepal. Pakistan’s Amjad Hussain B. Sial has assumed charge of the office of Secretary General of SAARC on March 1, 2017, on completion of the tenure of former Secretary General Ambassador Arjun Bahadur Thapa of Nepal. Regional Centres 20  The SAARC Secretariat is supported by Regional Centres established in Member States to promote regional co-operation. These Centres are managed by Governing Boards comprising representatives from all the Member States, SAARC Secretary-General and the Ministry of Foreign/External Affairs of the Host Government. The Director of the Centre acts as Member Secretary to the Governing Board which reports to the Programming Committee. Apex and Recognized Bodies SAARC has six Apex Bodies, namely, SAARC Chamber of Commerce & Industry (SCCI), SAARCLAW (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation in Law), South Asian Federation of Accountants (SAFA), South Asia Foundation (SAF), South Asia Initiative to End Violence Against Children (SAIEVAC), Foundation of SAARC Writers and Literature (FOSWAL).SAARC also has about 17 recognized bodies. ACTIVITIES South Asian Free Trade Area ( SAFTA) The Tenth SAARC Summit (Colombo, 29–31 July 1998) decided to set up a Committee of Experts (COE) to draft a comprehensive treaty framework for creating a free trade area within the region. The SAFTA Agreement was signed on 6 January 2004 during Twelfth SAARC Summit held in Islamabad, Pakistan. The Agreement came into force on 1 January 2006, and the Trade Liberalisation Programme commenced from 1 July 2006. Under this agreement, SAARC members deceded to bring their duties down to 20 per cent by 2009. Following the Agreement coming into force the SAFTA Ministerial Council (SMC) has been established comprising the Commerce Ministers of the Member States. In 2012 the SAARC exports increased substantially to US$354.6 billion from US$206.7 billion in 2009. Imports too increased from US$330 billion to US$602 billion over the same period. But the intra- SAARC trade amounts to just a little over 1% of SAARC's GDP. SAARC Visa Exemption Scheme The SAARC Visa Exemption Scheme was launched in 1992. The leaders at the Fourth Summit (Islamabad, 29–31 December 1988) decided that certain categories of dignitaries should be entitled to a Special Travel document, which would exempt them from visas within the region. Currently the list included 24 categories of entitled persons, which include Dignitaries, Judges of higher courts, Parliamentarians, Senior Officials, Businessmen, Journalists, Sportsmen etc. Visa stickers are issued by the respective Member States to the entitled categories of that particular country. The validity of the Visa Sticker is generally for one year. SAARC Awards The SAARC Youth Award is awarded was instituted in 1996 to provide recognition to extraordinary young talents and encourage the overall development of the youth in the region. The award is based on specific themes which apply to each year. The award recognizes and promotes the commitment and talent of the youth who undertake various initiatives such as Inventions, Protection of the Environment and Disaster relief. SAARC Literary Award is an annual award conferred by the Foundation of SAARC (South Asian Association of Regional Cooperation) Writers and Literature (FOSWAL) since 2001.The Twelfth Summit (2004) approved the SAARC Award to support individuals 21 and organisations within the region. The SAARC Award consists of a gold medal, a letter of citation, and cash prize of US $25,000. Since the institution of the SAARC Award in 2004, it has been awarded only once. The Award was posthumously conferred upon the late President Ziaur Rahman of Bangladesh. Political Issues But frequent tensions come in the way of the regional cooperation. There is some sort of a hidden fear about India’s position in the region But India has no desire to impose its will on the smaller countries. Pakistan and Bangladesh wants to settle the political disputes with India before any meaningful economic cooperation can take place. They argue that they would not be able to respond to India regarding SAFTA till the Kashmir and Farraka disputes were resolved. SUMMITS First summit The first summit was held in Dhaka, Bangladesh on 7–8 December 1985 and was attended by the Government representative and president of Bangladesh, Maldives, Pakistan and Sri Lanka, the kings of Bhutan and Nepal, and the prime minister of India. They signed the SAARC Charter on 8 December 1985, thereby establishing the regional association. The Summit established study groups on the problems of terrorism and drug trafficking. It planned a ministerial-level meeting about GATT, and a ministerial- level conference on increasing the participation of women at the regional level. The summit also agreed to establish a SAARC secretariat and adopted an official SAARC emblem. Second summit The second summit was held in Bangalore, India on 16–17 November 1986. The Heads of State or Government welcomed the signing of the Memorandum of Understanding on the establishment of the SAARC Secretariat by the Council of Ministers and their decision to locate the Secretariat in Kathmandu. It accepted the appointment of Ambassador Abul Ahsan of Bangladesh as the first Secretary-General of south Asian association of regional cooperation. Third summit The third summit was held in Kathmandu, Nepal from 2 to 4 November 1987. It was attended by the presidents of Bangladesh, the Maldives and Sri Lanka, the prime ministers of India and Pakistan, and the kings of Bhutan and Nepal. The foreign ministers of the member states signed the SAARC Regional Convention on Suppression of Terrorism and an agreement to establish a South Asian Food Reserve. Fourth summit The fourth summit was held in Islamabad, Pakistan on 29–31 December 1988 and was attended by the presidents of Bangladesh, the Maldives and Sri Lanka, the prime ministers of India and Pakistan, and the kings of Bhutan and Nepal. The summit declared 1989 to be the "SAARC Year Against Drug Abuse", declared 1990 to be the "SAARC Year of the Girl Child". It set up a technical committee on education. It also launched a regional plan called "SAARC-2000-A Basic Needs Perspective" to meet specific targets by the end of the twentieth century in areas such as food, shelter, education and environmental protection. It was also agreed to hold regular "South Asian Festivals" with the first being hosted by India. 22 Fifth summit The fifth summit was held in Malé, Maldives on 21–23 November 1990 and was attended by the presidents of Bangladesh, the Maldives and Sri Lanka, the prime ministers of India, Nepal and Pakistan, and the king of Bhutan. The leaders signed the SAARC Convention on Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances and launched the Special SAARC Travel Document. It also launched a Scheme for the Promotion of Organised Tourism and authorized the SAARC secretariat to share information and exchange reports, studies and publications with the European Community and the Association of South East Asian Nations. The Summit declared 1991-2000 AD to be the "SAARC Decade of the Girl Child", 1991 to be the "SAARC Year of Shelter", 1992 to be the "SAARC Year of the Environment" and 1993 to be the "SAARC Year of Disabled Persons. Sixth summit The sixth summit was held in Colombo, Sri Lanka on 21 December 1991 and was attended by the prime ministers of Bangladesh, India, Nepal and Pakistan, the presidents of the Maldives and Sri Lanka, and the king of Bhutan. Seventh summit The seventh summit was held in Dhaka, on 10–11 April 1993, and was attended by the presidents of the Maldives and Sri Lanka, the prime ministers of Bangladesh, India, Nepal and Pakistan, and the king of Bhutan. Eighth summit The eighth summit was held in New Delhi, on 2–4 May 1995, and was attended by the presidents of the Maldives, Pakistan and Sri Lanka, the prime ministers of Bangladesh, India and Nepal, and the king of Bhutan. Ninth summit The ninth summit was held in Male, on 12–14 May 1997, and was attended by the presidents of the Maldives and Sri Lanka, the prime ministers of Bangladesh, India, Nepal and Pakistan, and the king of Bhutan. Tenth summit The tenth summit was held in Colombo, on 29–31 July 1998, and was attended by the presidents of the Maldives and Sri Lanka and the prime ministers of Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal and Pakistan. SAARC countries stressed for eradicating poverty and promoting joint collaboration. Eleventh summit The eleventh summit was held in Kathmandu, on 4–6 January 2002, and was attended by the presidents of the Maldives, Pakistan and Sri Lanka and the prime ministers of Bangladesh, Bhutan, India and Nepal. Twelfth summit 23  The twelfth summit was held in Islamabad, on 4–6 January 2004, and was attended by the presidents of the Maldives and Sri Lanka and the prime ministers of Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal and Pakistan. Thirteenth summit The thirteenth summit was held in Dhaka, on 12–13 November 2005, and was attended by the prime ministers of Bangladesh, Bhutan, India and Pakistan, the presidents of the Maldives and Sri Lanka, and the king of Nepal. Fourteenth summit The fourteenth summit of SAARC was held in New Delhi, India on 3rd-4 April 2007. It was attended by the presidents of Afghanistan, the Maldives and Sri Lanka and the Prime ministers Bhutan, India, Nepal and Pakistan and the chief adviser of the government of Bangladesh. Fifteenth summit The fifteenth summit of SAARC was held in Colombo, Sri Lanka on 1–3 August 2008. The Summit discussed important issues like regional cooperation, partnership for growth for the peoples of South Asia, connectivity, energy, the environment, water resources, poverty alleviation, the SAARC Development Fund, transport, information and communications technology development, science and technology, tourism, culture, the South Asian Free Trade Area, the SAARC Social Charter, women and children, education, combating terrorism, and the admission of Australia and Myanamar as observers. At the summit, one of the major points of discussion was the global food crisis. It decided that an Extra-ordinary Meeting of the Agriculture Ministers of the SAARC Member States should be convened in New Delhi, India in November 2008, to evolve and implement people-centered short to medium term regional strategy and collaborative projects. Sixteenth summit The sixteenth summit was held in Thimpu, Bhutan on 28–29 April 2010. Bhutan hosted the SAARC summit for the first time. This was marked the silver jubilee celebration of SAARC. Climate change was the central issue of the summit, The theme of the summit's was “Towards a Green and Happy South Asia". SAARC leaders signed a SAARC Convention on Cooperation on Environment to tackle the problem of climate change. The SAARC nations also pledged to plant 10 million trees over the next 5 years. India proposed setting up of climate innovation centres in South Asia to develop sustainable energy technologies..The seven-page ‘Thimpu Silver Jubilee Declaration-Towards a Green and Happy South Asia’ emphasized the importance of reducing dependence on high-carbon technologies for economic growth and hoped promotion of climate resilience will promote both development and poverty eradication in a sustainable manner. Seventeenth summit The Seventeenth Summit was held from 10-11 of November 2011 in Addu City, Maldives. In his inaugural address President Nasheed highlighted three areas of cooperation in which progress should be 24 made; trade, transport and economic integration; security issues such piracy and climate change; and good governance. President also called on the Member States to establish a commission to address issues of gender inequalities in South Asia. The theme of the Summit was “Building Bridges". It stressed bridging the gaps created by uneven economic development and income distribution, the gaps in recognizing and respecting the equality of men and women. Eighteenth summit The 18th SAARC Summit was held at the Nepalese capital Kathmandu from November 26 to November 27, 2014 and was attended by the prime ministers of Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal and Pakistan, the presidents of the Afghanistan, Maldives and Sri Lanka. The motto was ‘Deeper Integration for Peace and Prosperity’. Nineteenth summit The Nineteenth Summit of the SAARC was scheduled to be held in Islamabad on 15 to 16 November 2016.. India decided to boycott the summit in the wake of the Uri terror attack. Afghanistan, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Maldives also did not attend the summit due to the same reason. Pakistan postponed the SARC summit and announced that new dates would be released soon. But it did not happen and the Nineteenth summit was cancelled. THE ASSOCIATION OF SOUTHEAST ASIAN NATIONS (ASEAN) The Association of Southeast Asian Nations, or ASEAN, was established on 8 August 1967 in Bangkok, Thailand, with the signing of the ASEAN Declaration (Bangkok Declaration) by the Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and Thailand. Brunei Darussalam joined on 7 January 1984, Viet Nam on 28 July 1995, Lao PDR and Myanmar on 23 July 1997, and Cambodia on 30 April 1999. Presently there are ten Member States in the ASEAN. AIMS AND PURPOSES As set out in the ASEAN Declaration, the aims and purposes of ASEAN are: 1. To accelerate the economic growth, social progress and cultural development in the region through joint endeavours in the spirit of equality and partnership. 2. To promote regional peace and stability through abiding respect for justice and the rule of law and adherence to the principles of the United Nations Charter. 3. To promote active collaboration and mutual assistance on matters of common interest in the economic, social, cultural, technical, scientific and administrative fields. 4. To provide assistance to each other in the form of training and research facilities in the educational, professional, technical and administrative spheres. 5. To collaborate more effectively for the greater utilization of their agriculture and industries, the expansion of their trade, the improvement of their transportation and communications facilities and the raising of the living standards of their peoples; 6. To promote Southeast Asian studies; and 7. To maintain close and beneficial cooperation with existing international and regional organisations with similar aims and purposes. 25  FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES The Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia (TAC) of 1976 contain the following principles. 1. Mutual respect for the independence, sovereignty, equality, territorial integrity, and national identity of all nations; 2. The right of every State to be free from external interference, subversion or coercion; 3. Non-interference in the internal affairs of one another; 4. Settlement of differences or disputes by peaceful manner; 5. Renunciation of the threat or use of force; and 6. Effective cooperation among themselves. ASEAN COMMUNITY The ASEAN Leaders adopted the ASEAN Vision 2020 on the 30th Anniversary of ASEAN. At the 9th ASEAN Summit in 2003, the ASEAN Leaders resolved that an ASEAN Community shall be established. At the 12th ASEAN Summit in January 2007, the Leaders affirmed their strong commitment to accelerate the establishment of an ASEAN Community by 2015 and signed the Cebu Declaration on the Acceleration of the Establishment of an ASEAN Community by 2015. The ASEAN Community is comprised of three pillars, namely the ASEAN Political-Security Community, ASEAN Economic Community and ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community. Each pillar has its own Blueprint. ASEAN CHARTER The ASEAN Charter serves as a firm foundation in achieving the ASEAN Community by providing legal status and institutional framework for ASEAN. It also codifies ASEAN norms, rules and values; sets clear targets for ASEAN; and presents accountability and compliance. The ASEAN Charter entered into force on 15 December 2008. In effect, the ASEAN Charter has become a legally binding agreement among the 10 ASEAN Member States. Motto The motto of ASEAN is “One Vision, One Identity, One Community”. Flag 1. The ASEAN Flag represents a stable, peaceful, united and dynamic ASEAN. The colours of the Flag – blue, red, white and yellow – represent the main colours of the flags of all the ASEAN Member States. 2. The blue represents peace and stability. Red depicts courage and dynamism, white shows purity and yellow symbolises prosperity. 3. The stalks of padi in the centre of the Emblem represent the dream of ASEAN’s Founding Fathers for an ASEAN comprising all the countries in Southeast Asia, bound together in friendship and solidarity. 26  4. The circle represents the unity of ASEAN. Emblem 1. The ASEAN Emblem represents a stable, peaceful, united and dynamic ASEAN. The colours of the Emblem — blue, red, white and yellow — represent the main colours of the state crests of all the ASEAN Member States. 2. The blue represents peace and stability. Red depicts courage and dynamism, white shows purity and yellow symbolises prosperity. 3. The stalks of padi in the centre of the Emblem represent the dream of ASEAN’s Founding Fathers for an ASEAN comprising all the countries in Southeast Asia, bound together in friendship and solidarity. 4. The circle represents the unity of ASEAN. ASEAN Day 8th August is observed as ASEAN Day. ORGANISATION OF AFRICAN UNITY (OAU) The Organisation of African Unity ( OAU) or Organisation de l’ Unite Africaine (OUA) was established on 25 May 1963. It was disbanded on 9 July 2002 by the last Chairperson, South African President Thabo Mbeki. It was replaced by the African Union (AU) by the Sirte ( a city in Libya) Declaration. The AU consists of 53 African states. However four member states - Guinea, Madagascar, Eritrea and Cote d’ Ivoire have been suspended. Aims The OAU had the following primary aims: 1. To co-ordinate and intensify the co-operation of African states in order to achieve a better life for the people of Africa. 2. To defend the sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence of African states. The OAU was also dedicated to the eradication of all forms of colonialism and white minority rule. When it was established, there were several states that had not yet won their independence or were white minority-ruled. South Africa and Angola were two such countries. The OAU proposed two ways of ridding the continent of colonialism and white minority rule. Firstly, it would defend the interests of independent countries and help to pursue the independence those of still-colonized ones. Secondly, it would remain neutral in terms of world affairs, preventing its members from being controlled once more by outside powers. A Liberation Committee was established to aid independence movements and look after the interests of already-independent states. The OAU also aimed to stay neutral in terms of global politics, which would prevent them from being controlled once more by outside forces – an especial danger with the Cold War. The OAU had other aims, too: 27  a. Ensure that all Africans enjoyed human rights. b. Raise the living standards of all Africans. c. Settle arguments and disputes between members – not through fighting but rather peaceful and diplomatic negotiation. Objectives 1.Achieve greater unity and solidarity between African countries and the peoples of Africa. 2. Defend the sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence of its Member States. 3.Accelerate the political and socio-economic integration of the continent. 4.Promote and defend African common positions on issues of interest to the continent and its peoples. 5.Encourage international cooperation, taking due account of the Charter of the United Nations and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. 6.Promote peace, security, and stability on the continent. 7. Promote democratic principles and institutions, popular participation and good governance. 8. Promote and protect human peoples’ rights in accordance with the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights and other relevant human rights instruments. 9.Establish the necessary conditions which enable the continent to play its rightful role in the global economy and in international negotiations. 10. Promote sustainable development at the economic, social and cultural levels as well as the integration of African economies. 11. Promote cooperation in all fields of human activity to raise the living standards of African peoples. 12. Coordinate and harmonise the policies between the existing and future Regional Economic Communities for the gradual attainment of the objectives of the Union. 13. Advance the development of the continent by promoting research in all fields, in particular in science and technology. 14. Work with relevant international partners in the eradication of preventable diseases and the promotion of good health on the continent. Blocs Soon after achieving independence, a number of African states expressed a growing desire for more unity within the continent. The Casablanca bloc, led by Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana, wanted a federation of all African countries. Aside from Ghana, it comprised also Algeria, Guinea, Morocco, Egypt, Mali and Libya. Founded in 1961, its members were described as "progressive states". The Monrovian bloc, led by Senghor of Senegal, felt that unity should be achieved gradually, through economic cooperation. It did not support the notion of a political federation. Its other members were Nigeria, Liberia, Ethiopia and most of the former French colonies. The dispute was eventually resolved when Ethiopian emperor Haile Selassie I invited the two groups to Addis Ababa. The Organs of AU The Assembly Composed of Heads of State and Government or their duly accredited representatives. The Assembly of Heads of State and Government is the supreme organ of the Union. The Executive Council Composed of Ministers or Authorities designated by the Governments of Members States. The Executive Council is responsible to the Assembly. The Commission 28 Composed of the Chairperson, the Deputy Chairperson, eight Commissioners and Staff members; Each Commissioner shall be responsible for a portfolio. The Permanent Representatives' Committee Composed of Permanent Representatives of Member States accredited to the Union. The Permanent Representatives Committee is charged with the responsibility of preparing the work of the Executive Council. Peace and Security Council (PSC) By decision AHG/Dec 160 (xxxvii) of the Summit of Lusaka, July 2001, a decision was made for the creation within the African Union of the Peace and Security Council. The Protocol establishing the PSC is in the process of ratification. Pan-African Parliament A Pan-African Parliament, and organ to ensure the full participation of African peoples in governance, development and economic integration of the Continent. The protocol relating to the composition, powers, functions and organization of the Pan-African Parliament has been signed by Member States and is in the process of ratification. ECOSOCC The Economic, Social and Cultural Council, an advisory organ composed of different social and professional groups of the Member States of the Union. The statutes determining the functions, powers, composition and organization of the Economic, Social and Cultural Council have been prepared and will be submitted to Maputo Summit. The Court of Justice A Court of Justice of the Union shall be established. The statutes defining the composition and functions of the Court of Justice have been prepared and will be submitted to the Assembly in Maputo. The Specialized Technical Committees The following Specialized Technical Committees are meant to address sectoral issues and are at Ministerial Level: The Committee on Rural Economy and Agricultural Matters; The Committee on Monetary and Financial Affairs; The Committee on Trade, Customs and Immigration Matters; The Committee on Industry, Science and Technology, Energy, Natural Resources and Environment; The Committee on Transport, Communications and Tourism; The Committee on Health, Labour and Social Affairs; and The Committee on Education, Culture and Human Resources. The Financial Institutions The African Central bank 29 The African Monetary Fund The African Investment Bank TheAU Commission The Commission is the key organ playing a central role in the day-to-day management of the African Union. Among others, it represents the Union and defends its interests; elaborates draft common positions of the Union; prepares strategic plans and studies for the consideration of the Executive Council; elaborates, promotes, coordinates and harmonizes the programmes and policies of the Union with those of the RECs; ensures the mainstreaming of gender in all programmes and activities of the Union. Members of the Commission Chairperson; Deputy Chairperson; Eight (8) Commissioners. Staff members Achievements The OAU was successful in some respects. Many of its members were members of the UN, too. They stood together within the OAU to safeguard African interests – especially in respect of lingering colonialism.. The OAU did play a pivotal role in eradicating colonialism and white minority rule in Africa. It gave weapons, training and military bases to rebel groups fighting white minority and colonial rule. Groups such as the ANC and PAC, fighting apartheid, and ZANU and ZAPU, fighting to topple the government of Rhodesia, were aided in their endeavours by the OAU. African harbours were closed to the South African government. South African aircraft were prohibited from flying over the rest of the continent. The UN was convinced by the OAU to expel South Africa from bodies such as the World Health Organisation. The OAU also worked with the UN to ease refugee problems. It set up the African Development Bank for economic projects intended to make Africa financially stronger. Although all African countries eventually won their independence, it remained difficult for them to become totally independent of their former colonizers. There was often continued reliance on the former colonial powers for economic aid, Loans had to be paid back at high interest-rates, and goods had to be sold to the aiders at low rates. The USA and USSR intervened in post-colonial Africa in pursuit of their own objectives. Help was sometimes provided in the form of technology and aid-workers. 30  But the Organisation still heavily depends on Western help (Military and Economic) to intervene in African affairs. It has also faced stiff challenges in fostering African unity mainly due to the following reasons. 1. Differenced among the member states. 2. Civil strife 3. Ethnic conflicts 4. Dependence of the former colonizers 5. Inability to enforce its decisions 6. Policy of non- interference. EUROPEAN UNION The European Union is a geopolitical entity covering a large portion of the European continent. It originally consisted of six countries- Belgium, France, West Germany, Italy, Luxemburg and Netherlands. At present the European Union includes 28 members. Formation of EU The Second World War had devastated the European countries which had been enjoying a dominant position in world politics. Great Britain, France and Germany lost their position and the world came to be dominated by the USA and USSR. This was followed by the cold war between these two super powers. Europe remained the focal point of the super power politics. This led the European countries to move towards the formation of an integrated Europe. The first step in the formation of a regional arrangement created by the Coalition for European Economic Cooperation signed in Paris on 16 April 1948. The regional organization that emerged out of this Treaty was called Organisation for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC). The chief function of OEEC was to act as a coordinating agency of the countries receiving the Marshall Plan aid. In 1949 the “Council of Europe” was established on the basis of the speech of Winston Churchill in 1946. This was the first Pan- European organisation and it served as a stimulus for future integration of European states. In 1951, the European Payments Union was created to facilitate trade and economic transaction among the member countries. On 9 May 1950, the French foreign minister, Robert Schuman proposed a community to integrate the coal and steel industries of France and West Germany under a common high authority. The proposal was realised with the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community according to the Treaty of Paris. On 18 April 1951, leaders of the six member countries signed a European Declaration and this treaty marked the true foundation of an organised Europe. The ECSC introduced a common single steel and coal market without import and export duties or subsidies. The success of ECSC led to further integration. The conference of the leaders at Messina established the Spaak Committee Report, the Inter- governmental Conference on Common Market and Euratom ( European Atomic Energy Community) focusing on economic unity was held. This led to the signing of the Treaty of Rome in 1957 which established the European Economic Community (EEC) and the Euratom. These committees began to function from 1January1958. 31  The Treaty of Merger of 8 April 1965 established a single executive for the ECSC the EEC and Euratom. There were also other significant developments. The Customs Union was established in 1969. In 1978, the European Currency Unit was introduced. In 1979, the first democratic elections ot the European Parliament were held. In 1985, the Schengen Agreement created largely open borders without passport controls between most of the member states. In 1986, European flag began to be used by the European Community. Another mile stone in this direction was the Single European Act (SEA) which was put in place on 1 January 1993. This Act established a truly single European Market lifting all trade restrictions between the member states. The European Union was formally established when the Maastricht Treaty came into force on 1 November 1993. The Treaty structured the EU policies into three main areas called Pillars are now abolished by the Lisbon Treaty of 2009. 1. The Community Pillar. This Pillar is concerned with economic, social and environmental policies. 2. Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP). It is concerned human rights, democracy, foreign aid and security policy. 3. Police and Judicial Cooperation in Criminal Matters. It deals with drug trafficking, weapon smuggling, and crime Currency In 2002, Euro notes and coins replaced national currencies in 12 of the member states. Constitution of European Union The European Constitution was signed on 28 October 2004. Some states held referenda during 2005. The French and Dutch voters rejected it. The European leaders signed the Lisbon Treaty on 13 December 2007 and it came into force on 1 December 2009. This was intended to replace the earlier failed European Constitution. But the Irish voters rejected it in 2008. The Institutions of European Union. 1. Commission of the European Community This body is the executive wing of the European Union and it is composed of one appointee from each state. At present there are 28 Commissioners. The commissioners have the responsibility of dealing with the day to day affairs of the EU. It is led by a President nominated by the Council. 2. Council of the European Union 32 The Council of the European Union is often called the Council of Ministers and it is the policy making body of the EU. It is composed of 28 heads of states and one President in office. In some areas the Council is superior to the Parliament. In many areas the two bodies have equal powers too. 3. European Parliament It is the only directly elected parliamentary institution of the European. It is a bicameral legislature. The EP has supervisory, budgetary and legislative powers. It has two meeting places – one at the Louise Weiss building in Strasburg, France. This place