Earth and Life Science Course Material No. 1 PDF

EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE COURSE MATERIAL NO. 1 Source:https://thecreatureworldcc.fandom.com/wiki/Prime_Universe?file=Prime_universe.jp g 1st Term, A.Y. 2024-2025 Earth and Life...

EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE COURSE MATERIAL NO. 1 Source:https://thecreatureworldcc.fandom.com/wiki/Prime_Universe?file=Prime_universe.jp g 1st Term, A.Y. 2024-2025 Earth and Life Science 1| P a g e  WHAT WILL YOU LEARN? This module has been designed to help you: EARTH’S ORIGIN Describe the historical development of theories that explain the origin of the universe. Compare the different hypotheses explaining the origin of the Solar system. Describe the characteristics of Earth that are necessary to support life. Source: https://c4.wallpaperflare.com/wallpaper/878/101/200/galaxy-portrait-display-space-vertical-wallpaper- preview.jpg Explain that Earth consists of four subsystems across whose boundaries matter and energy flow 1st Term, A.Y. 2024-2025 Earth and Life Science 2| P a g e  The Origin of the Universe FOCUS The universe is literally everything, the sum of all existence. It includes all matter, like stars and galaxies. The universe also QUESTIONS includes all radiation and all other forms of energy. No matter where or when you exist, you are a part of the universe, as is What is the everything you experience. There is nothing outside the universe, universe? because anything that exists is automatically included in the What are the definition of the universe. different hypotheses explaining the origin Different Theories of the Universe of the universe? The universe, with its vast expanse of galaxies, stars, and planets, has been a subject of human curiosity for centuries. Throughout history, we have constantly sought answers to fundamental questions such as: How did the universe come into existence? What is its structure? What forces govern its behavior? These questions have led to the development of several remarkable theories that attempt to unravel the mysteries of our cosmic home. Historical Prelude The narrative form Genesis, one of the books of the Hebrew Bible and Christian Old Testament, described how God separated light from darkness, and created the sky, land, sea, moon, stars, and every living creature in a span of six days. The Hindu text Rigveda describes the universe as an infinitely oscillating universe in which a “cosmic egg’” or Brahmanda, containing the whole universe expands out of a single point called Source: https://answersingenesis.org/days-of- Bindu, and eventually collapse again. creation/augustine-on-the-days-of-creation/ From fifth to third century BCE, the Greek philosophers would present their own description of the universe. The Greek philosopher Anaxagoras believed in a primordial universe, which suggests that the original state of the cosmos was a primordial mixture of all its ingredients which existed in infinitesimally fragments of themselves. This mixture was not entirely uniform; some ingredients were present in higher concentrations than others, as well as varying from place to place. 1st Term, A.Y. 2024-2025 Earth and Life Science 3| P a g e  At some point, this mixture was set in motion by the action of the “nous” or mind. A whirling motion sifted and separated the ingredients, ultimately producing the cosmos of separate material objects, all with different properties that we see today. The Greek philosophers Leucippus and Democritus believed in an atomic universe composed of tiny, inseparable, and indestructible atoms. All the objects in the universe are composed of different arrangements of these eternal atoms and an infinite void in which they form different combinations and shapes. The Stoic philosophers of ancient Greece believed that the universe is like a giant living body, with the sun and the stars as the most important parts to which all the other parts are Source: https://aminoapps.com/c/science/page/blog/the- interconnected. What happens in one place affects what atomic-theory/arC0_uaXe81k6pp6rbgBK3pLx0xj8j happens elsewhere. Sir Issac newton published his Principia, which described a static, steady-state infinite universe, where in matter on the large scale is uniformly distributed and the universe is gravitationally balanced but essentially unstable. French philosopher Rene Descartes outlined a model of the universe with many of the characteristics of Newton’s static, infinite universe. According to him, the vacuum of space was not empty but rather filled with matter that swirled around in large and small vortices. His model involved a system of huge swirling whirlpools of fine matter, producing what would later be called gravitational effects. The Big Bang Theory: A Thrilling and Evolving Source: Scientific Saga https://www.pinterest.ph/vishalkushwah03031/sir- issac-newton// A model of the universe assumed by Albert Einstein in his theory of relativity was no different from Newton’s in that was a static, dynamically stable universe, which neither expanding nor contracting. 1st Term, A.Y. 2024-2025 Earth and Life Science 4| P a g e He added a cosmological constant to his general theory of relativity equations to counteract the dynamical effects of gravity, which would have caused the universe to collapse. He later abandoned this part of the theory when, in 1929, Edwin Hubble showed that the universe was not static. At the present time, the universe is still expanding and cooling. The processes and their cosmic products that explain the origin and evolution of our universe are all drawn together as the big bang theory. It is currently the most acceptable scientific explanation on how the universe was created and is based on Einstein’s theory of general relativity with positive curvature and the theory of fundamental particles (or what scientists also refer to as the standard model). Since its introduction in 1931 by Monsignor Georges Henri Joseph Edouard Lemaitre as the primeval atom hypothesis, also called the cosmic egg hypothesis, it has been gaining supporting evidence, such as the discovery of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation and redshift. The term “big bang” was coined by Fred Hoyle, an Source: https://catholicscientists.org/scientists-of-the- past/georges-lemaitre/ English astronomer, who, ironically, did not support the big bang theory. He and other non-supporters of the big bang theory introduced an alternative model about the origin of the universe in support of the steady state theory. During the 1940s and 1960s, the steady state theory was the most popular scientific explanation about the origin of the universe. The steady state theory explains that the universe did not originate from an explosive beginning, because it did not have a beginning. If it did not have a beginning, then it does not have a finite age. Further, this theory describes a universe that expanded but did not change density; matter was inserted into the universe as it expanded to maintain a constant density. This theory was proposed by English astronomer Fred Hoyle and the Austrians Thomas Gold and Herman Bondi. After Hubble’s demonstration of the continuously expanding Source: https://www.examrace.com/Study- universe and after the discovery of cosmic microwave Material/Environmental- Science/Geomorphology/Origin-of-Earth-Next- background (CMB) radiation in 1965, after glow light remnants Theories-YouTube-Lecture-Handouts.html of the Big Bang, by Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson, the big bang theory has been the mainstream scientific view. 1st Term, A.Y. 2024-2025 Earth and Life Science 5| P a g e  The commonly known big bang theory is now referred to as the standard hot big bang model to embody the scientific idea that the observable universe originated from a very tiny, extremely hot, and dense energy that exploded, expanded, and started to cool off to form the galaxies, stars, planets, and other astronomical objects or bodies called singularity. The Most Important Evidence of the Big Bang Theory 1.) Redshift American astronomer Edwin Hubble (1889-1953) proved that, as observed from Earth, the light emitted by faraway galaxies shifted down toward the red end of the spectrum. This finding supported the earlier discovery of American astronomer Vesto Slipher (1875- 1969) on the Doppler shift in the spectra of galaxies. 2.) Presence of Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) radiation in the entire universe. Also known as the cosmic background radiation (CMB), this radiation is the thermal leftover of the transition phase that occurred when the hot early universe cooled enough for atoms to combine. The CMB was discovered by Robert Wilson and Arno Penzias. Source: https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the- 3.) Abundances of the light elements in the universe. evolution-of-the-universe/ The actual abundances of hydrogen and helium deduced from the spectra of the oldest stars and gas clouds matched with what were expected from the big bang reactions. These findings agree with the hypothesis of the big bang theory. The Big Bang theory can explain the age of the universe, the abundance of light chemical elements in the universe, the existence of the CMB, the evolution and the distribution of the galaxies, and the expansion of the universe. Was the big bang really the beginning of time and space, or did something end that gave way to the big bang? Currently. The big bang theory can be described as an incomplete explanation about the origin of the universe. 1st Term, A.Y. 2024-2025 Earth and Life Science 6| P a g e It does not have the answers to a lot of leading and difficult questions put forward by scientists, such as the enigma of the beginning of time, or simply, the persistent idea of a beginning, or even the composition of the “thing” that exploded. These are still big bang “blank walls” that have elicited countless bafling questions and debates as far back as the 1960s. They became the cutting-edge battleground for the world’s brilliant minds and advanced laboratories to produce the big answers, including the search for the “God particle”, or the Higgs boson (discovered by Peter W. Higgs and Francois B. Englert) believed to be ultimate particle, from which everything was built on. Its discovery ultimately confirmed the validity of the standard model, or the name given to the theory fundamental particles during the 70s. The standard model explains the existence of subatomic particles and how they interact with one another. Source: https://www.magzter.com/stories/Education/All- About-Space/THE-HIGGS-BOSON-COULD-IT-DESTROY- THE-UNIVERSE Other Theory on the Origin of the Universe Oscillating universe An oscillating universe was Einstein’s favored model after he rejected his own original model. The oscillating universe followed the general theory of relativity equations of the universe with positive curvature. This curvature results in the universe expanding for a time and then contracting due to pull of its gravity in a perpetual cycle of Big Bang followed, in time, by Big Crunch. The Cyclic Model and String Theory One of these new theories states that the universe cyclically recreates itself. It is called the cyclic model. As an answer to the question about what existed before the big bang, the cyclic model Source: https://skeptikai.com/the-top-20-quotes-of- predicts that another universe “died” to give birth to a new one. To albert-einstein/ explain this, string theory was expanded by Paul Steinhardt, an American physicist and cosmologist, and Neil Turok, a South African Physicist, in 1999, to address the gaps in the big bang theory. 1st Term, A.Y. 2024-2025 Earth and Life Science 7| P a g e  Using the predictions of the string theory that there are seven other hidden dimensions of space, they suggested that our 3-dimensional universe, called brane (short for membrane), is just one of the numerous universes traveling in a 4-dimensional space, called bulk. Neighboring branes attract each other, and when two of these branes collide, they explode and release a tremendous amount of energy. Thus, the big bang. The cyclic model also predicts that after the collision, the exploded energy is also transformed into matter, initiating the formation of the galaxies; thus, a new universe, a brane. Theory of Inflation Another model evolved, still focused on the question about the origin of the big bang. This model took off from the suggestion of Alan Guth, an American theoretical physicist and cosmologist, in 1979, that the early universe experienced expansion. Or what he called inflation. He developed this idea into a full-blown theory known as the theory of Source: hhttps://medium.com/starts-with-a-bang/is- inflation. According to this theory, the universe’s dimension during its the-inflationary-universe-a-scientific-theory-not- anymore-905615723b0f inception seems inconceivably small, imperceptible to human senses, only to evolve into an unimaginable dimension that ironically overwhelms the human senses. Multiverse model Andrei Linde, a Russian-American physicist, proposed during the late 80s that inflation can be a never-ending process. He called this process eternal inflation. In his model, now known as the multiverse model, multitudes of universes, called multiverse, are created from this never-ending process of inflation as other parts of the early universe are inflated and exploded- a never-ending “big banging.” In 2004, Sean M. Carroll, an American cosmologist, and Jennifer Chen, Carroll’s graduate student, expanded this concept of multiverse by providing the mechanism for the process of inflation. They claimed that the dark matter, a hidden form of energy in space, discovered by Vera Source: Rubin, An American astronomer, experiences random fluctuations that http://timothyarchibald.blogspot.com/2014/04/andrei -linde-inflationary-cosmology.html trigger inflations. The existence of the dark energy as well as dark matter was confirmed by indirect observations on the motion and rotation of galaxies and on the explosion of the stars. 1st Term, A.Y. 2024-2025 Earth and Life Science 8| P a g e The Origin of the Solar System Milky Way Galaxy Our Sun (a star) and all the planets around it are part of a galaxy known as the Milky Way Galaxy. A galaxy is a large group of stars, gas, and dust bound together by gravity. They come in a variety of shapes and sizes. The Milky Way is a large barred spiral galaxy. All the stars we see in the night sky are in our own Milky Way Galaxy. It is very difficult to count the number of stars in the Milky Way from our position inside the galaxy. Spiral galaxies have three main component parts: the bulge, the disk, and the halo. Our best estimates tell us that the Milky Way is made up of approximately 100 billion stars. These stars form a large disk whose diameter is about 100,000 light years. Other forms of galaxies could be in elliptical and irregular forms. which means the galaxy has no Source: https://www.techexplorist.com/milky- way- definitive shape or symmetry. galaxy-collision-course-nearby- andromeda- galaxy/26886/ Solar System One of the contents of the universe is the galaxy, and inside it, are the systems. We are included in a solar system. Our solar system is about 25,000 light years away from the center of our galaxy – we live in the suburbs of our galaxy. Astronomers believe it formed about 4.5 billion years ago, when a massive interstellar cloud of gas and dust collapsed on itself, giving rise to the star that anchors our solar system—that big ball of warmth known as the sun. Models of the Solar System Geocentric Model was known to be the most predominant theory of the structure of the universe in the ancient world was the geocentric model. It says that the earth is at the center of the universe, and every other celestial body rotates around the earth. Greeks were strong supporters of this theory, especially the great Source: https://www.shutterstock.com/search/solar+system philosophers Aristotle and Ptolemy. After the death of Ptolemy, the theory lasted for more than 2000 years unchallenged. 1st Term, A.Y. 2024-2025 Earth and Life Science 9| P a g e  The concept that the sun is at the center of the universe is known as Heliocentric Model which is also first emerged in Ancient Greece. It was the Greek philosopher Aristarchus of Samos who proposed the theory in 3rd century BC but was not taken seriously because of the influence of the Aristotelian view of the universe and lack of proof of the theory at that time. The major feature of the Copernican theory can be summarized as follows: (1.) The motion of the celestial bodies is uniform, eternal, and circular or compounded of several circles. (2.) The center of the cosmos is the Sun. (3.) Around the Sun, in the order of Mercury, Venus, Earth and Moon, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn move in their own orbits and the stars are fixed in the sky. (4.) The earth has three motions: daily rotation, annual revolution, and annual tilting off its axis. (5.) The retrograde motion or the backward motion of the planets is as explained by the Earth’s motion. (6.) The distance from the Earth to the Sun is small compared to the distance to the stars. Theories of Solar System The following scientific theories represent the explanation of the origin of the Solar System. It is important to note that these theories build up on the idea of an angular momentum. Angular momentum is the quantity of a body, which is the product of its moment of inertia and its angular velocity. Nebular Hypothesis Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) and Pierre-Simon Laplace (1749-1827) were first to propose the earliest theory of how the Solar System originated. The Kant-Laplace nebular hypothesis presumes that the Solar System began as a cloud of dispersed interstellar gas called nebula. The mutual gravitational attraction between particles caused them to start moving and Source: https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/GLAST/news/cr colliding, they were kept together by electrostatic forces. The resulting ab-nebula-surprise.html nebular aggregates became larger than others, grew more rapidly, and ultimately became planets. Planetesimal Hypothesis Thomas Chrowder Chamberlin and Forest Ray Moulton worked on the Kant-Laplace nebular hypothesis, which became the Chamberlin-Moulton planetesimal hypothesis. 1st Term, A.Y. 2024-2025 Earth and Life Science 10| P a g e They proposed that a star passed close enough to the sun, creating huge tides and causing materials to be ejected. These smaller masses quickly cooled and became numerous smaller bodies called planetesimals. The accretion of planetesimals created larger bodies or protoplanets. Tidal Theory Another theory proposed by James Hopwood Jeans and Harold Jeffreys was variation of the planetesimal concept. The Jeans- Jeffreys’ tidal theory suggested that when a huge tidal wave was created from the sun’s collision with another star, a long filament was drawn out and detached from its principal mass. Asd the gaseous materials condensed, they separated into masses of various sizes and condensed to form the planets. Protoplanet Theory The protoplanet theory is a modified version of the nebular hypothesis, which incorporates modern knowledge of matter formed independently by astronomers Gerard Kuiper and Carl von Weizsacker. The dense area of the nebula and the gaseous matter surrounding it ceased to rotate uniformly. Under the influence of turbulence and tidal action, the nebula broke into whirlpools of gas within a rotating mass called protoplanet. This theory, however, Source: https://world-arts-and- does not explain the formation of the terrestrial planets and gas entertainment.blogspot.com/2011/05/planets.html giants. The chemical and physical differences of the planetary formation was provided by Harold Urey. The terrestrial planets closest to the sun are Mercury, followed by Venus, Earth, and Mars. These are called terrestrial planets because they are solid and rocky. After the orbit of Mars, you will find the main asteroid belt, a region of space rocks left over from the formation of the planets. Next come the gas giants Jupiter and Saturn, which are known for its large ring systems made of ice, rock, or both. Farther out are the ice giants Uranus and Neptune. They are known to be the Jovian Planets. Beyond that, a host of smaller icy worlds congregate in an enormous stretch of space called the Kuiper Belt. Perhaps the most famous resident there is Pluto. Once considered the ninth planet, Pluto is now officially classified as a dwarf planet, along with three other Kuiper Belt objects and Ceres in the asteroid belt. 1st Term, A.Y. 2024-2025 Earth and Life Science 11| P a g e  Life and Motions of Earth Earth is the only place, as of now, confirmed to host life and is the only one known for sure to have liquid water in the surface. The following reasons why planet earth is unique: It has liquid water. Plate Tectonics; and It has atmosphere that shelters it from the worst of the sun’s rays. Earth is the only planet in the solar system that has a large amount of liquid water. About 70% of the surface of the Earth is covered by liquid or frozen water. Because of this, Earth is sometimes called “blue planet.” or “blue marble”. It is habitable because it has the right distance from the sun. It is Source: https://www.npr.org/sections/13.7/2013/ 03/06/173510125/is-the-earth-alive- that-depends- kept warm by an insulating atmosphere, and it has the right chemical on-your-definition-of-life ingredients for life including water and carbon. It can provide water, oxygen, useful biological products for human, and has suitable weather and climate. The simultaneous motions of Earth make it possible to support life. As Earth rotates around the sun, a flow of energy is received through solar radiation. Biological Physiological Meteorological The solar radiation Earth receives every day, however, is not the same throughout the year. Since Earth is tilted 23.5o on its axis as it revolves around the sun in an elliptical orbit, the angle by which light is received on Earth varies. Earth’s System Earth science looks at entire planet as system of interacting parts called Source: https://bcgeography.weebly.com/a2---major- subsystems. It focuses on the processes and changes within and among interactions-of-the-4-spheres.html these parts. Each subsystems can be studied separately, but ultimately, they are dependent on and connected with the other subsystems. 1st Term, A.Y. 2024-2025 Earth and Life Science 12| P a g e The amount of matter within a closed system is fixed. This can be illustrated by discussing the volume of mineral resources a planet has. The resources used can never be generated, and the waste produced cannot really be disposed. Once used up, these mineral resources transform into something else, maintaining the amount of matter within this closed system. Earth’s subsystems Earth is composed of four subsystems: geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere. It may be important to note that humans are not part of the biosphere, and that human lives depend on the interaction of the four subsystems. Source: https://www.winmeen.com/hydrosphere- notes-11th-geography-for-tnpsc-exam/ Geosphere It refers to the solid Earth. It composed of naturally occurring solid aggregate of minerals, organic material, or natural glass called rocks, and loose particles of rocks blanketing the surface of Earth called regolith. Hydrosphere The totality of Earth’s water, including the permanently frozen parts called cryosphere. Earth is the only planet in the Solar System that contains water in all three phases: solid, liquid, and gas. The water in the atmosphere is considered separate from hat in the hydrosphere, but they are ultimately interconnected. Source: https://wallpapercave.com/w/wp7507584 Atmosphere The mixture of gases that surround the planet such as nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide, water vapor, and other trace gases. Aside from the presence of important gases in the atmosphere, their relative abundance is also crucial. The air in the atmosphere is generally composed of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.9% argon and 0.1% is made up of different trace gases. 1st Term, A.Y. 2024-2025 Earth and Life Science 13| P a g e  Biosphere It includes all life forms, even organic matter that has not yet decomposed. Most life on Earth exists within a zone no wider than 20km where interactions between the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere create a habitable environment. It is also in this zone that the interaction among the different subsystems is most dynamic. Biogeochemical cycle These four subsystems are closely linked through the biogeochemical cycle which, as the term implies, involves biological, geological, and chemical factors. These biological cycles are pathways by which chemical substances move through both biotic and abiotic components of Earth. It allows the circulation of important chemical nutrients that form and support life, such as carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, and water, through the biological and physical world. It also maintains the balance of substances in the different subsystems of Earth. Carbon cycle In this cycle, carbon can be stored in the biosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and geosphere. The large scale burning of fossil fuels by humans is increasing the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere by releasing carbon that should have been stored within the rocks. The right amount of CO2 in the atmosphere helps regulate temperature =, which is beneficial to life Source: http://antonantonio.blogspot.com/2015/05/biogeochemical-cycle-components.htm 1st Term, A.Y. 2024-2025 Earth and Life Science 14| P a g e  SUMMARY o The universe refers to all existing matter and space considered as a whole. o The observable universe is believed to be at least 93 billion light-years in diameter and is continuously expanding since the occurrence of the Big Bang 13.8 billion years ago. o According to the big bang theory, matter was present in the beginning of time. It was in the form of pure energy compressed in an infinitely tiny dense point. o The expansion of the singularity formed the fundamental forces, including light. It led to the formation of galaxies and solar systems as temperatures became cooler and the creation of heavier elements. o Some of the characteristics of Earth which are essential to life are the presence of water, source of heat, presence of atmosphere, perfect distance from the sun, active plate tectonics, differentiated internal structure, the presence of the moon, and the tilt of the axis. o Earth is closed system composed of four basic spheres: geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere. o Earth’s subsystems are closely linked by the biogeochemical cycles, which are pathways of important nutrients through the biotic and abiotic components of Earth. CONTRIBUTOR(S) SETH BRYAN M. CABRIJAS MELANIE I. PASCUAL 1st Term, A.Y. 2024-2025 Earth and Life Science 15| P a g e REFERENCES Printed Materials: Olivar, J. T., & Ramos, A. C. M. (2018). Exploring life through science: Earth and Life Science Duyanen, J.P., & Andaya, M.O. (2020). Earth and Life Science for Senior High School Tarbuck, E. J., Lutgens, F. K., & Tasa, D. (2014a). Earth Science. Prentice Hall. E-readings: https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/space/solar-system/the-solar-system/ https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/origins-of-the-universe https://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/science/objects/milkyway1.html http://www.lpi.usara.edu/education/explore/our_place/hab_ref_table.pdf SM City Fairview Complex, Quirino 1st Term, A.Y. 2023-2024 Earth Highway, co. andAvenue, Regalado Life Science 16| P a g e Quezon City. +632-8401-6760 www.national-u.edu.ph/nu-fairview