Science 10 - Biomolecules Handouts PDF

COLLEGE OF SAN BENILD-RIZAL FOUNDATION, INC. Sumulong Highway, Antipolo City HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT School Year 2024 - 2025 HANDOUT IN SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 10 Bi...

COLLEGE OF SAN BENILD-RIZAL FOUNDATION, INC. Sumulong Highway, Antipolo City HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT School Year 2024 - 2025 HANDOUT IN SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 10 Biomolecules of Life Name: _____________________________________________ Gr. & Sec.: ________________________ Objectives: Identify the four major types of biomolecules: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Describe the basic structure and function of each type of biomolecule. Explain how the structure of a biomolecule relates to its function in biological systems. Explore how abnormalities in biomolecules can lead to diseases. Study the role of biomolecules in nutrition and health. Investigate current research on biomolecules and their potential therapeutic applications. Biomolecules What are Biomolecules? These are the most essential organic molecules involved in living organisms' maintenance and metabolic processes. These non-living molecules are the actual foot soldiers of the battle of sustenance of life. It ranges from small molecules such as primary and secondary metabolites and hormones to large macromolecules like proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, lipids etc. Biomolecules are fundamental components of all living organisms, and essential for various biological processes. They can be classified into four main categories: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. These biomolecules interact in intricate ways to sustain life, enabling organisms to grow, reproduce, and respond to their environment. The Biomolecules of Life | Page 01  The Biomolecules of Life All biomolecules share in common a fundamental relationship between structure and function, which is influenced by factors such as the environment in which a given biomolecule occurs. Carbohydrates Are macronutrients and are one of the three main ways by which our body obtains its energy. They are called carbohydrates as they comprise carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen at their chemical level. Carbohydrates are essential nutrients which include sugars, fibers, and starches. They are found in grains, vegetables, fruits and in milk and other dairy products. They are the basic food groups which play an important role in a healthy life. Carbohydrates are one of the essential biomolecules of life, playing a crucial role in our bodies and the world around us. They are often referred to as “sugars” and “starches,” and they provide the primary source of energy for our cells. What Are Carbohydrates? Carbohydrates are organic compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. They are classified into three main types: Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates, consisting of single sugar molecules like glucose and fructose. Disaccharides are formed when two monosaccharides join together. Common examples include sucrose (table sugar) and lactose (found in milk). Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates made up of long chains of monosaccharides. Examples include starch (found in plants) and glycogen (stored in animals). The Biomolecules of Life | Page 02  Monosaccharides Monosaccharides, often referred to as simple sugars, are the most basic form of carbohydrates. They are the building blocks for more complex carbohydrates like disaccharides and polysaccharides. Types of Monosaccharides Glucose: Often referred to as blood sugar, it’s a primary energy source for cells. Fructose: Found in fruits and honey, it’s the sweetest of the natural sugars. Galactose: Less sweet, it combines with glucose to form lactose in milk. Biological Importance Energy Production: Monosaccharides are crucial for cellular respiration, providing energy for cellular activities. Metabolic Pathways: They play a key role in various metabolic pathways, including glycolysis and the citric acid cycle. Absorption & Utilization Absorption: Monosaccharides are absorbed directly into the bloodstream from the small intestine. Utilization: Once absorbed, they can be used immediately for energy or stored as glycogen in the liver and muscles for later use. Health Implications Blood Sugar Levels: Glucose levels in the blood need to be regulated to prevent conditions like hyperglycemia and hypoglycemia. Dietary Sources: Natural sources of monosaccharides include fruits, vegetables, and honey. Processed foods often contain added sugars, which can impact health. Discussion Points 1. How do different monosaccharides affect blood sugar levels? 2. What are the benefits of consuming natural sources of monosaccharides compared to processed sugars? 3. How does the body regulate blood sugar levels, and what happens when this regulation fails? The Biomolecules of Life | Page 03 Key Characterstics Structure: Monosaccharides have the general formula (CH₂O)ₙ where (n) can be 3 to 7. They typically consist of a single carbon chain with hydroxyl groups attached to each carbon except one, which forms a carbonyl group12. Types: Depending on the position of the carbonyl group, monosaccharides can be classified as aldoses (carbonyl group at the end) or ketoses (carbonyl group in the middle) Examples: Common monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose Functions Energy Production: Monosaccharides like glucose are crucial for energy production in cells. They are broken down during cellular respiration to release energy Structural Role: Some monosaccharides form long chains that contribute to the structural components of cells, such as cellulose in plants Monosaccharides are essential for various biological processes, making them fundamental to life. Disaccharides Disaccharides are sugars composed of two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic bond. Common examples include sucrose, lactose, and maltose. Types of Disaccharides Sucrose: Made from glucose and fructose. It’s commonly known as table sugar. Lactose: Composed of glucose and galactose. Found in milk and dairy products. Maltose: Consists of two glucose molecules. It’s found in malt and is a product of starch digestion. The Biomolecules of Life | Page 04 Biological Importance Energy Source: Disaccharides are broken down into monosaccharides, which are then used by the body for energy. Digestive Health: Lactose, for example, is important for infants as it aids in calcium absorption and supports gut health. Enzymes Involved Sucrase: Breaks down sucrose into glucose and fructose. Lactase: Breaks down lactose into glucose and galactose. Lactase deficiency leads to lactose intolerance. Maltase: Breaks down maltose into two glucose molecules. Health Implications Lactose Intolerance is a common condition where the body lacks lactase, which leads to digestive issues when consuming dairy. Sugar Consumption: Excessive sucrose intake can lead to health issues like obesity, diabetes, and dental problems. Discussion Points 1. How do different disaccharides impact our health? 2. What are the benefits and drawbacks of consuming natural vs. added sugars? 3. How can individuals manage lactose intolerance effectively? Key Characterstics Structure: Disaccharides are carbohydrates composed of two monosaccharides linked by a glycosidic bond. This bond forms through a dehydration reaction, where a water molecule is removed. The general formula for disaccharides is C₁₂H₂₂0₁₁. Energy Production: Disaccharides serve as an energy source. When consumed, they are broken down into their monosaccharide components by enzymes in the digestive system. These monosaccharides are then absorbed into the bloodstream and used for energy. For example, sucrose is broken down into glucose and fructose, which are then utilized in cellular respiration to produce ATP, the energy currency of cells. The Biomolecules of Life | Page 05 Structural Role Disaccharides also play a structural role in various biological processes: Transport of Nutrients: In plants, disaccharides like sucrose are used to transport energy in the form of sugars from leaves to other parts of the plant. Stability and Storage: Disaccharides can help stabilize and store energy. For instance, trehalose helps organisms survive desiccation by stabilizing proteins and cell membranes Polysaccharides Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates composed of long chains of monosaccharide units linked by glycosidic bonds. They play crucial roles in both energy storage and structural support in living organisms. Let’s dive into their structure, types, functions, and examples. Structure: Polysaccharides are polymers made of many monosaccharides (simple sugars) linked together. The general formula for polysaccharides is Cₓ(H₂0)ᵧ, where (x) and (y) are large numbers. They can be linear or branched, and their properties depend on the types of monosaccharides involved and the nature of their glycosidic linkages. Types of Polysaccharides Polysaccharides can be broadly classified into two categories based on their function: Storage Polysaccharides: Starch: Found in plants, starch is composed of amylose (linear) and amylopectin (branched). It serves as an energy reserve. Glycogen: Known as animal starch, glycogen is highly branched and stored in the liver and muscles of animals. It provides a quick source of energy Structural Polysaccharides: Cellulose: A linear polymer of glucose, cellulose is a major component of plant cell walls, providing structural support. It is the most abundant organic molecule on Earth. Chitin: Found in the exoskeletons of arthropods and the cell walls of fungi, chitin is similar to cellulose but contains nitrogen The Biomolecules of Life | Page 06 Functions of Polysaccharides Polysaccharides serve various functions in living organisms: Energy Storage: Starch and Glycogen: These polysaccharides store glucose units, which can be broken down to release energy when needed. Starch is the primary storage form in plants, while glycogen serves this role in animals. Structural Support: Cellulose: Provides rigidity and strength to plant cell walls, enabling plants to stand upright and grow tall. Chitin: Offers structural support and protection in the exoskeletons of insects, crustaceans, and other arthropods. Other Roles: Hemicellulose and Pectin: These polysaccharides are also found in plant cell walls and contribute to their structural integrity. Glycosaminoglycans: Found in animal tissues, these polysaccharides play roles in cellular signaling and maintaining the extracellular matrix. Examples of Polysaccharides Starch: Potatoes, rice, and corn are rich in starch. Glycogen: Stored in the liver and muscles of animals. Cellulose: Found in the cell walls of plants, making up dietary fiber. Chitin: Present in the shells of crabs, lobsters, and insects Polysaccharides are essential for various biological processes, from providing energy to maintaining structural integrity. Lipids Lipids are a diverse group of organic compounds that play crucial roles in the body. They include fats, oils, waxes, sterols, and fat-soluble vitamins (such as vitamins A, D, E, and K). The Biomolecules of Life | Page 07 Fats vs Oils Fats and oils are both types of lipids, but they have distinct characteristics and sources. Physical State: Fats: Solid at room temperature. (Butter, beef fat, and shortening) Oils: Liquid at room temperature. (Olive oil, vegetable oil, and fish oil) Sources: Fats: Primarily derived from animal sources, such as meat, butter, and lard. Some plant sources, like coconut oil and palm oil, also contain fats. Oils: Mainly derived from plant sources, such as olive oil, sunflower oil, and canola oil. Fish oils are another example Types of Fatty Acids Fats: Typically high in saturated fats and trans fats. Saturated fats are solid at room temperature and can raise LDL (“bad”) cholesterol levels. Oils: Rich in unsaturated fats, including monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats. These fats are generally healthier and can help improve cholesterol levels. Health Implications Fats: Excessive consumption of saturated and trans fats can increase the risk of heart disease and other health issues. Oils: Unsaturated fats found in oils can be beneficial for heart health when consumed in moderation. Understanding these differences can help you make healthier dietary choices. Saturated vs. Unsaturated Fats Saturated and unsaturated fats are two main types of dietary fats, each with distinct characteristics and health implications. Examples: Saturated Fats: Butter, lard, fatty cuts of meat, cheese, and cream. Unsaturated Fats: Olive oil, canola oil, avocados, almonds, and salmon The Biomolecules of Life | Page 08 Chemical Structure Saturated Fats: These fats have no double bonds between the carbon atoms in their fatty acid chains. This means they are “saturated” with hydrogen atoms. This structure makes them solid at room temperature. Unsaturated Fats: These fats have one or more double bonds in their fatty acid chains. The presence of double bonds creates kinks in the chain, preventing the molecules from packing tightly together, making them liquid at room temperature. Sources Saturated Fats: Commonly found in animal products such as meat, butter, cheese, and dairy products. Some plant oils, like coconut oil and palm oil, also contain high levels of saturated fats. Unsaturated Fats: Predominantly found in plant-based oils (like olive oil, sunflower oil, and canola oil), nuts, seeds, and fish. They are further divided into monounsaturated fats (e.g., olive oil, avocados) and polyunsaturated fats (e.g., flaxseeds, fish oils). Health Implications Saturated Fats: High intake of saturated fats can raise levels of LDL (“bad”) cholesterol in the blood, which can increase the risk of heart disease and stroke. The American Heart Association recommends limiting saturated fat intake to less than 6% of total daily calories. Unsaturated Fats: These fats are considered healthier for the heart. Monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats can help reduce LDL cholesterol levels and provide essential fatty acids that the body needs. Omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids, types of polyunsaturated fats, are particularly beneficial for heart health. Recommendations Saturated Fats: It’s advisable to limit the intake of saturated fats and replace them with unsaturated fats where possible. For example, using olive oil instead of butter for cooking. Unsaturated Fats: Incorporating more unsaturated fats into your diet can improve heart health. This includes using oils like olive or canola oil, eating fatty fish, and adding nuts and seeds to your meals. The Biomolecules of Life | Page 09 Types of Lipids Triglycerides: These are the most common types of lipids found in your body and in food. They are composed of three fatty acids attached to a glycerol molecule. Triglycerides are stored in fat cells and are used for energy. Phospholipids: These lipids are a major component of cell membranes. They have a hydrophilic (water-attracting) “head” and two hydrophobic (water-repelling) “tails,” which allow them to form the bilayer structure of cell membranes. Sterols: This group includes cholesterol, which is essential for making hormones, vitamin D, and substances that help digest foods. Cholesterol is found in every cell of the body. Functions of Lipids Energy Storage: Lipids store energy efficiently. One gram of fat provides about 9 calories, which is more than double the energy provided by carbohydrates or proteins. Cell Structure: Phospholipids are critical for constructing cell membranes, which protect the cell and regulate what enters and exits. Insulation and Protection: Fat stored in adipose tissue helps insulate the body and protect vital organs. Hormone Production: Steroids, a type of lipid, are involved in producing hormones like estrogen, testosterone, and cortisol. Vitamin Absorption: Lipids help in the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K). Health Implications While lipids are essential for health, an imbalance can lead to health issues: High Cholesterol: Excessive cholesterol can lead to atherosclerosis, where arteries become clogged, increasing the risk of heart disease and stroke. Obesity: High intake of triglycerides can lead to obesity, which is associated with various health problems, including diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. Antiphospholipid Syndrome (APS): This is an autoimmune disorder where the immune system mistakenly attacks normal proteins in the blood, leading to blood clots Sources of Lipids Dietary Sources: Lipids are found in both animal and plant foods. Common sources include meat, dairy products, nuts, seeds, and oils. Endogenous Production: The body can synthesize certain lipids, such as cholesterol, which is produced in the liver. The Biomolecules of Life | Page 10 Lipid Testing Healthcare providers often measure lipid levels using a lipid panel test, which includes: Total Cholesterol: Measures the overall amount of cholesterol in the blood. Low-Density Lipoprotein (LDL): Often referred to as “bad” cholesterol, high levels can lead to plaque buildup in arteries. High-Density Lipoprotein (HDL): Known as “good” cholesterol, it helps remove other forms of cholesterol from the bloodstream. Triglycerides: High levels can increase the risk of heart disease. Omega-3, Omega-6, and Omega-9 Omega-3, omega-6, and omega-9 are types of fatty acids that play important roles in the body. Omega-3 Fatty Acids Types: The main types of omega-3s are eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and alpha-linolenic acid (ALA). Sources: Found in fatty fish (like salmon and mackerel), flaxseeds, chia seeds, and walnuts. Functions: Omega-3s are essential for brain health, reducing inflammation, and supporting heart health. They help lower triglycerides, reduce the risk of heart disease, and support cognitive function Omega-6 Fatty Acids Types: The most common omega-6 fatty acid is linoleic acid (LA), which can be converted into gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) and arachidonic acid (AA). Sources: Found in vegetable oils (such as sunflower, safflower, and corn oil), nuts, and seeds. Functions: Omega-6s are important for brain function, skin and hair growth, bone health, and regulating metabolism. However, an excess of omega-6s, especially relative to omega-3s, can promote inflammation Omega-9 Fatty Acids Types: The primary omega-9 fatty acid is oleic acid. Sources: Found in olive oil, avocados, and nuts. Functions: Omega-9s are not essential because the body can produce them. They help reduce inflammation and improve heart health by increasing HDL (“good”) cholesterol and decreasing LDL (“bad”) cholesterol The Biomolecules of Life | Page 11 Balancing Omega Fatty Acids Importance of Balance: It’s crucial to maintain a proper balance between omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids. The typical Western diet tends to be high in omega-6s and low in omega-3s, which can lead to inflammation and chronic diseases. Recommendations: Increasing omega-3 intake through diet or supplements and moderating omega-6 intake can help achieve a healthier balance. Proteins Proteins are large, complex molecules that play many critical roles in the body. They are made up of long chains of amino acids, which are the building blocks of proteins. Structure of Proteins Amino Acids: Proteins are composed of 20 different amino acids. These amino acids are linked together by peptide bonds to form a polypeptide chain. The sequence of amino acids determines the protein’s structure and function. Levels of Structure: Proteins have four levels of structure: Primary Structure: The sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain. Secondary Structure: Local folding of the polypeptide chain into helices or sheets. Tertiary Structure: The overall three-dimensional shape of a single polypeptide chain. Quaternary Structure: The structure formed by multiple polypeptide chains interacting. The Biomolecules of Life | Page 12 Functions of Proteins Proteins are involved in virtually every process within cells. Here are some key functions: Enzymes: Proteins that act as biological catalysts, speeding up chemical reactions in the body. For example, digestive enzymes help break down food into nutrients. Structural Proteins: Provide support and shape to cells and tissues. Examples include collagen in connective tissues and keratin in hair and nails. Transport Proteins: Carry substances throughout the body. Hemoglobin, for instance, transports oxygen in the blood. Antibodies: Proteins that help the immune system recognize and neutralize foreign invaders like bacteria and viruses. Hormones: Some proteins act as hormones, which are chemical messengers that regulate various physiological processes. Insulin, for example, regulates blood sugar levels. Dietary Sources of Proteins Animal Sources: Meat, fish, poultry, eggs, and dairy products are rich in complete proteins, which contain all essential amino acids. Plant Sources: Beans, lentils, nuts, seeds, and soy products. While most plant proteins are incomplete (lacking one or more essential amino acids), combining different plant sources can provide all essential amino acids. Protein Requirements Daily Intake: The recommended dietary allowance (RDA) for protein varies based on age, sex, and activity level. Generally, it’s about 46 grams per day for women and 56 grams per day for men. Deficiency: Protein deficiency can lead to various health issues, including muscle wasting, weakened immune function, and growth retardation in children. Protein in the Body Synthesis and Turnover: Proteins are constantly being synthesized and broken down in the body. This process is known as protein turnover. Essential Amino Acids: Nine amino acids are considered essential because the body cannot synthesize them, so they must be obtained from the diet The Biomolecules of Life | Page 13 Essential vs. Nonessential Amino Acids Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins, and they play crucial roles in various biological processes. They are categorized into essential and nonessential amino acids based on whether the body can synthesize them. Essential Amino Acids Essential amino acids cannot be synthesized by the human body and must be obtained through the diet. List of Essential Amino Acids: There are nine essential amino acids: Histidine Isoleucine Leucine Lysine Methionine Phenylalanine Threonine Tryptophan Valine Sources: These amino acids are found in protein-rich foods such as meat, fish, eggs, dairy products, and certain plant-based sources like soy products, quinoa, and buckwheat. Functions: Essential amino acids are vital for protein synthesis, tissue repair, and nutrient absorption. They also play roles in immune function, hormone production, and neurotransmitter regulation Nonessential Amino Acids Nonessential amino acids can be synthesized by the human body, so they do not need to be obtained from the diet. List of Nonessential Amino Acids: There are eleven nonessential amino acids: Alanine Asparagine Cysteine (conditionally essential) Aspartic Acid Glutamine (conditionally essential) Glutamic Acid Glycine (conditionally essential) Serine Proline (conditionally essential) Arginine (conditionally essential) Tyrosine (conditionally essential) The Biomolecules of Life | Page 14  Sources: While the body can produce these amino acids, they are also present in various foods, including both animal and plant sources. Functions: Nonessential amino acids are involved in protein synthesis, enzyme production, and various metabolic pathways. They support immune function, muscle growth, and overall cellular health Conditionally Essential Amino Acids These amino acids are usually synthesized by the body but may need to be obtained from the diet under certain conditions, such as illness, stress, or rapid growth. Examples: Arginine, cysteine, glutamine, glycine, proline, and tyrosine Nucleic Acid Nucleic acids are essential biomolecules found in all living cells. They play a crucial role in storing and transmitting genetic information. There are two main types of nucleic acids: DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid). DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) Structure: DNA is a double-stranded helix composed of nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of a sugar molecule (deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base (adenine, thymine, cytosine, or guanine). Function: DNA stores genetic information that determines the characteristics of an organism. It is responsible for the transmission of genetic information from one generation to the next. RNA (Ribonucleic Acid) Structure: RNA is typically single-stranded and is made up of nucleotides similar to DNA, but with a ribose sugar and the nitrogenous base uracil instead of thymine. Function: RNA plays various roles in the cell, including acting as a messenger (mRNA) that carries genetic information from DNA to the ribosomes, where proteins are synthesized. Other types of RNA, such as tRNA and rRNA, are involved in protein synthesis and other cellular processes. The Biomolecules of Life | Page 15 Key Functions of Nucleic Acids 1. Genetic Information Storage: DNA holds the instructions for building and maintaining an organism. 2. Protein Synthesis: RNA translates genetic information into proteins, which perform various functions in the body. 3. Regulation and Expression: Certain RNA molecules are involved in regulating gene expression and ensuring that genes are turned on or off at the right times. Nucleic acids are fundamental to life, and understanding their structure and function is key to fields like genetics, molecular biology, and biotechnology. Enzymes Enzymes are fascinating biological molecules that play a crucial role in almost every biochemical process in living organisms. What are Enzymes? Enzymes are proteins, although some RNA molecules can also have catalytic activity. Function: They act as catalysts, which means they speed up chemical reactions without being consumed in the process. How Do Enzymes Work? Active Site: Each enzyme has a specific region called the active site where the substrate (the molecule upon which the enzyme acts) binds. Specificity: Enzymes are highly specific, meaning each enzyme typically catalyzes only one type of reaction or acts on a specific substrate. Mechanism: When the substrate binds to the enzyme’s active site, it forms an enzyme- substrate complex. This interaction lowers the activation energy required for the reaction, allowing it to proceed faster. The Biomolecules of Life | Page 16 Importance of Enzymes Metabolism: Enzymes are essential for metabolic pathways, including digestion, energy production, and biosynthesis of molecules. Regulation: They help regulate the speed and direction of biochemical reactions, ensuring that cells function efficiently. Medical and Industrial Applications: Enzymes are used in various applications, from drug development to food processing and biotechnology. Examples of Enzymes? Amylase: Breaks down starches into sugars. Protease: Breaks down proteins into amino acids. Lipase: Breaks down fats into fatty acids and glycerol. The Biomolecules of Life | Page 17