Science 10 Notes PDF

Aesthetic Notes NOT E ! RESE L L I N G M Y NOT ES I S NOT A LL O W E D! ! I F T HE Y W A N T T HI S N OT ES, K IND L Y R E FE R T H EM T O MY P AG E. N AM E : @ A C A D EMI CEASE ON I N STA G RA M  Made by: @academicease on Instagram Unit 1: Lesson 1 Lesson 1: Plate Tec...

Aesthetic Notes NOT E ! RESE L L I N G M Y NOT ES I S NOT A LL O W E D! ! I F T HE Y W A N T T HI S N OT ES, K IND L Y R E FE R T H EM T O MY P AG E. N AM E : @ A C A D EMI CEASE ON I N STA G RA M  Made by: @academicease on Instagram Unit 1: Lesson 1 Lesson 1: Plate Tectonics Plate Tectonics Evidence Supporting the Continental Drift Theory 1. The coastlines of the continents fit together like puzzle pieces. 2. Identical fossils of organisms were found on different continents, suggesting a past land connection. 3. Certain continents share common geological features, such as mountain ranges, rock types, minerals, and resources. Continental Drift Alfred Wegener (1880-1930) He proposed the Continental Drift Hypothesis. A German meteorologist and geophysicist, he observed the Continental Drift puzzle-like fit of the continents. Plate Tectonics The concept of "Plate tectonics" revolutionized the understanding of Earth's surface, revealing it to be a dynamic structure composed of several tectonic plates. There are two types of plates: Oceanic Plate: Found beneath the ocean, it is thin and dense, mainly composed of basalt. Continental Plate: Thicker than oceanic plates but less dense, mainly composed of granite. Principles of Plate Tectonics: Formulated in the 1960s. According to this theory, Earth's rigid outer layer, known as the lithosphere, floats on the partially molten asthenosphere. Interactions at plate boundaries, including convergence, divergence, and transform faulting, are responsible for seismic and volcanic activity.  Made by: @academicease on Instagram Plate Tectonics Plate boundaries are the places where two or more tectonic plates meet and interact. Tectonic plates are large sections of Earth’s crust and upper mantle that move slowly over time. Plate boundaries are important because they are often associated with earthquakes, volcanoes, mountains, and ocean trenches. Hot Spots Three types of Plate Boundaries Hot spots are intensely hot areas Divergent Boundaries in the mantle beneath Earth's crust. Are areas where two plates are moving apart from each other, Heat from deep within the planet creating new seafloor as magma rises from the mantle. causes the mantle in these regions An example of a divergent boundary is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. to melt and rise as molten magma, forming volcanoes. While hot spots remain fixed, Convergent boundaries (destructive plate margins or subduction zones) tectonic plates move above them, Are areas where two plates are moving towards each other, resulting resulting in the formation of in one plate diving underneath another or both plates crumpling up. chains of extinct volcanoes. An example of Convergent Boundaries is the Himalayas. Transform fault boundaries (conservative plate margins) Are areas where two plates are sliding past each other horizontally, causing friction and earthquakes. An example of Transform fault boundaries is the San Andreas Fault. Driving Forces of Plate Motion Convection: Heat transfer involving the movement of substances due to density changes. Mantle drag: Convective flow of the mantle exerts a dragging force on the plates. Slab pull: Denser lithosphere sinks into the asthenosphere, pulling the trailing slabs of lithosphere. Ridge push: Higher elevation of ridges along divergent boundaries causes the lithosphere to slide downward.  Made by: @academicease on Instagram Plate Boundaries Seismic and volcanic activities indicate plate movement and interactions along boundaries. Plate margins were initially determined by mapping earthquake and volcanic activity worldwide. Plate boundaries are active regions where most seismic and volcanic activities occur. Earthquakes result from the friction between moving plates. Tsunamis are generated by the displacement of a large volume of ocean water due to fault movement. Volcanic activity occurs when energy is released by near-surface or surface magma movement. Lesson 2 Lesson 2: Climate Change Climate Change Human Impact on Global Climate Global Warming: The long-term increase in the planet's overall temperature. The pace of global warming has accelerated in the last century due to the burning of fossil fuels, which has increased with the growing human population. Greenhouse Gases & Greenhouse Effect: The greenhouse effect occurs when solar radiation penetrates the atmosphere but is trapped by gases, preventing heat from escaping back into space. Gases produced by burning fossil fuels, such as carbon dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons, water vapor, methane, and nitrous oxide, contribute to the greenhouse effect. The excess heat trapped in the atmosphere leads to global warming, causing the average global temperature to rise.  Made by: @academicease on Instagram Lesson 3 Lesson 3: The Universe and Beyond Universe Galaxies Galaxies are vast systems of dust, gas, dark matter, and stars held together by gravity. The Milky Way alone has approximately 100 to 400 billion stars orbiting around Sagittarius A, a supermassive black hole with a mass equivalent to four million suns. Large galaxies often contain supermassive black holes at their centers, including the Milky Way. The observable universe is estimated to contain two trillion to two million galaxies, some similar to the Milky Way and others distinct. 3 types of Galaxies 1. Spiral Galaxies Spiral galaxies have a spinning disk with a central bulge and spiral arms. The spinning motion gives the disk a spiral shape, resembling a cosmic pinwheel. The Milky Way is a spiral galaxy with a central bar-shaped region. 2. Elliptical Galaxies Elliptical galaxies are generally round but can stretch longer along one axis, appearing cigar-shaped. Giant elliptical galaxies can contain up to a trillion stars and span two million light-years. They contain mainly older stars and less interstellar matter, orbiting the galactic center in random directions. New star formation is rare in elliptical galaxies, and they are commonly found in galaxy clusters. 3. Irregular Galaxies Irregular galaxies, like the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds, lack a distinct shape due to gravitational influences from nearby galaxies. These galaxies are rich in gas and dust, making them fertile regions for star formation. Galaxies in clusters often interact and merge, leading to phenomena like rapid star formation. In approximately 4.5 billion years, our Milky Way may merge with the Andromeda galaxy.  Made by: @academicease on Instagram Lesson 4 Lesson 4: The Big Bang Big Bang Big Bang Theory Proposed by Georges Lemaitre (1894-1966). The Big Bang Theory explains the origin of the universe, stating that it began as an infinitely hot and dense singularity. Following the initial expansion, the universe continued to expand over 13.8 billion years, leading to its current state. Origin of the Universe Cosmology is a branch of astronomy that explores the origin and evolution of the universe, from the Big Bang to the present and future. It involves the scientific study of the large-scale properties of the universe as a whole. Various theories and beliefs exist regarding the origin and fate of the universe. Big Crunch: A hypothetical gravitational contraction that would compress the universe back to its high energy and density state before the Big Bang. Big Rip: A hypothetical cosmological event where matter loses cohesion due to continued outward acceleration, possibly leading to the universe's dissolution. Open Universe: The universe would continue expanding at an ever-increasing rate.  Made by: @academicease on Instagram Unit 2: Lesson 1 Lesson 1: Electromagnetic Waves Electromagnetic Waves Electromagnetic Waves Electric and magnetic fields resemble EM waves. Electromagnetic waves are a form of energy that can transfer from one place to another without matter. Electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light in a vacuum, which is about 300,000 kilometers per second. Electromagnetic waves can be reflected, refracted, diffracted, polarized, and interfered by different materials and objects. Electromagnetic waves have both particle-like and wave-like properties, depending on how they are observed and measured. Electromagnetic Spectrum Radio: These are the longest waves with the lowest frequencies. They are used for communication, broadcasting, and navigation. Stars and space gases can also emit radio waves. Microwave: These are shorter than radio waves but longer than infrared waves. They are used for cooking, radar, and cellular phones. Microwave radiation can also reveal the structure of nearby galaxies. Infrared: These are shorter than microwaves but longer than visible light. They are emitted by warm objects and can be detected by night vision devices. Infrared light can also help map the dust between stars. Visible Light: These are the waves that our eyes can see. They have different colors depending on their wavelengths, from red (Longest) to violet (Shortest). Visible light is emitted by fireflies, light bulbs, and stars. Ultraviolet: These are shorter than visible light but longer than X-rays. They are emitted by the Sun and can cause skin tans and burns. Ultraviolet light can also reveal hot objects in space. X-ray: These are shorter than ultraviolet light but longer than gamma rays. They can penetrate through many materials and are used for medical imaging and security scanning. X-ray radiation can also show hot gases in the Universe. Gamma ray: These are the shortest waves with the highest frequencies. They are produced by nuclear reactions and cosmic events. Gamma rays can be used for medical treatments and imaging. Gamma rays can also probe the most extreme phenomena in the Universe.  Made by: @academicease on Instagram Lesson 2 Lesson 2: Mirrors and Lenses Mirrors and Lenses Mirrors and lenses form images due to the propagation of light. Reflection: Mirrors create images through reflection. Refraction: Lenses produce images through refraction. Plane Mirror Mirrors create images through reflection. Plane mirrors produce images that resemble the reflected objects. The images appear to be located as far behind the mirror as the objects are in front. Plane mirrors exhibit a reversal effect where the left side of the object appears as the right side of the image, and vice versa. Incident rays move toward the mirror surface. Reflected rays move away from the mirror surface. The image formed by a plane mirror is virtual, as it appears to exist within the mirror but has no physical presence. Curved Mirror A curved mirror is a mirror with a surface that forms a section of a sphere. Curved mirrors can be concave or convex. Convex mirrors have a reflecting surface on the outer part of the sphere and are known as diverging mirrors. Concave mirrors have a reflecting surface on the inner part of the sphere and are known as converging mirrors.  Made by: @academicease on Instagram Image Formation by Concave Mirrors The formation of an image in a concave mirror depends on the object's position in front of the mirror. Image Formation by Convex Mirrors A convex mirror always produces a virtual, erect, and smaller image compared to the object. The image size increases as the object gets closer to the mirror, but it can never be as large as the object itself. A virtual image is formed when divergent reflected rays appear to meet behind the mirror. Lenses A lens is a transparent object with two curved surfaces that are either nonparallel or one curved and one plane. Lenses in optics are used to focus light rays from an object and form an image. They are typically circular and have two polished surfaces. There are two types of lenses: Convex Lenses Convex lenses are thicker in the middle than at the edges. They are called converging lenses because parallel rays of light passing through the lens converge at the real focus. Concave Lenses Concave lenses are thinner in the middle and thicker at the edges. They are called diverging lenses because parallel incident rays diverge after passing through the lens. The center of the lens is known as the optical center. Image Formation by Concave Lenses Concave lenses, like convex mirrors, create virtual, upright, and smaller images. The image is formed on the same side of the lens as the object. Image Formation by Convex Lenses Convex lenses, similar to concave mirrors, can produce real and virtual images. Human Eye The lens of the human eye is the most significant lens. It is an organ that responds to light, enabling light perception, color vision, and depth perception. A normal human eye can distinguish about 10 million different colors. The human eye's lens is a flexible, double convex structure that focuses light onto the retina. Accommodation refers to the eye's ability to focus on close objects and the refractive ability of the cornea and the eye's fluids to bend light rays. A normal eye has clear vision of objects at a distance of 25 cm and can focus on objects 50 m away when the lenses are fully relaxed.  Made by: @academicease on Instagram Lesson 3 Lesson 3: Equilibrium and Stability Equilibrium and Stability Equilibrium Equilibrium is a state where opposing forces or actions are balanced, with neither being stronger or greater than the other. An object is in equilibrium when there are no net influences causing it to move. Equilibrium is characterized by a balance or stable situation where opposing forces nullify each other, resulting in no changes occurring. Line of Action of a Force The equilibrium of an object depends not only on the magnitude of acting forces but also on the line of action of those forces. The line of action of a force is an extended line aligned with the force's direction. Parallel and Concurrent Forces Parallel forces have lines of action that are parallel to each other. Concurrent forces have lines of action that meet at a common point. Translational Equilibrium An object is in translational equilibrium when the sum of all external forces acting on it is zero. This also means that the object experiences zero overall acceleration. When the object is at rest, it is said to be in static translational equilibrium. The First Condition of Equilibrium applies Newton's first law of motion and further explains static translational equilibrium. It states that for a body to be in a state of static translational equilibrium, the net force must be zero. Rotational Equilibrium An object is in rotational equilibrium when its rotational velocity is constant. If an object is not rotating or rotates in one direction at a constant rate, it is considered to be in rotational equilibrium. To achieve rotational equilibrium, the net torque acting on the object must be zero. When an object stops rotating and remains at rest under certain conditions, it is in static rotational equilibrium. Torque, also known as the Moment of Force, measures the force's ability to cause rotation about an axis. The Second Condition of Equilibrium states that for a body to be in equilibrium, the sum of all torques about the axis of rotation must be zero.  Made by: @academicease on Instagram Stability Stability of an object describes its likelihood of returning to a state of equilibrium after a slight deviation. Center of Mass The center of mass is a point that represents the average location of the total mass of a system. Center of Gravity The center of gravity of a rigid body is the point where its weight is concentrated. Categories of stability are analyzed in terms of the center of gravity. Lesson 4 Lesson 4: Properties of Solids and Fluids Solids and Fluids Molecular Structure of Matter Solids have tightly bonded molecules and densely packed particles, limiting molecular motion. The intermolecular spaces in solids are too small for adjacent particles to slide past each other. Molecular motion in solids is restricted to slight vibrations, and solids cannot flow. This explains their rigidity and ability to retain their shapes and sizes. Liquids have molecules spaced farther apart compared to solids. The intermolecular spaces in liquids are larger, enabling molecules to slide past one another easily. Liquids can flow and take the shape of the container they occupy. Gases have molecules that are significantly more spread out than those of liquids. The large intermolecular spaces in gases allow gas particles to flow and move freely among one another. Like liquids, gases take the shape of the container they occupy.  Made by: @academicease on Instagram Compressibility Compressibility is the property of matter that allows molecules to be pressed closer together. Solids are not easily compressible, as excessive compression may result in their breaking. Liquids can experience slight compression when a force is applied, but their compressibility is minimal and negligible. Gases are highly compressible compared to liquids. Therefore, gases are considered the most compressible state of matter. Elasticity Elasticity refers to the ability of materials to change shape and size when subjected to external forces and regain their original shape and size when the applied force is removed. Strain measures the extent of change in size or deformation. Stress represents the amount of stretching force. Pressure Pressure is the force exerted by one body per unit area on another body. Atmospheric pressure refers to the pressure exerted by the Earth's atmosphere. Blood pressure is the pressure exerted by circulating blood on the walls of blood vessels, also known as arterial blood pressure. Specific Gravity Specific gravity is the ratio of a substance's density to the density of water at 4°C, also called relative density. Since specific gravity is a ratio, it is dimensionless. A material sinks in a liquid with lower specific gravity and floats in a liquid with higher specific gravity. Coins have higher specific gravity than water, causing them to sink. On the contrary, oil has lower specific gravity than water, causing it to float.  Made by: @academicease on Instagram Unit 3: Lesson 1 Lesson 1: Heredity, Biodiversity, and Evolution Heredity, Biodiversity, and Evolution Heredity The process by which genes convey genetic characteristics from parents to children Genes are segments of DNA that encode the instructions for making proteins Genes can have different forms or variants, called alleles, that affect the traits of an individual The combination of alleles that an individual inherits from its parents is called its genotype, while the observable traits that result from the genotype and the environment are called its phenotype Heredity follows certain rules and patterns, such as Mendel’s laws of segregation and independent assortment, which describe how alleles are separated and distributed during gamete formation and fertilization Biodiversity The variety of life on Earth at all levels, from genes to ecosystems Biodiversity includes the diversity of species, their genetic variation, their interactions, and their habitats Biodiversity is important for maintaining the health and functioning of ecosystems, providing ecosystem services such as food, water, oxygen, pollination, climate regulation, and cultural benefits Biodiversity is also a source of innovation, discovery, and economic opportunities Biodiversity is threatened by human activities such as habitat loss, overexploitation, pollution, invasive species, and climate change Evolution The gradual change in a population’s genetic and physical traits over time Evolution is driven by natural selection, which is the process by which individuals with adaptive traits that give them some advantage are more likely to survive and reproduce than others Evolution can also result from other mechanisms such as genetic drift, gene flow, and mutation Evolution can occur on different scales, from microevolution (Small-scale changes in gene frequencies within a population) to macroevolution (Large-scale changes that result in new species or groups) Evolution is supported by multiple lines of evidence, such as fossils, anatomy, molecular biology, biogeography, and direct observation  Made by: @academicease on Instagram Lesson 2 to 4 Lesson 2 to 4: Reproductive System, Nervous, and Endocrine Systems RNE Systems Reproductive System The system of organs and structures that enable sexual reproduction and the production of offspring The main reproductive organs are the gonads (Testes in males, ovaries in females) that produce gametes (Sperm and egg cells) and sex hormones The reproductive system also includes accessory organs and ducts that store, transport, and nourish the gametes, such as the epididymis, vas deferens, prostate gland, seminal vesicles, and penis in males, and the fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix, vagina, and clitoris in females The reproductive system is regulated by the nervous and endocrine systems, which control the onset of puberty, the menstrual cycle, ovulation, fertilization, pregnancy, and childbirth The reproductive system is also involved in sexual behavior, attraction, pleasure, and bonding Nervous System The system of cells, tissues, and organs that coordinates the body’s responses to internal and external stimuli The main components of the nervous system are the neurons (Nerve cells) that transmit electrical signals (Action potentials) and chemical signals (Neurotransmitters) across synapses (Junctions between neurons) The nervous system is divided into two major parts: the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS) The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord, which process sensory information, control voluntary and involuntary actions, and regulate higher cognitive functions such as memory, learning, emotion, and reasoning The PNS consists of the nerves that connect the CNS to the rest of the body, and is further subdivided into the somatic nervous system (Which controls voluntary movements) and the autonomic nervous system (Which controls involuntary functions such as heart rate, digestion, and breathing) The nervous system interacts with the endocrine system to maintain homeostasis (A stable internal environment) and to adapt to changing conditions Endocrine System The system of glands and tissues that secrete hormones (Chemical messengers) into the bloodstream or intercellular fluid to regulate various physiological processes The main endocrine glands are the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, pineal gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, thymus gland, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries (In females), and testes (In males) The hormones produced by these glands affect growth, development, metabolism, reproduction, mood, sleep- wake cycle, stress response, immune function, and more The endocrine system works in conjunction with the nervous system to coordinate the body’s activities and responses to stimuli The endocrine system is regulated by feedback mechanisms that involve receptors that detect hormone levels and signal the glands to increase or decrease hormone secretion accordingly  Made by: @academicease on Instagram Unit 4: Lesson 1 Lesson 1: Particles on the Move Particles on the Move The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Matter The KMT is a scientific theory that elucidates the behavior of matter's constituent particles. The KMT consists of the following postulates: a. Matter comprises minuscule, indivisible particles in constant motion, namely atoms, molecules, and ions. b. The particles are perpetually in motion, with their speed increasing as the temperature rises. c. Particles of different substances possess distinct sizes. d. Heavier particles move more slowly than lighter ones at a given temperature. Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases Since there are numerous gas particles, statistical principles apply. Gas particles are minute and widely dispersed. Gas particles exhibit continuous, random motion. There is no attraction or repulsion between particles. Collisions between particles are elastic.  Made by: @academicease on Instagram Lesson 2 to 5 Lesson 2 to 5: The Gas Laws The Gas Laws Boyle's Law: Varying Pressure and Volume at Charles's Law: Varying Temperature and Volume Constant Temperature at Constant Pressure In the 17th century, the English scientist The relationship between volume and Robert Boyle investigated the relationship temperature of a gas at constant pressure was between pressure and volume of a gas using a studied by the French scientists Jacques J-shaped tube apparatus. Charles and Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac. His findings revealed that doubling the Their research revealed that, when pressure is amount of mercury with a fixed quantity of gas held constant, a gas sample expands when leads to halving the gas volume, and tripling heated and contracts when cooled. the amount of mercury reduces the gas volume Lord Kelvin identified -273.15 °C or 0 K as the to one-third, and so on. theoretically lowest temperature attainable in The pressure exerted on the gas increases as 1848, known as absolute zero. mercury is added, while the gas volume At absolute zero, the volume of a gas decreases, as predicted by Boyle. theoretically becomes zero. Boyle's Law states that, at constant As the temperature increases, the volume also temperature, the volume of a given amount of increases proportionally to the absolute gas is inversely proportional to the gas temperature. pressure. Charles's Law states that the volume of a fixed amount of gas at constant pressure is directly Formula: proportional to the absolute temperature of the gas. Formula:  Made by: @academicease on Instagram Avogadro's Law: The Volume-Amount Gay-Lussac's Law: Varying Pressure and Relationship Temperature at Constant Volume Amedeo Avogadro became renowned for his Gay-Lussac's Law states that the pressure of a work complementing the studies conducted by gas is directly proportional to its temperature Boyle, Charles, and Gay-Lussac. at constant volume and number of moles of Avogadro concluded that, at the same the gas. temperature and pressure, equal volumes of Discovered by Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac. different gases contain an equal number of molecules. Formula: Avogadro's law can be stated as follows: At constant pressure and temperature, the volume of a gas is directly proportional to the number of moles of gas present. Avogadro's Law states that, at the same temperature and pressure, equal volumes of different gases contain an equal number of moles. Formula:  Made by: @academicease on Instagram Lesson 6 Lesson 6: Chemical Reactions Chemical Reactions Representation of Chemical Reactions Word Equation: A word equation expresses a chemical reaction using words instead of chemical formulas. It should mention the reactants (Starting materials), products (End materials), and direction of the reaction, allowing for the writing of a chemical equation. Skeleton Equation: A skeletal chemical equation represents a chemical reaction using chemical formulae of the reactants and products. Chemical Reactions Everywhere In a chemical change, new substances form as the chemical bonds of the original substances break. The atoms comprising them separate and rearrange to form new substances with new chemical bonds. This process is known as a chemical reaction. A chemical reaction is the transformation of one or more substances into one or more new substances. A chemical equation provides a written description of what occurs in a chemical reaction. The reactants (Starting materials) are listed on the left side of the equation. An arrow indicates the direction of the reaction. The products (Substances formed) are listed on the right side of the equation. Evidence of Chemical Reactions Most chemical reactions exhibit observable signs, although some may be challenging to detect. There are five indicators of a chemical change: a. Color Change b. Production of an Odor c. Change of Temperature d. Evolution of Gas (Formation of bubbles) e. Precipitate (Formation of a solid) The Law of Conservation of Mass The law of conservation of mass states that mass is neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction. For instance, when coal burns, the carbon atom converts into carbon dioxide. The carbon atom changes from a solid structure to a gas, but its mass remains unchanged.