Second-quarterly Coverage 2024 PDF

LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. Cell Division  LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. Cell CyCle organelles replicated Interphase = G1, S, G2 (non dividing)...

LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. Cell Division  LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. Cell CyCle organelles replicated Interphase = G1, S, G2 (non dividing) G1 10-12 hrs replication of DNA, Mitotic S synthesis of proteins 6-8 hrs associated with DNA Cell Division G2 synthesis of proteins 2-4 hrs associated with mitosis cell  LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. grows in size LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. What is Mitosis? Somatic Cell Division. Meiosis One diploid (2n) --> Four haploid (1n) cells Reduces chromosome # from 46 --> 23 Reduces the DNA content from 2n --> 1n  LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. Mitosis One diploid (2n) cell --> two diploid daughter cells Maintains chromosome # 46 --> 46 Maintains DNA content 2n --> 2n Gametes - a cell that participates in fertilization or formation of new organism Spermatocytes – sperm cell  LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. Oocytes – egg before maturation Transport Mechanism  LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. PASSIVE TRANSPORT - does not require the use of energy WHAT IS DIFFUSION? DIFFUSION is the movement of solutes from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower  LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. concentration in solution. OSMOSIS diffusion of water (solvent) across a selectively permeable membrane, such as a plasma membrane  LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. ACTIVE TRANSPORT is a mediated transport process that requires energy provided by ATP. Movement of the transported substance to the opposite side of  LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. the membrane and its subsequent release from the carrier protein are fueled by the breakdown of ATP. Biomolecules  LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. Macromolecules are built (synthesized) within the cell itself in a process called dehydration synthesis (also called the condensation reaction), smaller molecules called subunits are joined by covalent bonds, like pearls on a string. The synthesis of macromolecules from smaller molecules requires energy. Monosaccharides LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. glucose  LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. Polysaccharides Starch and cellulose are two important polysaccharides found in plants, and both are composed of long chains of glucose.  LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. Polysaccharides Cellulose - a linear polymer of glucose subunits put together - not soluble  LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. - completely indigestible to all but a very few organisms Polysaccharides Cellulase - enzyme that digest cellulose Pectin - occur in plant tissues, especially of fruits that bind water and sugar to make viscous solutions or gel.  LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. ex. algin, agar, and carrageen Lipids they are relatively insoluble. The most important subclasses of lipids in your body are triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids.  LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. Fats Fats are a major type of lipid. They are broken down by hydrolysis reactions in cells to release energy for use by those cells. Triglycerides  LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. called neutral fats or just fats, are synthesized from a molecule of glycerol and three fatty acids Amino Acids  LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. Amino acids the building blocks of proteins!! They consist of a central carbon atom with a H, a –COOH, a NH2 and a “R” group attached.  LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. Peptide bonds The bond that holds together amino acids into a large macromolecule called a polypeptide. LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. Types of  LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. Globular Proteins - most common type of proteins - have folded ball like structure Examples: Alpha globulin Hemoglobin Carboxypeptidase Protein S pepsin Fibrous Proteins  LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. protein with an elongated shape. Fibrous proteins provide structural support for cells and tissues. Long thread like structures Examples: Actin Collagen Elastin Keratin Myosin Pikachurin LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. Functions of Proteins  LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. Transport Proteins Contractile Proteins Protein is a major element in transportation of certain Hormonal Proteins Storage Proteins molecules. Protein is involved in the creation of some hormones.  LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. Proteins allow the body to move. They are found in plant seeds, egg whites, and milk.  LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. Nucleic Acid DNA and RNA LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. Erwin Chargaff Chargaff’s rules The relative amounts of adenine and thymine are the same in DNA The relative amounts of cytosine LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. and guanine are the same.  LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. Hydrogen bonds DNA IS MADE OF TWO P G C P P C G P P C G P P A T P P T A P P  LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. STRANDS OF POLYNUCLEOTIDE LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. Practice LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. DNA C-DNA 1. ATG-GTA-ATA TAC-CAT-TAT CAG-ACC-TTA 2. GTC-TGG-AAT CGG-CCG-AAT 3. GCC-GGC-TTA LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. Nitrogenou s base RNA (A, G, C, or  LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. Phosphate U) group Ribonucleic acid ▪ different sugar LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. ▪ T is replaced by U ▪ Single strand Sugar (ribose) DNA Practice C-RNA LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. 1. AAG-GCA-GGA UUC-CGU-CCU 2. GAA-CGG-AGA CUU-GCC-UCU 3. GCC-GAA-GAA CGG-CUU-CUU LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. Down Syndrome LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. Deletion LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. ATP – ADP CYCLE LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC.  LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. Photosynthesis Raw Materials Product sunlight 6 CO2 + 6 H2OC6H12O6 + 6 O2 Carbon Water Glucose Oxygen Dioxide (Sugar)  LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. The Absorption Spectrum measurement of the absorption of light by chlorophyll as a function of wavelength occurs in the chloroplasts first step is the absorption of a photon of light by a molecule of chlorophyll. LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. The Absorption Spectrum LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. Stages of Photosynthesis Light Dependent Reaction (Light Reaction) Light Independent Reaction (Calvin Cycle) LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC.  LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. Light Dependent Reaction occurs in the thylakoids Photosystem – an organized array of proteins and pigments bound within the thylakoid membrane, consisting of a light antenna, a photocenter, and an associated electron transport system LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC.  LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. Reaction center – also photocenter, the part of a photosystem in which light-activated chlorophyll a transfers an electron transport system Photosystem I = P700 Photosystem II = P680 LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC.  LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. Plastoquinone– an electron carrier that transport electron to Cytochrome b6f complex. Photolysis (of water) – oxidation of water through the removal of hydrogen by highly oxidizing elements of photosystem 680, which in turn are regenerated with the energy of captured photons.  LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. Steps in Light Dependent Reactions 1. Absorption of light as a photon by the chlorophyll molecule inside the chloroplast. 2. Within the chlorophyll molecule, the absorbed light energy excites electron to a higher state. 3. Photosystems will channel the excitation energy gathered by the chlorophyll molecules to the reaction center chlorophyll molecule which will then pass the electrons to a series of proteins located on the thylakoid membrane.  LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. Steps in Light Dependent Reactions 4. Plastoquinone which is an electron carrier which will then transport the energized electron to Cytochrome b6f complex. 5. The electrons lost by Photosystem II are replaced by the process called photolysis, which involve the oxidation of water molecule, producing free electrons and oxygen gas (by-product of photosynthesis). 6. As electrons pass through the electron transport chain, the energy from the electron is used to pump up hydrogen ions from the stroma to the thylakoid, creating a concentration gradient.  LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. Steps in Light Dependent Reactions 7. This gradient powers a protein called ATP synthase, which phosphorylates ADP to form ATP. 8. The low – energy electrons leaving P II are shuttled to Photosystem I. 9. Within the PI, low energy electrons are reenergized and are passed through an electron transport chain where they are used to reduce the electron carrier NADP+ to NADPH.  LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. Steps in Light Dependent Reactions 10. When chloroplast receives a steady supply of photons, NADPH (Nicotinamide Adenosine Dinucleotide Phosphate) and ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) are produced as the product which will then be use in the Light Dependent Reaction, and Oxygen as the by-product.  LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. Light Dependent Reaction Raw materials: Water (H2O) and Light Product: NADPH, ATP, and Oxygen Light Independent Reaction  LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. (Calvin Cycle) - occurs in the stroma Calvin cycle – the cycle in C3 photosynthesis in which NADPH2 and ATP reduce carbon dioxide to glyceraldehyde 3phosphate (PGAL)  LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. The raw material for carbon fixation are NADPH, ATP, CO2, and RuBP. The NADPH and ATP are used to fuel up Calvin cycle. Three steps:  LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. 1. Carbon fixation 2. Reduction 3. Regeneration of RuBP LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. 1. Carbon fixation In this step carbon dioxide is attached to ribulose 1, 5bisphosphate resulting in a six carbon molecule that splits into three carbon molecule. LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. 2. Reduction A sequence of reactions using electrons from NADPH and some of the ATP to reduce carbon LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. dioxide to Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC.  LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. 3. Regeneration of RuBP Ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate is regenerated. For every three turns of the cycle, five molecules of Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate are used to reform three molecules of Ribulose 1,5bisphosphate. The remaining Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate is then used to make glucose, fatty acids or glycerol. LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC.  LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. Stages Reactants/ Raw Product materials Light Dependent H2O and light NADPH, ATP Reaction and O2 Light Independent NADPH, ATP, and glucose Reaction CO2 Photorespiration a puzzling phenomenon in which abundant light energy is captured by  LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. photosynthesis but little or no net carbon dioxide fixation occurs; common in C3 plants in bright sunlight on hot days produces no food and generates no ATP. LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. Cellular respiration LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. Cellular Respiration oxidizing of food molecule like glucose to form carbon dioxide and water. Three stages 1. Glycolysis 2. Kreb’s Cycle/Citric Acid Cycle 3. Electron Transport Chain (ETC) LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. Glycolysis – splitting of sugar Two Phases: 1. Energy Investment Phase – ATP is consumed 2. Energy Harvesting Phase – ATP is produced Product: 2NADH, 2 ATP, and 2 PYRUVATE  LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. Aerobic Respiration – an oxygen dependent pathway of ATP formation Anaerobic Respiration – takes place within the cell cytoplasm; without O2 LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. Kreb’s Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)  LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. Kreb’s Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle) Product: 8 NADH 2 ATP 2 FADH 6 CO2 FAD – Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide NAD – Nicotinamide Adenosine Dinucleotide LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. Electron Transport Chain (ETC) - series of membrane bound carriers in the mitochondria that pass electron from one to another. LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. Electron Transport Chain  LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. An electron transport chain (ETC) is a series of compounds that transfer electron from electron donors to electron acceptors via redox reactions and couples this electron transfer with the transfer of protons (H+ ions) across a membrane. This creates an electrochemical proton gradient that drives ATP  LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. synthesis, or the generation of chemical energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The final acceptor of electrons in the electron transport chain is molecular OXYGEN. Cellular Respiration Product : Glycolysis: 2 ATP  LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. Kreb’s Cycle: 2 ATP Electron Transport Chain: 32 ATP Total 36 ATP Transpiration Transpiration is that the process by which a plant loses water, primarily through leaf stomata.  LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. The amount of water lost from the plant depends on several environmental factors such as temperature, humidity and wind or air movement. Transpiration Transpiration An increase in temperature or air movement decreases relative humidity and causes the guard cells in the leaf to LYCEUM OF ALABANG INC.INC. shrink, opening the stomata and increasing the rate of transpiration.