Energy in Biology Notes PDF

Energy in Biology Notes created on January 28, 2025 at 10:07 AM by Minutes AI Introduction to Material (00:02 - 10:01) 101 material is basic concepts needed for understanding 170 material. Students should know the basics well to write convincingly. If a topic is challenging, students are en...

Energy in Biology Notes created on January 28, 2025 at 10:07 AM by Minutes AI Introduction to Material (00:02 - 10:01) 101 material is basic concepts needed for understanding 170 material. Students should know the basics well to write convincingly. If a topic is challenging, students are encouraged to seek help during office hours. Energy in Biology Energy is defined as a molecule called adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Cells use ATP to perform work, such as transport work. Transport work requires energy to move substances against their concentration Example of Energy Use Classroom analogy: Classroom represents the cell, walls are the phospholipid bilayer, and doors are Molecules (students) cannot move in without energy. Energy is used to open gates for substance movement. ATP and Phosphorylation ATP consists of adenosine and three phosphates. When the last phosphate is released, ATP becomes adenosine diphosphate (ADP). The released phosphate attaches to molecules that need to do work, causing The process of attaching a phosphate to a molecule is called phosphorylation. Cellular Respiration These notes were taken with Minutes AI (https://myminutes.ai)  ATP is formed through cellular respiration, which is a lengthy process. Cells generate ATP by breaking down fuel molecules: Fuel molecules include monosaccharides, amino acids, and nucleotides. Eating living organisms means consuming DNA, as it is present in all living matter. Properties of Life (10:01 - 19:59) All living beings have DNA. When consuming plants and animals, one is essentially eating DNA. Nutritional Molecules Four essential molecules consumed: Proteins Sugars Nucleic acids Lipids Breakdown of these molecules: Sugars → monosaccharides Proteins → amino acids Lipids → triglycerides (glycerol and fatty acids) Digestion Process Body breaks down large molecules into monomers. Monomers can be absorbed through the intestinal wall into the blood. Types of monomers: Amino acids (from proteins) Monosaccharides (from sugars) These notes were taken with Minutes AI (https://myminutes.ai)  Nucleotides (from nucleic acids) Nucleotides Structure of a nucleotide: 5 carbon sugar Nitrogen base (A, T, C, G) Phosphate group Nucleotides are the monomers that make up nucleic acids. Nucleotide Structure (20:02 - 29:58) Nucleotide consists of three parts: Five carbon sugar Nitrogen base Phosphate group Five carbon sugars have a carbon backbone labeled as one prime to five prime. DNA Structure DNA is made up of two strands that are anti-parallel. A always bonds with T, and C always bonds with G. The structure forms a double helix. Energy and Nutrition Eating proteins, sugars, lipids, and nucleic acids provides energy. These molecules are digested into monomers. Monomers are absorbed into the blood and delivered to cells. ATP production is essential for cellular functions. These notes were taken with Minutes AI (https://myminutes.ai) Genetics Chromatin is the form of DNA when the cell is not dividing. Chromosomes are condensed DNA molecules during cell division. Humans have 46 chromosomes in each cell. Chromosomes (30:04 - 40:03) Human chromosomes are homologous. Homologous chromosomes are two members of a pair that are the same size, They carry the same genes (e.g., eye color, finger length). Humans have 46 chromosomes, which means 23 pairs. 23 pairs result from 23 paternal and 23 maternal chromosomes. Karyotype A karyotype is a picture of chromosomes arranged in pairs. It helps to identify individual chromosomes and their condition. The process of creating a karyotype used to involve cutting and pasting chromosomes. Now, it is typically done using computers. Genetic Contribution Each parent contributes one chromosome to each pair. One chromosome is paternal, and one is maternal. Dominant genes are expressed, while recessive genes may not be. This can result in offspring resembling one parent more than the other. Genetic Disorders X-linked conditions can affect offspring differently based on the parent's sex. These notes were taken with Minutes AI (https://myminutes.ai)  Sons are more likely to express X-linked disorders if the mother carries the The type of sperm that fertilizes the egg determines the expression of the condition. An X sperm may not express the condition, while a Y sperm may lead to Genes and Traits Genes are units of instruction that influence traits. Traits are characteristics influenced by parts of DNA. Examples include genes for eye color and finger length. Each gene corresponds to a specific trait in an individual. Genes and Alleles (40:04 - 50:01) Genes are parts of DNA that influence characteristics. Defined as units of instruction that influence particular traits. Locus refers to the physical location of a gene on a chromosome. Example: Flower color gene influences flower color. Comes in two forms: red and white alleles. Alleles Alleles are alternative forms of a gene. Same gene but different forms. Alleles always come in pairs. One allele on one homologous chromosome and the other on the other Dominance and Genotype Dominant and recessive alleles. Red is dominant; white is recessive. These notes were taken with Minutes AI (https://myminutes.ai)  Genotype representation. Use capital R for dominant (red) and lowercase r for recessive (white). Example: Red, red = RR; Red, white = Rr. Phenotype Phenotype is the external manifestation of the genotype. What is seen with the naked eye. Example: Plant height gene has two alleles: tall (dominant) and short (recessive). A phenotypically tall plant could have genotypes TT or Tt. Genotype and Phenotype (50:02 - 59:59) A plant that is phenotypically dwarf has a genotype of lowercase d. If a plant expresses a recessive phenotype, its genotype is 100% known to be recessive. Phenotypically dominant individuals have uncertain genotypes; they could be Homozygous individuals have two similar alleles; heterozygous individuals have two Alleles and Their Types Homozygous dominant: both alleles are the same and dominant (e.g., big R, big R). Homozygous recessive: both alleles are the same and recessive (e.g., little r, little r). Heterozygous: one dominant and one recessive allele (e.g., big R, little r). Phenotypic Expression A homozygous dominant individual will phenotypically be red. A heterozygous individual will also phenotypically be red. A homozygous recessive individual will phenotypically express the recessive trait. Cell Types These notes were taken with Minutes AI (https://myminutes.ai)  Diploid cells have two chromosomes of each type (2n). Haploid cells have one chromosome of each type (n). Sperm and egg cells are haploid (n), while the zygote is diploid (2n). Chromosome Definitions A diploid cell has two chromosomes of each type, totaling 46 chromosomes in humans. A haploid cell has one chromosome of each type, totaling 23 chromosomes. Chromatids are not the same as chromosomes; terminology must be used correctly to Haploid and Gametes (1:00:01 - 1:09:56) Only two haploid cells exist: sperm and egg. Sperm is the male gamete; egg is the female gamete. Gametes are also called sex cells. Sex vs. Gender Sex refers to biological characteristics. Includes hormonal profile, number of chromosomes, and organs. Gender refers to social roles and does not have to align with sex. Somatic and Germ Cells Somatic cells are body cells (2n = 46). Examples include liver, heart, skin, and muscle cells. Germ cells are found in gonads (sex organs). Male gonads: testes; female gonads: ovaries. Germ cells are diploid (2n = 46). Chromosome Duplication These notes were taken with Minutes AI (https://myminutes.ai)  One DNA molecule becomes a chromosome when the cell divides. A duplicated chromosome consists of two attached DNA molecules. Mistake: calling duplicated chromosomes "two chromosomes." A duplicated chromosome is still one chromosome with two sister chromatids. Chromosome Structure and Duplication (1:09:57 - 1:19:53) One chromosome in an unduplicated state has one DNA molecule. During cell division, the DNA molecule produces an exact copy. In a carrot type, there are 23 pairs of duplicated chromosomes. 2n equals 46 chromosomes. Chromosome Count and Types In a duplicated state, chromosomes appear as pairs. Example: 3 pairs of duplicated chromosomes equal 6 chromosomes. The chromosome number remains constant during cell division. 2n equals 46 remains the same. Types of Cells Definitions: Diploid: Two chromosomes of each type. Haploid: One chromosome of each type. Example of a haploid cell: 1 chromosome of fat type and 1 chromosome of thin type. Duplicated vs. Unduplicated Chromosomes Duplicated chromosomes have a centromere holding sister chromatids together. These notes were taken with Minutes AI (https://myminutes.ai)  Example: 2 chromosomes in a duplicated state have 4 DNA molecules. Unduplicated chromosomes do not have a centromere. Example: 3 types of chromosomes with one of each type are haploid. Study Tips Use tips and tricks to remember material effectively. Information should flow easily during exams without needing to think. Group Activity (1:19:55 - 1:29:51) Form a group of four students to introduce themselves. Discuss traits such as hair color, eye color, and their relation to chromosomes. Chromosomes can be in the form of chromatin (unwound) or condensed Genes are located on chromosomes, with alleles representing different varieties Genetic Terms Allele vs. Gene Alleles are different varieties of a gene (e.g., pigment color). A gene is the coding for traits, while the allele shows the trait. Dominant and Recessive Traits Dominant traits are expressed (e.g., red flower color). Recessive traits are not expressed unless both alleles are recessive. Cell Division Definition of Cell Division Cells divide into two cells; the dividing cell is called the parent cell. Resulting cells are called daughter cells. These notes were taken with Minutes AI (https://myminutes.ai)  Types of Cells Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus; prokaryotic cells do not have a membrane-bound Eukaryotic cells undergo mitosis and meiosis for cell division. Mitosis Process Steps of Mitosis The nucleus divides first, resulting in two daughter nuclei. Cytoplasmic division occurs after nuclear division. Nucleus and DNA Duplication (1:29:52 - 1:39:48) The nucleus device produces daughter nuclear forms. In a human cell, there are 46 DNA molecules. Each DNA molecule nucleates, resulting in 92 DNA molecules. 46 DNA molecules are given to each daughter cell. DNA duplication is crucial for maintaining chromosome number across generations. Chromatin and Writing Tips One chromosome is equivalent to one DNA molecule. Sister chromatids are the two copies of a duplicated chromosome. Chromatin is the long, thin, thread-like form of DNA when the cell is not dividing. Writing requires practice and multiple drafts for clarity. Cell Cycle The cell cycle encompasses everything from cell production to division. Phases include interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis. Interphase consists of three stages: G1, S, and G2. These notes were taken with Minutes AI (https://myminutes.ai)  G1 is the first gap interval. S is the synthesis phase where DNA is duplicated. G2 is the second gap interval before mitosis. Mitosis Mitosis is defined as nuclear division. Spindle fibers pull sister chromatids apart during mitosis. Mitosis Overview (1:39:48 - 1:49:48) Nuclear division process called mitosis. Divided into prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase. After telophase, nuclear division is complete. Results in two daughter nuclei inside the parent cell. Cytokinesis occurs after mitosis. Cytoplasm divides into two cells. Mitosis vs. Meiosis Mitosis occurs in diploid cells. Produces two daughter cells with the same chromosome number as the parent. Meiosis is for sex cells. Produces gametes with half the chromosome number. Cell Cycle Cell cycle consists of interphase and mitosis. Interphase includes G1, S, and G2 phases. Mnemonic for mitosis phases: "I Feed On The Mat." These notes were taken with Minutes AI (https://myminutes.ai)  I = Interphase, P = Prophase, M = Metaphase, A = Anaphase, T = Telophase, C = Functions of Mitosis Mitosis is used for growth and repair. Growth occurs until around age 18 in humans. Repair of tissues, such as skin and bones. Damaged cells undergo mitosis to heal. Characteristics of Mitosis 2N mother cell divides to produce two genetically identical daughter cells. Daughter cells are clones of the parent cell. Chromosome number is maintained. Example: If 2N = 46 for the parent, then each daughter cell will also be 2N = 46. Chromosomes and Genes (1:49:50 - 1:59:42) Chromosomes are labeled for tracking. Yellow six (Y6), red six (R6), yellow four (Y4), red four (R4), red two (R2), yellow Number of chromosomes in G1: six. Each chromosome made up of one DNA molecule. Half genetic complement is paternal, half is maternal. Diploid vs. Haploid Cell type determination. Two chromosomes of each type indicate diploid. Example: Two N equals six (2N = 6). Homologous Chromosomes These notes were taken with Minutes AI (https://myminutes.ai)  Definition: Two members of a pair of chromosomes of the same size and shape carrying One is paternal, one is maternal. Cell Cycle Stages G1 Phase Cell is resting but conducting cellular respiration. S Phase DNA duplication occurs; each DNA makes an exact copy. Mitosis Phases Prophase Nuclear membrane disintegrates. Nucleolus disappears. Chromosomes condense. Centrioles duplicate and move to opposite poles. Metaphase Chromosomes align in the middle (metaphase plate). Spindle fibers attach to centromeres. Anaphase and Telophase Anaphase Sister chromatids are pulled apart by spindle fibers. Once separated, they are called chromosomes. Telophase Marks arrival of chromosomes at either pole. Nuclear membrane reforms; nucleolus reappears. These notes were taken with Minutes AI (https://myminutes.ai) Mitosis (1:59:42 - 2:09:35) Nucleolus reappears, spindle fibers disintegrate. Chromosomes become long, thin, and thread-like. At the end of telophase, two daughter nuclei are formed. Cytokinesis occurs, resulting in two daughter cells. Meiosis Mother cell (2N6) undergoes meiosis to produce four daughter cells. Daughter cells have half the number of chromosomes (N). Germ cells undergo meiosis to produce gametes. Germ cells are reproductive organ cells (testes and ovaries). Germ cells also undergo mitosis for repair. Differences Between Mitosis and Meiosis Mitosis produces two genetically identical daughter cells. Meiosis involves two rounds: meiosis 1 and meiosis 2. Meiosis 1 reduces chromosome number to half. Meiosis 2 produces four cells from two haploid cells. Interphase and Meiosis Stages Interphase consists of G1, S, and G2 phases. In S phase, each DNA molecule produces an exact copy. Meiosis 1 includes prophase 1, metaphase 1, anaphase 1, telophase 1, and cytokinesis 1. Prophase 1 includes synapsis and crossing over. Bivalent Structure (2:09:35 - 2:19:29) These notes were taken with Minutes AI (https://myminutes.ai)  Formed after synapses, called a bivalent or tetrad. Consists of two homologous chromosomes or four sister chromatids. Prophase 1 in Meiosis Occurs only in meiosis, not mitosis. Homologous chromosomes pair with their homologs. Crossing over occurs between non-sister chromatids. Exchange of chromosomal segments leads to gene shuffling. Important for variation and survival of the species. Importance of Variation Variation is key to success and survival. More varied species can adapt better to changing environments. Homogeneity increases chances of extinction. Events in Prophase 1 Seven events occur: Disintegration of the nuclear membrane. Shortening, thickening, and condensing of chromosomes. Duplication of centrioles and formation of spindle fibers. Meiosis 1 Outcomes Results in two haploid cells. Cells are haploid but in a duplicated state. Chromosome number is halved. Meiosis 2 Overview These notes were taken with Minutes AI (https://myminutes.ai)  No interphase between meiosis 1 and meiosis 2. Prophase 2 begins immediately after meiosis 1. Similar to mitosis: Nuclear membrane disintegrates, nucleolus disappears. Final Stages of Meiosis 2 Sister chromatids separate during anaphase 2. Telophase 2 results in: Nuclear membrane reforms, nucleolus reappears. Chromosomes become long, thin, and thread-like. Meiosis Overview (2:19:31 - 2:29:29) Starts with a diploid germ cell. Undergoes meiosis 1 to produce two haploid daughter cells. Undergoes meiosis 2 to produce four unduplicated cells. Each cell has a unique genetic identity. "Each sperm that is made has its own characteristics." Spermatogenesis Process of sperm formation. Involves one testis cell (2n = 46) undergoing meiosis 1. Results in two haploid cells (n = 23), which then undergo meiosis 2 to yield four Continuous process starting at puberty. "Every day, 3 million cells in the testes start the process." Takes 74 days for sperm to be formed. Oogenesis These notes were taken with Minutes AI (https://myminutes.ai)  Process of egg formation. Involves one ovary cell (2n = 46) undergoing meiosis 1. Results in one large cell (n = 23) and one small cell (first polar body). Unequal cytoplasmic division. First polar body is reabsorbed. Secondary oocyte is released during ovulation. Key Differences Between Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis Spermatogenesis produces four functional sperm from one testis cell. Oogenesis produces one functional egg and two polar bodies from one ovary cell. "In oogenesis, you get only one functional gamete, one egg." Timing and Arrest in Oogenesis Oogenesis begins when the female is a 5-month-old fetus. Primary oocytes are arrested at prophase 1 of meiosis 1 at birth. Resumption of meiosis occurs around ages 13-14. Secondary oocyte is arrested at metaphase 2 during ovulation. Fate of the Secondary Oocyte Released into the fallopian tube. Waits 24 hours for sperm. If no sperm is present, the secondary oocyte is directed into the uterus. Along with the uterine lining, it is shed. Ovulation and Fertilization (2:29:30 - 2:39:29) Occurs once every 28 days. These notes were taken with Minutes AI (https://myminutes.ai)  Egg released; secondary oocyte arrested at Metaphase 2. Sperm contact prompts completion of meiosis. Secondary oocyte finishes meiosis, becomes the egg. Sperm enters egg, fertilization occurs. Fertilized egg remains in fallopian tubes for about 72 hours. Directed into the uterus and attaches to the endometrium. Undergoes mitosis as a zygote. Misconceptions About Menstruation and Ovulation Shedding of the endometrium does not equate to ovulation. Hormonal imbalances can lead to confusion. Ovulation is the release of the egg, not the shedding of the lining. Shedding is just the bloody lining of the uterus. Class Instructions Take a 10-minute break. Work on mitosis and meiosis diagrams. Suggested to start with mitosis, then proceed to meiosis. Instructor available for assistance during work period. Friendship and Locations (2:39:29 - 2:49:19) Speaker mentions having two friends from Seattle. Seattle is referred to as "wazoo." University of Washington is mentioned as "the dogs." Speaker is originally from Southern California. Specifically from San Fernando area, not Fullerton. These notes were taken with Minutes AI (https://myminutes.ai)  Mentions Ventura and issues with fires in the area. Mitosis Discussion Starting with mitosis, need to draw on paper. Requires two red six and two yellow six. Number of chromosomes is confirmed as six. Number of DNA also confirmed as six. Discusses G1 phase and maternal DNA. Discussion on Duplication and Structure (2:50:13 - 3:00:08) There are not two that form on the other side. Duplicates are present here. In the next stage, they pull on them. Arms are positioned in the equatorial region. Personal Perspective The speaker mentions a professional coach. The speaker's daughter-in-law was paid for something. This relates to a body perspective. Building is described as minute by minute. Daily Scheduling (3:00:13 - 3:10:00) Trying to schedule the day hour by hour. Goal for the semester is to improve time management. Aims to be better for family while staying committed. Coaching and Football These notes were taken with Minutes AI (https://myminutes.ai)  Excited about the new coach, Pete Carroll. Described as a "player's coach" and "real smooth, energetic." Teaches part-time at USC while coaching the Raiders. Personal Life Met spouse in 2014 and married in 2016. Encountered spouse while she was volunteering for a church. Biology Questions Discussed phases of cell division. Identified phase with bivalence aligned in the equator as metaphase 1. Clarified types of cells produced in meiosis. N = 5 cells are gametes, not somatic or germ cells. Explained when spermatogenesis and oogenesis occur. Spermatogenesis stops at puberty; oogenesis starts at five months fetal Class Registration Status (3:10:27 - 3:10:42) Currently waitlisted for the class. If not this semester, then possibly next semester. These notes were taken with Minutes AI (https://myminutes.ai)