RRB NTPC Complete Preparation PDF

Free Ebook Complete Preparation General Science, History, Geography, General Awareness. CONTENTS GEOGRAPHY.................................................................................................................... 2 UNIVERSE..................................................................................................................................................... 2 WORLD GEOGRAPHY.................................................................................................................................... 4 INDIAN GEOGRAPHY.................................................................................................................................... 8 HISTORY........................................................................................................................ 14 ANCIENT INDIA........................................................................................................................................... 14 MEDIEVAL INDIA......................................................................................................................................... 21 MODERN INDIA.......................................................................................................................................... 28 INDIAN POLITY............................................................................................................... 40 ECONOMICS................................................................................................................... 47 GENERAL SCIENCE.......................................................................................................... 55 GENERAL AWARNESS..................................................................................................... 61 www.OliveBoard.in GEOGRAPHY UNIVERSE The Universe includes planets, stars, galaxies, the contents of intergalactic space, the smallest subatomic particles, and all matter and energy. Estimated age of the universe is about 13.82 billion years. The study of universe is known as Cosmology. The Big Bang theory is the most accepted explanation about the origin of universe. As per this theory, all matter was condensed into one point. Later this point exploded and started expanding and thus we have the present universe. Galaxy:- A galaxy is a huge system of billions of stars, and clouds of dust and gases. There are millions of such galaxies that make the Universe. Our solar system is a part of a galaxy called Milky Way or Akash Ganga Solar system The sun, the eight planets along with their respective satellites, the asteroids and meteoroids, the comets, the interplanetary dust and the electrically charged gases called plasma, together make up the solar system. The Sun: The Sun is at the centre of the solar system and it is the nearest star to the sun. One Astronomical Unit (The average distance between then Sun and the Earth) = 150 million km Nuclear Fusion reaction is going on inside the Sun. In this process, two hydrogen atoms combines to form a helium atom. The energy released during this process is emitted and the solar energy which reaches our planet is part of that energy. Time taken by sunlight to reach the Earth = 8 min and 20 sec. Planets: All the 8 planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) of the solar system move around the sun in a fixed path. These paths are also called as orbits www.OliveBoard.in Mercury Also known as swiftest planet Nearest planet to Sun Smallest planet It has no atmosphere It doesn’t have any moon Venus Also known as evening or morning star It is also called Earth’s twin Hottest planet, because of the presence of carbon dioxide in its atmosphere Nearest planet to earth; Also doesn’t have any moons Mars Also known as Red planet It has two moons, Phobos and Deimos Jupiter Biggest planet It has fastest rotational velocity; has 79 known moons identified by scientists Its satellite, Ganymede is the largest and heaviest of all satellites in the solar system Saturn It is surrounded by a set of seven rings which are made up of primordial dust and ice particles Its planet Titan, is the only satellite in solar system with an Earth like atmosphere; It has 82 moons identified by scientists. Uranus Also known as Green planet Neptune Coldest planet; Farthest planet from sun Earth: Conditions favourable for life are probably found only on the earth. Two-third of earth’s surface is covered by water and hence it appears blue from outer space. That is why earth is also known as Blue planet. Moon is the only natural satellite. Earth is slightly flattened at the poles and hence its shape is also described as Geoid. Earth's statistics Age About 4.5 billion years Distance from sun 150 million km Water Area 71% of total surface area Rotational time period 23 hrs 56 min 4 sec Revolutionary time period 365 days 5hr March 21 (Vernal equinox) Equinox (Dates when days & nights are equal) September 23 (Autumnal equinox) Summer solstice 21st June (Longest day in northern hemisphere) Winter solstice 22nd December (Longest day in southern hemisphere) Tilt of Earth’s imaginary axis 23.5O Escape velocity (It is the minimum speed needed for an 11.2 km/s object to "break free" from the gravitational attraction of earth) www.OliveBoard.in Moon: It is earth’s only natural satellite. Neil Armstrong and Edwin Adrin were the first human being to set foot on the moon’s surface in 1969. And the landing spot was later called “The Sea of Tranquility” Lunar Eclipse: Takes place when moon passes through the shadow of the Earth, i.e. the earth is in between moon and sun. A partial eclipse occurs when only a part of the moon passes through the shadow Solar Eclipse: This eclipse happens when the moon passes between the sun and the earth, and the moon fully or partially blocks the Sun. Blue Moon: It is a rare celestial phenomenon marked by the occurrence of the second full moon within one month. Since moon’s rotational and revolutional time periods are same, we see only one side of moon always. Asteroids: Apart from the stars, planets, and satellites, there are numerous tiny bodies which also move around the sun. These bodies are called asteroids. They are found between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. Largest asteroid is Ceres. Meteoroids: They are the small pieces of rocks which move around the sun. Sometimes these meteoroids come near the earth and tend to drop upon it. During this process due to friction with the air they get heated up and burn. It causes a flash of light, called meteor shower. Sometimes, a meteor without being completely burnt, falls on the earth and they are called meteorites. WORLD GEOGRAPHY Latitudes and Longitudes:- They are imaginary lines drawn on the surface of the earth. And these lines make it easier to locate any place on the surface of the earth. Equator: Imaginary line which divides earth into two equal halves, northern and southern hemispheres. Equator is the reference latitude and hence it is the 0o latitude Parallels of latitudes: These are parallel circles drawn from the equator up to poles. Parallels divide the earth into various heat zones. The different zones have different types of climate and vegetation. Meridians of Longitudes: These are the imaginary lines, drawn from pole (North Pole) to pole (South Pole). Naturally, there is no reference longitude, hence we have fixed a longitude passing via the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, in London. And this reference longitude is also called Greenwich meridian or Prime meridian. Prime meridian divides earth into eastern and western hemisphere Important latitudes Equator 0o Tropic of cancer 23.5o N Tropic of Capricorn 23.5o S Arctic circle 66.5o N Antarctic circle 66.5o S North pole 90o N South pole 90o S Important longitudes Prime Meridian 0o Indian Standard Time (IST) 82.5o E International Date Line 180o Heat Zones www.OliveBoard.in Earth System Earth has four main systems that interact and they are geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere A. GEOSPHERE Continents Highest and Lowest Points Rank Continent Highest Point Lowest Point (by Area) Asia 1 Mt. Everest Dead Sea Africa 2 Mt. Kilimanjaro Lake Assal North America 3 Mt. McKinley Death Valley South America 4 Mt. Aconcagua Laguna del Carbon Antarctica 5 Mt. Vinson Massif Bentley Subglacial Trench Europe 6 Mt. Elbrus Caspian Sea Australia 7 Mt. Puncak Jaya Lake Eyre Rocks Various kinds of rocks found on earth’s crust are grouped under three families i.e. igneous rocks, Sedimentary rocks, and metamorphic rock. 1. Igneous Rocks: When the molten magma present inside earth comes to the surface as a result of volcanic activity, it cools and forms Igneous Rocks. Granite and Basalt are examples for this type of rocks. www.OliveBoard.in 2. Sedimentary Rocks: They are formed as a result of weathering, erosion, deposition and compaction of igneous rocks and other materials, through agents like wind, water, ice, and chemicals. Gypsum, Gravel etc. are examples for these kinds of rocks. 3. Metamorphic Rocks: These types of rocks are formed from igneous or metamorphic rocks, under great pressure and heat. But under very high temperature they are melted and they become part of magma. Later during volcanic activity this magma will again rise to the surface, cool down and solidify, forming igneous rocks. This complete cycle or the conversion of one type of rock into the other is known as Rock cycle. B. HYDROSPHERE Oceans Oceans and their features Rank Ocean Features (by Size) Spread over 1/3rd of the earth's surface Circular in shape - Mariana Trench Pacific Ocean 1 is the deepest point S' Shaped - From commercial point of view, this is the busiest ocean - Deepest Atlantic Ocean 2 point is Puerto Rico Trench Trangular shaped - Only ocean named after a country - Deepest point is Java Indian Ocean 3 Trench Antarctic Ocean 4 Also known as Southern Ocean – Deepest point is South Sandwich Trench Located within Arctic circle and surrounds North Pole - Berring Strait Arctic Ocean 5 connects Pacific and Arctic oceans - Molloy Hole is the deepest point. Bermuda Triangle: It is a vaguely defined triangular region of Atlantic Ocean, where many aircrafts and ships have said to be disappeared under mysterious circumstances. But some of this is inaccurate and there are many other place on earth where more number of ships and other vessels disappear. www.OliveBoard.in Tides: It is the periodic rises and falls of large bodies of water caused by the gravitational interaction between earth, moon and sun. Based on the position of the three celestial bodies, tides can be of two types, Spring tide and Neap tide 1. Spring Tide: It occurs on new moon and full moon days. They are large because the gravitational pulls of the moon and sun are in the same direction. Spring tide occurs on full moon and new moon days 2. Neap Tide: Normally there is a seven day interval between the spring tide and neap tide. In this case the gravitational pull of the sun is in right angle to that of the moon. During the Neap tides, high tide is lower and low tide is higher than usual. Neap tide occurs on the first and third quarters moons Highest tide in the world occur in the Bay of Fundy in Nova Scotia, Canada Strait: It is a narrow channel of water that connects two large bodies of water. Strait of Hormuz, Palk Strait etc. are examples for a strait. Isthmus: It is a narrow strip of land connecting two large land areas usually with waterbodies on either side. Isthmus of Panama is an example for an Isthmus Coral Reefs Coral reefs are formed as a result of the deposition of skeletons and secretion of microscopic marine organisms known as Coral Polyps. They live in colonies and are mainly of three kinds. Barrier reef, Fringing reef, and Atolls. C. ATMOSPHERE Atmosphere is the gaseous layer, surrounding earth. It is earth’s gravity which is holding these gases close to earth. Since force of gravity (earth’s pull) decreases from the surface, the concentration of gases also decreases with the increase in altitude from the surface. As a result atmospheric pressure is maximum on the surface of the earth and decreases with increasing altitude. Barometer is used to measure atmospheric pressure. Based on the gaseous composition and temperature profile, earth’s atmosphere is divided into 5 layers. 1. Troposphere: This layer is closest to the surface of earth. In this layer, with increase in altitude, temperature decreases. Almost all weather phenomenon happens in this layer. There is a small region between troposphere and stratosphere where temperature does not change and this region is known as Tropopause. 2. Stratosphere: With increase in altitude, temperature also increases in this layer. Presence of Ozone layer is the most important speciality of this layer. Stratopause is present between Stratosphere and Mesosphere and here temperature doesn’t change. www.OliveBoard.in 3. Mesosphere: Again with increase in altitude, temperature decreases and in Mesopause, temperature is constant. 4. Thermosphere: Temperature in this layer increases with increase in altitude. Another speciality of thermosphere is Ionosphere. It is a layer of charged particle. We make use of Ionosphere in radio communication. Thermopause is also present. 5. Exosphere: Last of the five layers. Outer boundary of exosphere is not defined, it slowly merges with the outer space. Global Warming Ozone Depletion Ozone layer present in Global Warming is the increase in Earth's average surface temperature due Stratosphere, is protecting to effect of greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, water earth from harmful ultra- vapour, CFCs and Nitrous oxide). violet radiation from sun, by not allowing it to reach earth’s After receiving sun’s radiation, earth will be heated up and earth will also surface. start emitting radiation which is known as terrestrial radiation. But the greenhouse gases present in atmosphere reflects this radiation and thus But chemicals like not allow this radiation to escape into outer space. And this process Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) increases Earth’s average surface temperature. is destroying Ozone layer and causing many health issues. Effect of global warming: Increase in pollution increases the greenhouse gases present in the atmosphere and this in turn causes global warming. As Montreal Protocol is related a result of this phenomenon agricultural productivity will decrease, to the restriction over the increase in the frequency of occurrence of natural calamity, and abnormal usage and release of CFCs and weather changes. Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) D. BIOSPHERE It is the narrow zone where all other earth systems meet and interact with each other. It is the biological component of the Earth Systems and it contains and supports living organisms. Even though geosphere constitute 82% of the total mass and biosphere is 0.0007 percent of the volume of the planet, which has a 6371 kilometer radius. Without the biosphere, life on earth wouldn’t have originated. INDIAN GEOGRAPHY A. PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS OF INDIA The main physiographic features of India includes, the Himalayan Mountain, Northern Plains, Indian Desert, Peninsular Plateau, Coastal Plains, and Islands. THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAIN This young fold mountain ranges from north till north-eastern borders of India. Himalayas Consists of three parallel longitudinal ranges; Greater or Inner Himalayas or the Himadri, Middle Himalayas or Lesser Himalayas or Himachal, and Outer Himalaya or Shiwalik. 1. Himadri: This is the northern most range and most continuous of all the three ranges. It is also home to loftiest peaks including Mt. Everest. 2. Himachal: It is composed of highly compressed and altered rocks. Pir Panjal, Dhaula Dhar, and Mahabharat are very famous ranges present here. It is also famous for many valleys including Kashmir, and Kulu valley. This region is also known for hill stations. 3. Shiwalik: It is composed of unconsolidated sediments brought down by Himalayan Rivers. The longitudinal valleys lying between Himachal and Shiwalik is known as Duns. Dehra Dun, Kotli Dun and Patli Duns are some of the well-known Duns. The eastern most extension of Himalaya is known as Purvachal and it consists of Naga, Manipur and Mizo hills. www.OliveBoard.in THE NORTHERN PLAIN Northern Plain was formed as a result of the alluvial deposition by the three main Himalayan Rivers Ganga, Indus & Brahmaputra and its tributaries. Because of the presence of fertile soil, availability of water, and moderate climate, these areas are best suited for agriculture and hence highly populated. Longitudinally northern plain is divided into four regions. 1. Bhabar: This is the northern most region of the plain. Rivers in this region have pebble sized rocks and as a result, the water level above the rocks in rivers is very low. So normally it looks like rivers disappear in this region. 2. Terai: This is just below Bhabar, and the rivers that disappear in Bhabar region, reappear in Terai region. This region is a swampy and marshy land. 3. Bhangar: This region lie just above the flood plains of the rivers and has old alluvial soil. 4. Khadar: This is the flood plains of rivers, where new alluvial deposits are seen. INDIAN DESERT Also known as Thar Desert, is lying in the north- western part of India. This area receives very less rain fall and the presence of sand makes it an arid region with very low vegetation. Luni River is the most important river of this region. The crescent shaped sand dunes seen in this region are known as Barchans. THE PENINSULAR PLATEAU Plateau is a table top land. Indian Plateau is divided into two based on the position of River Narmada. Part of plateau lying north of Narmada is called Central Highlands and part lying south of Narmada is known as Deccan Plateau. 1. Central Highlands: In south it is bounded by Vindhyan range and north-west by Aravalis. The further westward extension gradually merges with the Thar Desert. Its eastern extension is known as the Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand. 2. Deccan Plateau: This triangular land mass, in south west is bounded by Western Ghats and in South- East by Eastern Ghats. Anai Mudi is the highest peak in Western Ghats and Mahendragiri in Eastern Ghats. Western Ghat is more continuous and hence only with the help of a natural pass, anyone can cross it. On the other side, Eastern Ghat is discontinuous and can be easily crossed. COASTAL PLAINS India has Western Coastal Plain (between Western Ghats and Arabian Sea) and Eastern Coastal Plain (between Eastern Ghats and Bay of Bengal). 1. Western Coastal Plain: It is divided into three sections. Northern most part of the coast is called the Konkan, the Central stretch is called the Kannad Plain while the Southern most part is known as Malabar Coast. 2. Eastern Coastal Plain: It is divided into two parts. Northern part is known as Northern Circar and the southern part is called Coromandel Coast. www.OliveBoard.in ISLANDS India has two main groups of Islands; Lakshadweep Islands and Andaman and Nicobar groups of Islands. 1. Lakshadweep Islands: It is composed of small coral islands and its administrative capital is Kavaratti Island. Pitti Island, which is a bird sanctuary is situated here. In India, Lakshadweep stands first in both coconut production and per capita availability of fish. 2. Andaman and Nicobar Islands: Andaman and Nicobar groups of Island is separated by Ten degree channel. Its administrative capital is Port Blair and India’s only active volcano is located in Barren Island. It is believed that these Islands are an elevated portion of submarine mountains. B. RIVERS OF INDIA Himalayan Rivers Indus:- Origin: Near Mansarovar lake Tributaries: Satluj, Ravi, Beas, Chenab, Jhelum. At Mithankot these tributaries join the main Indus River. Indus water treaty: Treaty between India and Pakistan for sharing Indus water Ganga:- Originates from Gangotri glaciers Tributaries: Yamuna, Chambal, Son, Kosi, Ghaghra, Gandhak Headwaters of Ganga, Bhagirathi and Alaknantha meet at Devaprayag Yamuna joins with Ganga at Allahabad Ganga flows east till Farakka in West Bengal and then takes a right turn and flows to Bangladesh. There Ganga meets Brahmaputra and from then onwards known as Meghna and finally joins Bay of Bengal. But these rivers form deltas at river mouth and they are known as Sunderban Delta (world’s largest and fastest growing delta). Brahmaputra:- Origin: East of Mansarovar lake (Kailash ranges of Himalayas at an elevation of 5300 M) Flows eastward parallel to Himalaya. Since these regions are dry, river water level is low. www.OliveBoard.in When it reaches Namcha Barwa, river takes a ‘U’ turn and enters India in Arunachal Brahmaputra is known as the Tsang Po in Tibet and Pradesh. Here it is called Dihang. Later Jamuna in Bangladesh. Sunderban delta area is the Dibang, Lohit and many other tributaries home of Royal Bengal Tiger. join the many river and from then onwards it is Brahmaputra. After flowing through some of the North Eastern states, Brahmaputra finally enters Bangladesh and then meets Ganga and finally joins Bay of Bengal. Inside Indian Territory it flows through areas of very high rain fall and hence the water level in the river is very high. River carries large amount of silt in this region and that is why we can’t build a dam across Brahmaputra River. Peninsular Rivers East flowing rivers River Godavari:- Largest Peninsular river and also known as ‘Dakshin Ganga’ Rises from the part of Western Ghats in Nasik district of Maharashtra Main tributaries: Purna, Wardha, Manjra, Pranhita, Wainganga, and Penganga Flows through Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, and Andhra Pradesh. Finally drains to Bay of Bengal. Mahanadi:- Origin: from the highlands of Chhattisgarh Tributaries: Ong, Jonk, Telen, Hasdeo, and Mand Flows through Chhattisgarh and Odisha. And finally drains to Bay of Bengal River Krishna:- Origin: From Mahabaleshwar, Maharashtra. Tributaries: Tungabhadra, Bhima, Dindi, Halia, and Panchganga Flows through Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana & Andhra Pradesh and finally drains to Bay of Bengal Kaveri:- Origin: At Talakaveri, Kodagu in Western Ghats Tributaries: Shimsha, Hemavati, Arkavati, Kabini, Bhavani River, and Amravati River. Flows through Karnataka and Tamil Nadu and emptying into Bay of Bengal West flowing rivers Narmada:- Rises from Amarkantak hills in Madhya Pradesh and is also known as life line of Madhya Pradesh Flows westward through rift valley and empties into Arabian Sea. Tributaries: Kolar, Hiran, Shakkar, and Tawa www.OliveBoard.in Tapi/ Tapti:- Originates from the Satpura ranges of Madhya Pradesh and flows westward through rift valley Flows through Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Gujrat Main tributaries: Arunavati, Gomai, and Panzara Sharavati:- Originates at Ambuthirtha in Karnataka Flows westward within Karnataka and finally joins Arabian Sea Jog water falls are formed by Sharavati River Luni:- Origin: Pushkar valley of Aravalli range Flows west, through Thar desert and finally joins the marshy land of Rann of Kutch in Gujarat Tributaries: Jowai, Sukri and Jojari C. CLIMATE Climate is the sum total of weather conditions over a large area for a long period of time. Climate of India is described as the ‘Monsoon type’. Because of the presence of coastal area peninsular India doesn’t experience much variation in temperature. Four main seasons can be identified in India. 1. Hot Weather Season (Summer):- During this time of the year, because of the apparent movement of the Sun, sunrays fall directly over tropic of cancer and as a result temperature increases gradually. By May end or June starting, temperature of North Indian states increases up to 45-48 degree Celsius. North Indian states also experience a very hot and dry local wind during summer season. They are called loo. They are very dangerous and if we are exposed to it, it may even prove to be fatal. By the end of May, some areas receive localised thunderstorms and slight rainfall. They are also known as Kaal Baisakhi. 2. Advancing Monsoon (Rainy Season):- South West Monsoon winds causes precipitation. Since these winds passes over Indian Ocean, it carries very large amount of moisture and this later results in heavy rainfall. Sometimes Monsoon experiences wet and dry spells. 3. Retreating Monsoon (The Transition Season):- This is a transition season between Monsoon and Winter, and experienced during October- November months October Heat (high temperature and high humidity) is the most important speciality of this season. 4. The Cold Weather Season (Winter Season) During this season, because of the apparent shift of the sun towards southern hemisphere, we will experience a Cold Weather Season. Because of the Western disturbance during this season, North-Western states of India receives some amount of rainfall, known as Mahawat. And this rain helps Rabi crops. Tamil Nadu coast receives some amount of rainfall during this season. D. SOIL There are mainly six types of Soils seen in India. They are Alluvial soil, Black soil, Red soil, Laterite soil, Desert soil, and Mountain soil. 1. Alluvial Soil: This soil is found mainly in Northern plains and Coastal plains of peninsular India. It is highly fertile and best suited for agricultural activity. 2. Black Soil: They are originated from the basalt rock which are volcanic in origin. They are clay in character and as a result they can hold moisture for a long time, and this helps crops to sustain even www.OliveBoard.in during the dry season. Black soil is best suited for Cotton cultivation. They are rich in lime, Iron, magnesia and alumina. 3. Red Soil: Presence of Iron Oxides makes them red in colour. They are not very fertile, but with adequate amount of fertilizer, they can be used for cultivation. They are found in eastern and south eastern part of peninsular India. 4. Laterite Soil: Because of very high rainfall in Western Ghats and North-Eastern parts of India, Silica content of the soil leaches out and that soil will be deprived of humus too. This soil with a reddish colour is known as Laterite Soil. 5. Desert Soil: They are mainly found in the arid regions of Rajasthan and Gujarat. Due to the dry climate, high temperature, and accelerated evaporation, they lack moisture and humus. Also known as Arid soil. 6. Mountain Soil: Our mountain ranges have wide range of soils. The soils vary in structure and texture depending on the mountain environment where they are found. Also known as Forest Soil. E. CROPPING SEASONS IN INDIA India has three main cropping seasons, Kharif, Rabi and Zaid cropping seasons. 1. Kharif Season: Crops are cultivated and harvested during the rainy season. i.e. between June and September. Rice and millet are example for Kharif crops. 2. Rabi Season: Crops are cultivated and harvested during the winter season. i.e between October and March. Wheat, barley, maize and oat are examples for Rabi crops. Mahawat (winter rain in the north- eastern part of India) helps Rabi crops. 3. Zaid Season: This season is between Rabi and Kharif. i.e. mainly from April to June. Water melon, cucumber and sugar cane are examples for zaid crops www.OliveBoard.in HISTORY ANCIENT INDIA INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION (2500BC - 1500BC) The Proto-History of India begins with Indus Valley Civilization. It is also known as Harappan Civilization because Harappa was the first site to be excavated. Indus Valley Civilization was basically an urban civilization. People for the first time in the history started living in urban areas. These were very well planned cities with wide roads and well developed drainage system. Houses were built of baked bricks and studies also show that these cities traded with other contemporary civilizations like Mesopotamia. Major sites of Indus Valley Civilization include Harappa, Ganeriwala, and Mohenjo-daro in modern-day Pakistan, and Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, Rupar, and Lothal in modern-day India. The civilisation that appeared in the northwestern part of India and Pakistan in third millennium BCE is collectively called the Indus Civilisation. Since Harappa was the first site to be identified in this civilisation, it is also known as Harappan Civilisation. - Beginnings of the Neolithic villages in this region go back to about 7000 BCE at the Neolithic site of Mehrgarh. - The Indus valley site of Harappa was first visited by Charles Mason in 1826, and Amri by Alexander Burnes in 1831. - Sir John Marshal played an important role in the development of archaeology in India. Later in the 1940s, Mortimer Wheeler excavated the Harappan sites. Planned Towns: - Harappans used baked and unbaked bricks, and stones for construction. The towns had a grid pattern and drainages were systematically built. - The site of Mohenjo-Daro had a planned town, built on a platform. It has two distinct areas. One is identified as a citadel and another as the lower town. - In Mohenjo-Daro, a building has been identified as a warehouse (used as Granaries). Animal Domestication: - Pastoralism was also practised by the Harappans. They domesticated sheep, goat and fowl. - They had knowledge of various other animals including buffalo, pig and elephant. But horse was not known to them. www.OliveBoard.in Metal, Tools and Weapons: The Harappan civilisation belongs to the Bronze Age civilisation and Harappans knew how to make copper bronze tools. - The Harappans used chert blades, copper objects, and bone and ivory tools. The tools of points, chisels, needles, fishhooks, razors, weighing pans, mirror and antimony rods were made of copper. - The chert blades made out of Rohrichert was used by the Harappans. Their weapons include arrowheads, spearhead, celt and axe. They did not have the knowledge of iron. Arts and Amusement: - “Priest king” of steatite, dancing girl of copper (both from MohenjoDaro), and stone sculptures from Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro and Dholavira are the important objects of art. Decline: - The Indus Valley Civilisation declined from about 1900 BCE. Changes in climate, decline of the trade with the Mesopotamia, and the drying of the river and water resources due to continuous drought are some of the reasons attributed by historians for the decline. Invasions, floods and shifting of the river course are also cited as reasons for the ruin of Indus civilisation. In course of time, the people shifted to the southern and eastern directions from the Indus region. VEDIC AGE (1500BC-600BC) Vedic age refers to the time when Vedic Sanskrit texts were composed. There are four Vedas, namely Rig, Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda. Rig Vedic Samhita is the earliest text that relates to the Early Vedic period. The Early Vedic culture is placed between 1500 BCE and 1000 BCE. The political, social and economic aspects of life of this period are reflected in the Rig Vedic hymns. The Sama Veda was composed in musical notes which are considered to constitute the basis of Indian music. The Yajur Veda has rituals and hymns. The Atharva Veda contains charms and magical spells www.OliveBoard.in Early Vedic Period (1500BC-1000BC):- Settled in the North-Western part of India, especially in and around the river Indus and its tributaries Primarily they were Pastoralist. Divided into many clans and each clan had a leader (King), who was elected by the clan members and also this position was not hereditary. Patriarchal society, women were given equal status and there were only three varnas (Brahmana, Kshatriya, and Vaishya). Nature worship (For example Rain god ‘Varuna’, Thunder god ‘Indra’ etc.) for material gains cattle were considered wealth The term for war in the Rig Veda was gavishthi which means search for cows (which is the contemporary term (goshti) for factions as well). Later Vedic Period (1000BC-600BC):- Socio-Political situations of the society totally changed Post of King became hereditary, women lost their status in the society and they started following four fold Varna System (Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra). Inter Varna marriages led to the creation of new castes which led to caste proliferation by 6th century BC and there was a religious revolution in 6th century BC. For the first time they started using Iron and as a result they started moving towards the eastern parts of the country, cutting down the forest. *The terms 'Syama' or 'Krishna ayas' are used to refer to iron in the later Vedic texts. During this time many battles were fought between different tribes and finally by Sixth Century BC, sixteen tribes became more powerful than any other and they were called 16 Mahajanapadas. * Capital Mahajanapada Anga Champa Earlier Rajgriha, later Magadha Patliputra Capitals at Kusinara and Malla Pawa Vajji Vaishali Kosala Sravasti Kashi Varanasi Chedi Shuktimati www.OliveBoard.in Kuru Indraprastha Vatsa Kaushambi Ahichhatra(Uttara Panchala Panchala) and Kampilya( Dakshina Panchala) Matsya Viratanagara Sursena Mathura Avanti Ujjaini and Mahishmati Ashmaka Potana Capital at Rajapura in Kamboja modern-day Kashmir Gandhara Taxila 6TH CENTURY BC Two important things happened in 6th century BC, Political Unrest and Religious Revolution. A. Political Unrest:- The 16 Powerful clans (16 Mahajanapadas) fought among each other and finally Magadha Kingdom emerged victorious. They established itself as the centre of political activity in northern India. Magadha Empire Many dynasties ruled Magadha Empire and the most important ones are discussed below. 1. Haryanka Dynasty:- Important rulers: Bimbisara, Ajatasatru, and Udayin Capital was Rajgir First Buddhist council took place in 483BC at Rajgir, when Ajatasatru was ruling. 2. Sisunaga Dynasty:- Important rulers: Sisunaga, Kalashoka Capital was shifted from Rajgir to Vaishali Second Buddhist council took place in 383BC at Vaishali 3. Nanda Dynasty:- Important rulers: Mahapadma Nanda and Dhana Nanda Alexander tried to invade India in 326BC, during Dhana Nanda’s rule Dhana Nanda was replaced by Chandragupta Maurya with the help of Chanakya(also known as Kautilya) www.OliveBoard.in B. Religious Revolution By 6th Century BC, caste system became highly complicated and lower caste people faced all socio-economic problems while higher caste people led a safe and dignified life. These lower caste people were ready to move to some other religion where there were no such discriminations. And it was during this time new religions like Buddhism, Jainism and many other religions emerged. They acted as an alternative to the present caste system and many people started following these new religions where they could lead a life with dignity. Buddhism Founder: Siddhartha (also known as Buddha) (563BC-483BC), born at Lumbini garden near Kapilavastu, in Sakya territory. Left palace at the age of 29 and started travelling in search of truth. At the age of 35, he was sitting under a Banyan tree at modern Bodh Gaya, after taking a bath in the stream of river Niranjana, modern Lilajan, and obtained enlightenment and became known as Buddha. Delived the first sermon at Sarnath, and this is called ‘Dharmachakrapracartan’ or ‘Turning of the wheel of law’ Taught his followers Four Noble Truths a. The world is full of sorrows b. Desire is the root cause of sorrow c. The desire if conquered, all sorrows can be removed d. Desire can be removed by following the Eight Fold Path Eight fold Path is right understanding, right speech, right livelihood, right mindfulness, right thought, right action, right effort, right concentration Buddhism was totally against ‘Varna System’ Buddha died in Kushinagara (capital of Malla Mahajanapada) in 483BC. After his death, four Buddhist councils were held President of Council Year Place King Important Features Council Two important literary works were published. 1. Sutta Pitaka: Deals with life history of 1 483 BC Rajgir Mahakassapa Buddha 2. Vinaya Pitaka: Deals with monastic Ajatasatru discipline 2 383 BC Vaishali Kalashoka Sabakami Moggliputta One important literary work was published: 3 250 BC Pataliputra Tissa 1. Abhidhamma Pitaka: Deals with mystic Ashoka Concept beyond knowledge First Kundalawana Buddhism split into two. 4 Century Kanishka Vasumitra (Kashmir) 1. Hinayana: Sect of Buddhism which does AD not believe in idol worship 2. Mahayana: believes in worshiping images/idol of Buddha www.OliveBoard.in Jainism According to Jaina tradition, there were 24 Tirthankaras (religious teachers). Rishabha was the first Tirthankara and Vardhamana Mahavira was the 24th Tirthankara. Mahavira, born in 540BC at Kundagrama near Vaishali, and left his home at the age of 30. At the age of 42, he attained the highest spiritual knowledge called Kevala-Jnana As per Jainism, way to Nirvana also known as Three Ratnatraya involves, Right faith, Right knowledge, and Right conduct. Five carinal principles of Jainism are, Ahimsa, Non-lying, Non-Stealing, Non-Possession, and Brahmacharya. Later divided into two sects. Swethambaras and Digambaras Jain Councils: 1. First Council: held at Pataliputra by Sthulabahu in the beginning of the third century BC. 2. Second Council: Held at Valabhi in the early 6th century AD, under the leadership of Devaradhi Kshamasramana and resulted in finl compilation of 12 Angas and 12 Upangas. www.OliveBoard.in MAURYAN EMPIRE (325BC – 185BC) Last Nanda Dynasty ruler, Dhana Nanda was replaced by Chandragupta Maurya with the help of Chanakya (Also known as Kautilya), and from then started Mauryan Empire. 1. Chandragupta Maurya Megasthenese was a Greek ambassador sent to his court by Seleucus Nicator ‘Indica’ was written by Megasthanese. Chandragupta Maurya went for territorial expansion and followed Jainism His Prime Minister, Chanakya wrote the famous book Arthashastra 2. Bindusara Also known as ‘Amitragatha’ Followed ‘Ajivikaism’, another religion started in 6th Century BC 3. Ashoka Fought Kalinga war in 261BC, but after seeing the devastation caused, he decided not capture any other place by force and follow Buddhism. 3rd Buddhist Council was held in 250BC during Ashoka’s time To propagate Buddhism, he issued inscriptions called edicts Brihadratha was the last ruler of Mauryan Empire and later other dynasties came in power. POST MAURYAN RULERS (2ND CENTURY BC - 3RD CENTURY AD) Sunga Dynasty (185 BC-73BC) Kanva Dynasty (73BC-30BC) Established by Pushyamitra Sung, who was a Established by Vasudeva Brahmin Rulers were very weak and dynasty Patanjali’s Yogasutras’ was composed during came to an end very soon this time Bharhut stupa is the most famous monument of the Sunga period Devabhuti was the last ruler Satavahana Dynasty (60BC-225AD) Founder: Simuka Their capital was Pratisthan Greatest Satavahana ruler Gautamiputra Satakarni, defeated a Saka ruler who ruled Saurashtra Many Chaityas and Viharas were cut out from rocks during this time www.OliveBoard.in Sangam Literature:- South India was under the rule of three great dynasties, Pandyas, Cholas and Cheras. We get information about these dynasties from the literary works of that age known as Sangam Literature. Ettuthogai, and Pattupattu are the most important works of this time. Pandyas First mentioned by Greek traveller Megasthenese Capital was Madurai Was known for pearls Had trade with Roman Empire Cheras Chera Dynasty had ruled in two different time-periods. The first Chera Dynasty had ruled in Sangam Era while second Chera Dynasty had ruled from the 9th century AD onwards. We get to know about the first Chera Dynasty through Sangam Text. The area ruled by Cheras included Cochin, North Travancore and Southern Malabar. Their capital was Vanchi Muthur in Kizhanthur-Kandallur and Karur Vanchi.The capital of later Cheras was Kulashekarapuram and Mahodayapuram. Cholas Capital was Uraiyur Cotton trade was the main source of wealth Karikala was the greatest king; Cholas were wiped out by attack of Pallavas Kushans They came to India from Central Asia. After establishing their empire in India, they even controlled the famous Silk Route which started connecting China to Iran and West Asia. Founder: Kadphises I Greatest of Kushan ruler was Kanishka. He defeated a Saka ruler and started an era in 78 AD, known as Saka Era Fourth Buddhist Council was held during Kanishka’s rule. Kanishka followed Mahayana form of Buddhism. AGE OF GUPTAS (240AD-550AD) Sri Gupta was the founder of Guptas, who ruled from Pataliputra. Art. Literature and science flourished during Gupta period and hence this period is also known as the Golden age of India. Main rulers of Gupta Empire are discussed below. 1. Chandragupta I (320AD-335AD) Assumed the title of Maharajadiraja Married a Licchavi prince named Kumaradevi and obtained large territory 2. Samudragupta (335AD-375AD) Historian V.A. Smith has regarded him as ‘ Indian Napoleon’ and ‘Kavi Raja’ Performed Ashvamedha Yagna and gained more territory and power 3. Chandragupta II (375AD-415AD) Known by the name ‘Vikramaditya’ www.OliveBoard.in His capital was Pataliputra Fa-hien, the Chinese traveller visited India during this time and he has written about the socio-economic and political situation that was present in India. Vikramaditya’s achievements are inscribed in Mehrauli’s iron pillar 4. Kumaragupta I (415AD-455AD) Nalanda Buddhist University was built during this time. Hunas tried to invade, but they were successfully resisted 5. Skandagupta (455AD-467AD) Eran inscription (510AD) is the first reference of practice of Sati in India.. He also performed Ashvamedha Yagna As a result of continued invasion of Hunas, Gupta’s power deteriorated and later Gupta rulers were very weak www.OliveBoard.in Why is Guptan period considered as the Golden age:- Because in literature, science, economy and many more areas, greater development was seen during Gupta Era. Literature Greater contribution to Sanskrit was made by, 1. Kalidasa: He wrote the following books Abhijnanashakuntalam Malavikagnimitram Kumarasambhavam Raghuvamsa Meghadutam 2. Visakhadatta: wrote the following books Mudrarakshasa Devichandraguptam 3. Vishnushraman: wrote the following books Panchatantra Science and Technology 1. Aryabhatta: An astronomer and mathematician. Wrote Aryabhatiya Calculated the value of 'pi' and contributed a lot to trigonometry 2. Varahamihira: An astronomer as well as an astrologer Wrote Panchasiddhanta 3. Brahmagupta: Wrote Brahmasiddhanta, in which he discussed about gravity Economy 1. More trade was happening through silk route 2. Trade with west declined and trade with east flourished 3. Guptas issued large number of gold coins with less intrinsic value www.OliveBoard.in POST GUPTA PERIOD I. Harshavardhana (606AD-647AD) His belonged to Pushybhuti dynasty and his capital was Kanauj Xuanzang, the Chinese traveller visited India during this time and wrote about the socio-economic condition of India in his book. Toward the end of his stay, Xuanzang had the heady experience of being quarreled over by two kings -- the King of Assam and the illustrious King Harsha (reigned 607-647 C.E.) who was one of the last of the great Buddhist rulers Harsha was a devout Saiva but later he became an ardent Hinayana Buddhist. Hiuen Tsang converted him to Mahayana Buddhism. Harsha’s court poet Banabhatta wrote Harshacharita Pulakesin II (a Chalukya ruler) defeated Harsha in the battle of Narmada, when Harsha tried expand his territory beyond River Narmada www.OliveBoard.in II. Pallava (560AD-900AD) Capital was Kanchipuram Narasimhavarman I, a Pallava king killed Pulikesin II (a Chalukyan king) and conquered Vatapi (Chalukyan capital) and assumed the tittle of Vatapikonda Narasimhavarman I was also known as Mamallan and he founded Mahabalipuram or Mamallapuram Narasimhavarman II built a Kailash temple at Kanchi. III. Chola Empire (9th century – 12th century) Also known as Later Cholas and their capital was Tanjore Rajaraja Chola built Brihadeswara Temple, world’s first granite temple at Tanjore Rajendra Chola conquered area up to the banks of Ganga and assumed the title of ‘Gangaikonda’ Rajendra Chola’s reigning period is known as the ‘Golden Age of Cholas’ IV. Chalukya (543AD-757AD) Capital was Vatapi Greatest of its kings, Pulakesin II, defeated Harshavardhana but was later defeated by Narasimhavarman-I, a Pallava King V. Pala Founder of Pala empire was Gopala in 750AD Dharmapala, a Pala ruler, revived Nalanda University and also founded the Vikramshila Univrsity VI. Pratihara Since their origin is from Gujarata of Rajasthan, they are also known as Gurjara Pratiharas Bhoja was the greatest ruler of this dynasty. Also known as life line of Madhya Pradesh VII. Rashtrakuta Founder was Dantidurga and their capital was Malkand One of the greatest Rashtrakuta rulers, Krishna I built the Rock cut temple of Shiva at Ellora in 9th century. www.OliveBoard.in MEDIEVAL INDIA Muslim Invasion in India During the early medieval period, there was no single prominent ruler. India was actually ruled by more than hundred rulers. Then happened Islamic invasion and most important of them was Muhammad of Ghori. He invaded India in 1175 AD. After the conquest of Multan and Punjab, he advanced towards Delhi. Here he fought with Rajput rulers. 1. First Battle of Tarain (1191 AD): Ghori was defeated in this battle by Prithvi Raj Chauhan 2. Second Battle of Tarain (1192 AD): Prithvi Raj Chauhan was defeated in this battle by Ghori. And 2nd battle of Tarain laid the foundation of Islamic rule in India. After the death of Muhammad Ghori in 1206, Delhi region came under the control of his trusted general, Qutub-ud-din Aibak (who was earlier a Turkish slave) and from 1206 starts Slave Dynasty. DELHI SULTANATE Delhi Sultanate includes, the rule of 5 important dynasties; Slave dynasty, Khilji dynasty, Tughlaq dynasty, Sayyid dynasty, Sayyid dynasty, Lodhi dynasty. www.OliveBoard.in Slave Dynasty/ Mamluk Dynasty After the death of Muhammad Ghori, Delhi came under the control of his general Qutub-ud-din Aibak, and thus started the rule of the Slave Dynasty in India. Aibak ruled from his capital Lahore. He was a great builder and started the construction of Qutub Minar. But in 1210 AD, he died of injuries received in a polo match and it was Iltutmish who completed Qutub Minar. Iltutmish was the real founder of Slave Dynasty. He was a great expansionist and consolidated territories. He ruled from Delhi and successfully protected Delhi during the Mongol invasion under Genghis Khan. He set up a group of forty nobles known as Chalisa or Turkan-i-Chihalgani. After Iltutmish, Razia Sultana, was the next main ruler. Later Nasir-ud-din Mahmud became Sultan. But during his tenure, the main power remained in the hands of Balban. After the death of Mahmud, Balban took over and consolidated the administrative set up of the empire and completed the work started by Iltutmish. Slave dynasty rulers conquered southern territories, but never crossed Vindhyan range. Last of Slave Dynasty ruler was killed by Jalal-ud-din Khilji. Qutub-ud-din Aibak (1206-10) He was also known as Lakh baksh, because of his generosity Built Qutub Minar, in the memory of Khwaja Qutub-ud- din Bhaktiyar Kaki Constructed two famous mosques: Quwat-ul-Islam at Delhi and Adhai-din-ka-Jhonpra at Ajmer Shams-ud-din Iltutmish (1211-36) Introduced ‘Iqta system’ Introduced two types of coins: Tanka and Jital Razia Begum/ Razia Sultana (1236-40) First and Only Muslim lady ruler who ever adorned the throne of Delhi Ghiyas-ud-din Balban (1266-86) Proposed the Divine theory of Kingship Abolished Turkan-i-Chihalgani Took the title of Zil-i-Ilahi (Shadow of God) Introduced Sijda (Prostration before the monarch) and Paibos (Kissing the feet of monarch) Khilji Dynasty Jalal-ud-din Khilji, the founder of Khilji Dynasty was a weak ruler and he adopted a lenient policy towards Mongol. But his successor Ala-ud-din Khilji was an expansionist and during his time, empire expanded both northward and southward. He defeated Yadava Dynasty rule and crossed Vidhyan range. Mongols (who tried to invade India) were successfully repulsed. After his death, the other rulers were inefficient and Khilji dynasty came to an end by 1320 www.OliveBoard.in Ala-ud-din Khilji(1296-1316 AD) Separated religion from politics and proclaimed “Kingship knows no kinship” Constructed ‘Alai Darwaja’, the entrance gate of Qutub Minar and built the palace, Hazar Situn Tughlaq Dynasty After the death of Ala-ud-din Khilji, Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq ascended the throne and founded the Tughlaq dynasty. Ghiyas-ud-din expanded his territory south upto Madurai and also decided to annex Gujrat and Bengal, which became independent during the decline of Khiljis. But in an accident Ghiyas-ud-din died and his son Muhammad-bin Tughlaq became the next ruler. Muhammad Bin Tughlaq was well educated and introduced many welfare measures but they just remained as experiments (failed experiments). He shifted his capital from Delhi to Devagiri, and renamed it as Dauladabad. During the second half of his rule, revolt started at different parts of the empire and finally resulted in the disintegration of Tughlaq dynasty. Firoz Shah Tughlaq was the most famous of last Tughlaq rulers. He did not try to expand his territory, but was involved in the welfare activities. After his death Tughlaq dynasty virtually came to an end. During the last days of Tughlaq, Timur invaded India and captured Delhi. He appointed Khizr Khan Sayyid to administer these areas and thus started Sayyid Dynasty in India. Muhammad-bin Tughlaq His real name was Jauna Khan Transfer of capital from Delhi to Dauladabad and then back to Delhi Qarachil and Khurasan were very famous expeditions of Jauna Khan Separate department for agriculture known as Diwan-i-kohi was created Introduced token currency by replacing silver by bronze due to global shortage of silver Ibn Battuta (Moroccan traveller) visited during his reign Firoz Shah Tughlaq Built cities of Kotla, Hissar, and Ferozabad A new department, Diwan-i-Khairat was set up. Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1450 AD) First ruler was Khizr Khan Sayyid. Sayyids ruled for 37 years and the last ruler, Ala-ud-din Alam Shah gave power to Bahlul Lodhi. Lodhi Dynasty (1451-1526) Lodhis were the 1st Afghan rulers in India. Their 1st ruler, Bahlul Lodhi introduced the Afghan theory of Kingship (king is just like other ministers but prime one) and gave huge respect to nobles. But later rulers, Sikander Lodhi and Ibrahim Lodhi rejected Afghan theory of kingship, and tried to control nobles. www.OliveBoard.in Nobles conspired against Ibrahim Lodhi and invited Babar to invade India. Ibrahim Khan Lodhi was killed by Babar in 1526 during 1st battle of Panipat Sikander Lodhi (1489-1517 AD) Shifted his capital from Delhi to Agra Introduced a new system of land measurement, called Gaz-i-sikandari (Sikander’s yard) Sultanate Architecture Amir Khusrau: Kuwwatul-Islam Delhi He was a Persian poet and Qutub-ud-din Aibak Dhai Din Ka Jhopara he had associated with Kutbminar-Ajmer Delhi many Delhi Sultanate rulers Siri Fort during 1253-1325. He was a Mahal- Hazari-I Sitoon very versatile person, he Ala-ud-din Khilji Alai -Darwaza was a soldier, diplomat, Alai Minar shrewd in court matters Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq Tuglaqabad (Fort city) and a great poet in Persian, Muhammad-bin Jahan- Panah (Fort city) Arabic, and Urdu. Tughlaq Sat Pullia Firoz Shah Kotla He is also known as Tuti-i- Jamima Masjid Firoz Shah Tughlaq Hind or the ‘Parrot of India’ Kusak-i- Sikar Recinstructed Hauz-I –Khas and Katbminar Sikander Lodhi Founded Agra His major works include, Old Fort Tarikh-i-Alai, Khamsah, Sher Shah Suri Qila-i- Kuhng Tughlaqnama, and Sher Shah’s Torib - Sasaram Miftahul Futuh Chand Bardai Prithviraj Raso Literature Sultanate Qanun-i-Maudis Feroz Shah Tughlaq Literature Futuhat-i-Firozshahi Sultanate Al Beruni Jawahir fil-Jawahir Hasan Nizami Tajul Maasir Kitab-ul-Hind Minhas-us-Siraj Tabaqat-i-Nasiri Ibn-Batuta Malik Muhammad Kitab-ul-Rehla Jayasi Padmavat MUGHAL EMPIRE Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur (1526–1530): Battle of Khanwa, 1527: Babur decided to take on Rana Sanga of Chittor, who as ruler of Mewar, had a strong influence over Rajasthan and Malwa. Babur selected Khanwa, near Agra, as a favourable site for this inevitable encounter. With strategic positioning of forces and effective use of artillery, Babur defeated Rana Sanga’s forces. First Battle of Panipat, 21 April 1526: Babur then turned towards the Lodigoverned Punjab. After several invasions, he defeated the formidable forces of Ibrahim Lodi with a numerically inferior army at Panipat. Babur, the founder of Mughal Empire, was a scholar of Persian and Arabic. Babur’s memoirs Tuziuk-i-Baburi (Baburnama) is considered a world classic. Humayun (1530-1540 & 1555-1556): Battle of Chausa (1539): This battle was won by Sher Khan due to his superior political and military skills. Humayun suffered a defeat in which 7000 Mughal nobles and soldiers were killed and Humayun himself had to flee. Battle of Kanauj (1540): This battle was won by Sher Khan and Humayun’s army was completely routed, and he became a prince without a kingdom. www.OliveBoard.in Sher Shah and Sur Dynasty: From the time Humayun abandoned the throne in the Battle of Kanauj to his regaining of power in 1555 Delhi was ruled by Sher Shah of the Sur Dynasty. Born in the family of a Jagirdar and named as Farid, he received the title of Sher Khan after killing a tiger (sher in Hindi). When he ascended the throne, he was called Sher Shah. Through his ability and efficiency, he emerged as the chief of Afghans in India Sher Shah was succeeded by his second son Islam Shah who ruled till 1553. His death at a young age led to a state of confusion about succession. Humayun used this opportunity to regain Delhi and Agra from the Sur rulers. Emperor Akbar (1556–1605): At the age of 13 years, Akbar became the Mughal emperor. For the initial few years, Maham Anga helped him in administration and this is known as Petticoat Government, but later started ruling all by himself. Akbar was known for four of his great policies. 1. Religious Policy:- Respected all religion and abolished Jizya, a tax imposed on non-Muslims. In 1572 he also constructed Ibadat Khana, at Fatehpur Sikri, for religious discussions. Proclaimed Din-i-Ilahi in 1582 2. Rajput Policy:- Through discussions he solved problems with Rajput. Some of them even entered in matrimonial alliance. 3. Expansionist Policy- From 1556-1605, he was continuously involved in territorial expansion. 4. Administration:- Considered as the real founder of Mughal administration, Art, Culture etc. Introduced Jagirdari system - collection of the revenue of an estate and the power of governing it were bestowed upon an official of the state. Also introduced Mahalwari system- Mahal refers to an estate with many cultivators. The term Mahal referred to the fiscal unit / revenue division into which the whole land was divided by Akbar. www.OliveBoard.in In his last days there were some problems between Akbar and his son Salim (also known as Jahangir). After the death of Akbar, his son Jahangir (original name was Salim) became the next ruler. It was during his reign, Guru Arjan Dev was executed by Mughal Army for providing shelter to Khusrau, (his son) who revolted against him. In 1611 Salim married Mehr-ul-Nisa (also known by the name Nur Jahan). Jahangir was not an able ruler like his father. Most of the administrative activities were done by his wife. After his death in 1627, his son Khuram (also known by the name ‘Shah Jahan’) became the next ruler. Shah Jahan’s ruling period is known as the Golden age of Medieval India because of 1. Very high economic prosperity and 2. Development in art and culture He ruled from his capital Shah Jahanabad, which had Jama Masjid, Red Fort and famous Chandini Chowk. In 1612, he married Arjumand Banu Begum, who became famous as Mumtaz Mahal later. He also built a Peacock Throne and he is also known as ‘architect king’. In 1658 he was imprisoned by his son Aurangzeb and finally died in 1666. In 1658 Aurangzeb came in power by imprisoning his father Shah Jahan. The religious and Rajput policies of Akbar were reversed by him. In 1678 he reintroduced Jizya (a tax on Non-Muslim) and went against Rajput using military. Maratha region also revolted during this time under Shivaji. He was an expansionist and it was under his reign Mughal Empire reached its peak in terms of area. After his death in 1707, other rulers (later Mughals) were not that efficient and powerful. As a result a lot of people came into power in continuous succession and territorial disintegration also happened during this time. Akbar (1556-1605) Akbar built Buland Darwaza, Ibadat Khana at Fatehpur Sikri, Agra Fort, Lahore Palace, Fatehpur Sikri, Allahabad Fort Gems of Akbar’s court: Birbal, Tansen, Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan, Mullah do Pyaza, Todar Mal, Abul Fazl, Faizi and Man Singh Jahangir (1605-27) Married Nur Jahan (also known as Meh-un-Nisa) Guru Arjan Dev was executed at Jahangir’s order Wrote Tuzuk-i-Jahangir Shah Jahan (1627-1658 Also known as architect king He built Taj Mahal in agra, Moti Masjid, Red Fort, Jama Masjid and also Musamman Burz (here he spent his last years in captivity) He laid the Shalimar Gardens in Lahore Aurangzeb (1658-1707) Assumed the title of Alamgir Jizya was reintroduced 9th Sikh Guru Teg Bahadur was executed during his reign Moti Masjid was built by him Compiled Fatwa-i-Alamgri and ended the celebration of Navroz festival www.OliveBoard.in THE MARATHA AGE Maratha presence was there in medieval history, but most of them split and they were in different groups, sometime fighting against each other and sometimes on the same side. As a result a unity was absent. Shivaji born in 1627, obtained Jagir of Poona from his father. Shivaji now started raiding territories of Bhaminis (especially Bijapur ruler) and Mughals. Shivaji also killed Afzal Khan, who was deputed by Adil Shah (Bijapur ruler) to kill Shivaji. In 1664 as part of territorial expansion Shivaji attacked Surat, a very important Mughal port, but was defeated by the army sent by Aurangzeb under Jaisingh in 1665. This defeat resulted in Treaty of Purandhar (1665). He continued his territorial expansion and captured southern areas up to Tanjore. Later he died in 1680. www.OliveBoard.in Shivaji’s Aministration:- 1. Ashtapradhan: there were eight most important ministers and most powerful of them was known as Peshwa 2. Chauth and Sardeshmukhi: They were taxes levied on territories outside Maratha, to avoid frequent raid or attack by Marathas. Sambaji (Shivaji’s elder son) and Shahuji (Sambaji’s son) were imprisoned by Aurangzeb and hence Raja Ram(shivaji’s younger son) became the next ruler. He took Marathas to a new height, but in 1700 he died and from then till 1707, Tarabai (Raja Ram’s wife) ruled. Later when Sahhuji was released by Bahadur Shah, he went to Tarabai asking for his state which she rejected and this led to the battle of Khed and Shahuji won this war. Balaji Viswanath (the 1st Peshwa) helped Shahuji in war and eventually Shahuji succeeded Raja Ram. From here onwards, power would start shifting to Peshwa, even though ruler was also there. Important Peshwas are listed down. 1. Balaji Vishwanath (1713-20) 2. Baji Rao I (1720-40) 3. Balaji Baji Rao (1740-61) After the defeat in the Third battle of Panipat in 1761, against Ahmad Shah Abdali, Maratha power decreased drastically and their decline started. Maratha Empire almost came to an end after the defeat in the third Anglo- Maratha wars. www.OliveBoard.in MODERN INDIA POST AURANGZEB ERA (1707-1857) After the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, Mughal Empire declined. Later Mughals (Mughal rulers after Aurangzeb) were weak and didn’t have good administrative skills. As a result many rulers came in power in quick succession with a very few exceptions and many parts of the empire started declaring independence. These areas though now controlled by local rulers, they symbolically considered Mughal ruler as their supreme head. Important Later Mughal Rulers:- 1. Bahadur Shah (1707-12) Also known as Muazzam and he followed a pacifist policy Assumed the title of Shah Alam I and made peace with Guru Gobind Singh Released Shahu and Granted Sardesh Mukhi to Marathas 2. Jahandar Shah (1712-12) Came into power with the help of Zulfiquar Kahn Abolished Jiziya and later was defeated by Farrukh Siyar 3. Farrukh Siyar (1713-19) Came into power with the help of Sayyid Brothers (Abdullah Khan and Hussain Ali Khan) During his time, Banda Bahadur was captured and executed He was killed by Sayyid brothers 4. Mohammad Shah (1719-48) His real name was Roshan Akthar, but was nick named as ‘Rangeela’ Nadir Shah invaded India when he was ruling and took away Koh-i-noor and Peacock throne In 1722, his Wazir, Nizam-ul-mulk quit the job and marched to the Deccan to found the state of Hyderabad 5. Ahmed Shah Bahadur (1748-54) He was a very weak ruler and couldn’t control his vast army, territorial disintegration continued in his time and by the end Empire reduced in size Ahmed Shah Abdali marched towards Delhi 6. Alamgir (1754-59) During his reign, Delhi was plundered by Ahmed Shah Abdali and Marathas 7. Shah Alam II (1759-1806) Battle of Buxar was fought during his reign. 8. Akbar Shah II (1806-37) During his time, Mughal ruler became a mere pensioner of British. He sent Raja Ram Mohan Roy to England and later Ram Mohan Roy died in England. www.OliveBoard.in 9. Bahadur Shah II (1837-58) Last Mughal ruler He was the leader of revolt of 1857. He was later captured and exiled to Rangoon. He died in Rangoon prison in 1862. Btitish East India Company (1st Phase):- They got a charter from queen of England in 1600, giving them the sole right to trade with the east. And in the first decade of 17th century, they reached India for trade. Trade with proved highly profitable to them and to increase profit margin further, they started asking for more and more concession from the rulers. They succeeded in getting a royal Farman from Mughal, which gave them the right to trade duty free. In the initial years, there main centre of activity was Bengal. Royal Farman only exempted only company from paying duty and not the employees, who were involved in personal trade. But misusing the provisions, the employees of the company also started evading duty, which later led to building tension between company and the local ruler. Other than British East India Company, there were other companies too. All these company traded same things, and because of this competition prices of different commodities increased, which in turn decreased the profit margin. And these companies were fighting among each other, to stay on top of the business. To protect the stock from the attack of other company, they started fortifying their company premises. And this was another reason for the escalation of tension between the local rulers and the trading company. Battle of Plassey:- During the reign of later Mughal rulers, different areas in their territory started claiming independence and Bengal was one such area. After the death of Alivardi Khan of Bengal in 1756, Siraj-ud-daulah became the next Nawab of Bengal in 1756. Siraj-ud-Daulah, asked company to stop fortification, stop involving in political affairs of Bengal and also asked employees, who were involved in personal trades to pay duty. When company refused to do that, Nawab captured and imprisoned British company officials. This later led to the famous battle of Plassey in 1757. Company army under Robert Clive won this war. Though for a few years, they appointed puppet rulers, later took control of administration completely by 1773, thus starting British rule in India. Carnatic Wars Between 1740 and 1760, European wars in which England and France were opponents brought them into conflict in India also. And this led to a series of three wars known as Carnatic Wars. The third Carnatic war ended when the war in Europe ended in 1763, with the treaty of Paris. But as per the terms and conditions of the treaty, French factories in India could no longer be fortified. Anglo-Mysore Wars Mysore rulers, initially Hyder Ali and later Tipu Sultan, were acting against the British interest and they were close to French. With French help, they even modernised their army. All this led to a series of four wars between Mysore and British East India Company, known as Anglo-Mysore Wars. 1st Anglo-Mysore War (1767-69): ended with Treaty of Madras 2nd Anglo-Mysore War (1780-84): Hyder Ali died, but Tipu continued war which later ended with Treaty of Mangalore 3rd Anglo-Mysore War (1789-92): Ended with Treaty of Seringapatam 4th Anglo-Mysore War (1799): Death of Tipu Sultan. Later the Mysore area was brought under Wodeyar dynasty (the real rulers of Mysore) Anglo-Maratha Wars Three wars were fought between Martha and English. 1st Anglo-Maratha War: Ended with Treaty of Salbai 2nd Anglo-Maratha War: Result was a decisive British victory www.OliveBoard.in 3rd Anglo-Maratha War: Formal end of the Maratha empire and firm establishment of the British East India Company Important British Policies in India:- When British started conquering places in India, they also started imposing new policies here. Important policies are discussed below. 1. Subsidiary Alliance:- Introduced by Wellesley in 1798 Using this policy they tried to capture territories even without war It was a military alliance and under it, Indian states had to pay an amount to British, for maintaining an army for them in the state. And in return British would protect them from any internal or external threat. But if the Indian state fail to pay, British would annex a part of Indian state’s territory First state to sign subsidiary alliance with British was the state of Hyderabad. 2. Doctrine of Lapse:- Also known as Doctrine without any morality. It was introduced in 1848 by Lord Dalhousie It gave British, the right to annex any Indian state to its territory, if the ruler of that state dies without a natural successor British felt that investment in land had to be encouraged and agriculture had to be improved. For this, they introduced 3 systems Zamindari, Ryotwari, and Mahalwari systems Land Tenure Location Features System Permanent Bengal, Bihar Introduced by Cornwallis Settlement Tax amount was fixed permanently and not to (1793) be increased in the future Zamindars collected tax Very exploitative and British didn’t implement in any other parts of India Ryotwari Madras, Bombay, Assam By Thomas Munro (1820) Company directly collected tax from farmers Mahalwari Gangetic valley, Punjab, Introduced by Holt Mackenzie (1822) North-west provinces Village headman was made responsible for tax and some part of central collection India REVOLT OF 1857 V. D. Savarkar in 1907 wrote a book on ‘Indian war of independence’ and mentioned revolt of 1857 as the First war of independence. Causes of Revolt:- 1. Economic Causes:- All sections of the society was negatively affected by British economic policies Peasants: Huge taxation, money lenders, and complex judiciary led to the exploitation of this group. Disguised unemployment was very high here. Artisans: British economic policy was aimed at de-industrialisation in India. And in this process many artisans lost their job and they had to move to agriculture sector or to some other areas, where already unemployment was pretty high. When they shifted, situation worsened. 2. Socio Cultural Changes:- The British believed that Indian society had to be reformed. www.OliveBoard.in Laws were passed to stop the practice of sati and to encourage the remarriage of widows. English-language education was actively promoted. After 1830, the Company allowed Christian missionaries to function freely in its domain and even own land and property. In 1850s, a new law was passed to make conversion to Christianity easier. This law allowed an Indian who had converted to Christianity to inherit the property of his ancestors. Many Indians began to feel that the British were destroying their religion, their social customs and their traditional way of life. There were of course other Indians who wanted to change existing social practices. 3. Military Causes:- Racial brutality/ Maltreatment of Indian military personals by British officers Discrimination in pay and promotion Bad service conditions: caste and other rituals were prohibited in Army 4. Political Causes:- Kings, queens, peasants, landlords, tribals, and soldiers were all affected in different ways by the British policies. Since the mid-eighteenth century, nawabs and rajas had seen their power erode. They had gradually lost their authority and honour Many ruling families tried to negotiate with the Company to protect their interests. For example, Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi wanted the Company to recognise her adopted son as the heir to the kingdom after the death of her husband and Nana Saheb, the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II, pleaded that he be given his father’s pension when the latter died Awadh was one of the last territories to be annexed. In 1801, a subsidiary alliance was imposed on Awadh, and in 1856 it was taken over. Governor-General Dalhousie declared that the territory was being misgoverned and British rule was needed to ensure proper administration In 1849, Governor-General Dalhousie announced that after the death of Bahadur Shah Zafar, the family of the king would be shifted out of the Red Fort and given another place in Delhi to reside in. In 1856, Governor-General Canning decided that Bahadur Shah Zafar would be the last Mughal king and after his death none of his descendants would be recognised as kings – they would just be called princes 5. Immediate Cause:- A rumour spread that the newly introduced Enfield riffle’s cartridge was manufactured using cow and pig fat and usage of this cow and pig fat was against the religious ideologies of Hindus and Muslims. A Mutiny Becomes a Popular Rebellion:- A very large number of people begin to believe that they have a common enemy and rise up against the enemy at the same time. Such a situation developed in the northern parts of India in 1857. After a hundred years of conquest and administration, the English East India Company faced a massive rebellion that started in May 1857 and threatened the Company’s very presence in India. Sepoys mutinied in several places beginning from Meerut and a large number of people from different sections of society rose up in rebellion. From Meerut to Delhi:- On 29 March 1857, a young soldier, Mangal Pandey, was hanged to death for attacking his officers in Barrackpore www.OliveBoard.in On 9th May 1857 some sepoys of the regiment at Meerut refused to do the army drill using the new cartridges, which were suspected of being coated with the fat of cows and pigs. Eighty-five sepoys were dismissed from service and sentenced to ten years in jail for disobeying their officers. On 10 May, the soldiers marched to the jail in Meerut and released the imprisoned sepoys. They attacked and killed British officers. They captured guns and ammunition and set fire to the buildings and properties of the British and declared war on the firangis. The sepoys of Meerut rode all night of 10 May to reach Delhi in the early hours next morning. The emperor was not quite willing to challenge the mighty British power but the soldiers persisted. They forced their way into the palace and proclaimed Bahadur Shah Zafar as their leader. Bahadur Shah Zafar wrote letters to all the chiefs and rulers of the country to come forward and organise a confederacy of Indian states to fight the British. Threatened by the expansion of British rule, many of the smaller rulers felt that if the Mughal emperor could rule again, they too would be able to rule their own territories once more, under Mughal authority. The British had not expected this to happen. The rebellion spreads:- After the British were routed from Delhi, there was no uprising for almost a week. It took that much time for news to travel. Then, a spurt of mutinies began. Regiment after regiment mutinied. People of the towns and villages also rose up in rebellion and rallied around local leaders, zamindars and chiefs who were prepared to establish their authority and fight the British. Nana Saheb, the adopted son of the late Peshwa Baji Rao who lived near Kanpur, gathered armed forces and expelled the British garrison from the city. He proclaimed himself Peshwa and declared that he was a governor under Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar. In Lucknow, Birjis Qadr, the son of the deposed Nawab Wajid Ali Shah, was proclaimed the new Nawab. He too acknowledged the suzerainty of Bahadur Shah Zafar. His mother Begum Hazrat Mahal took an active part in organising the uprising against the British. In Jhansi, Rani Lakshmibai joined the rebel sepoys and fought the British along with Tantia Tope, the general of Nana Saheb. The British were defeated in a number of battles. This convinced the people that the rule of the British had collapsed for good and gave them the confidence to take the plunge and join the rebellion. A situation of widespread popular rebellion developed in the region of Awadh in particular. Many new leaders came up. For example, 1. Ahmadullah Shah, a maulvi from Faizabad, prophesied that the rule of the British would come to an end soon. He caught the imagination of the people and raised a huge force of supporters. 2. Bakht Khan, a soldier from Bareilly, took charge of a large force of fighters who came to Delhi. He became a key military leader of the rebellion. 3. In Bihar, an old zamindar, Kunwar Singh, joined the rebel Sepoys and battled with the British for many months. The company fights back:- The Company decided to repress the revolt with all its might. It brought reinforcements from England, passed new laws so that the rebels could be convicted with ease, and then moved into the storm centres of the revolt. Delhi was recaptured from the rebel forces in September 1857. The last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar was tried in court and sentenced to life imprisonment. His sons were shot dead before his eyes. He and his wife Begum Zinat Mahal were sent to prison in Rangoon in October 1858. Bahadur Shah Zafar died in the Rangoon jail in November 1862. Lucknow was taken in March 1858. Rani Lakshmibai was defeated and killed in June 1858. www.OliveBoard.in Tantia Tope escaped to the jungles of central India and continued to fight a guerrilla war with the support of many tribal and peasant leaders. He was captured, tried and killed in April 1859. Aftermath:- After the revolt of 1857, British introduced many changes and some of them are discussed below: 1. The British Parliament passed a new Act in 1858 and transferred the powers of the East India Company to the British Crown. A member of the British Cabinet was appointed Secretary of State for India and made responsible for all matters related to the governance of India. He was given a council to advise him, called the India Council. The Governor-General of India was given the title of Viceroy, that is, a personal representative of the Crown. 2. All ruling chiefs of the country were assured that their territory would never be annexed in future. They were allowed to pass on their kingdoms to their heirs, including adopted sons. However, they were made to acknowledge the British Queen as their Sovereign Paramount. Thus the Indian rulers were to hold their kingdoms as subordinates of the British Crown. 3. It was decided that the proportion of Indian soldiers in the army would be reduced and the number of European soldiers would be increased. It was also decided that instead of recruiting soldiers from Awadh, Bihar, central India and south India, more soldiers would be recruited from among the Gurkhas, Sikhs and Pathans. 4. The land and property of Muslims was confiscated on a large scale and they were treated with suspicion and hostility. The British believed that they were responsible for the rebellion in a big way. 5. The British decided to respect the customary religious and social practices of the people in India. 6. Policies were made to protect landlords and Zamindars and give them security of rights over their lands. Thus a new phase of history began after 1857. RENAISSANCE This includes the reforms happened in Indian society in the 19th century. Raja Ram Mohan Roy is considered as the Father of Indian Renaissance. All the educated Indians of early 19th century, believed that British rule was good for India and hence they never went angst British. Only after the First War of Independence, they realised that they were wrong and decided to act against British. But for mass resistance against British was possible only when there is a common uniting factor i.e. ‘Nationalism’. But the socio-religious and other practices present during that time didn’t allow that. Hence they decided to modernise the society by going for socio-religious reforms. And this is what happened during renaissance. Social Reforms and Reformers:- Raja Ram Mohan Roy Started Atmiya Sabha in 1814 and Brahma Sabha in 1828. Also established Vedanta college in 1825 Succeeded in persuading Lord Bentick to abolish ‘Sati’ in 1829 Wrote ‘A gift to Monotheists’ Arya Samaj Set up in 1875 by Swami Dayanand Saraswati in Bombay Opposed untouchability, child marriage, and caste discrimination Ram Krishna Paramhansa Was a supporter of Advaita www.OliveBoard.in Socio-religious reformer from Bengal Thought of attaining salvation through yoga, meditation, and devotion. He said, all religions are different roads to the same destination. Swami Vivekananda He was a disciple of Rama Krishna Paramahansa Attended the World Parliament of Religions held at Chicago in 1893 Started Rama Krishna Math in 1887 and Rama Krishna Mission in 1897 Sister Nivedita was his disciple. Sree Narayana Guru Established Sree Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam (SNDP) in 1902 He gave the slogan of “One Caste, One Religion and One God for mankind” E. V. Ramasamy Naicker Took steps to uplift lower caste and started ‘Self-respect movement’ He believed that old manuscripts were the root cause of all social injustice and hence he asked to ‘Burn Manusmriti’ Theosophical Society Formed in 1875 by Madam Blavatsky and Colonel Olcott in USA Head Quarter was later shifted to Adyar, Madras. Annie Besant was a very famous theosophist PERIOD OF MODERATES (1885-190 5) In 1885, 72 men met in Bombay under A O Hume and this was the 1st All India Organization known as Indian National Congress (INC). W. C. Banerjee presided over INC’s founding session. Promotion and consolidation of Nation making & the Establishment of secular and democratic nation, were the primary objectives of INC. Important INC Sessions:- Year Place President 1885 Bombay W. C. Banerjee 1886 Kolkata Dadabhai Naoroji (1st president from minority) 1887 Madras Badruddin Tyabji (1st Muslim president) 1888 Allahabad George Yule (1st English president) 1905 Banaras G K Gokhale 1906 Kolkata Dadabhai Naoroji 1907 Surat Rashbihari Ghosh (split in congress) 1916 Lucknow A C Mazumdar (reunion of moderates & extremists) 1917 Kolkata Annie Besant (1st woman president) Lala Lajpat Rai (1st constitution for congress was drafted under the direction of M 1920 Nagpur K Gandhi) 1922 Gaya D C Das 1924 Belgaum M K Gandhi 1925 Kanpur Sarojini Naidu (1st Indian woman president) 1929 Lahore Jawaharlal Nehru (Poorna Swaraj declaration) 1931 Karachi Vallabhbhai Patel (Passing of resolution on Fundamental Rights) 1936 Lucknow Jawaharlal Nehru 1937 Faizpur Jawaharlal Nehru 1938 Haripura Subhas Chandra Bose 1939 Tripuri Subhas Chandra Bose (resigned) Rajendra Prasad replaced Bose 1947 Meerut J B Kripalani www.OliveBoard.in Important Events:- Drain of wealth theory was proposed, which showed how British is destroying India by taking our wealth to England. Indian Council Act of 1892, didn’t give enough powers to Indian and in protest of this, INC came up with the slogan of ‘No taxation without representation’. Moderates adopted methods like, Petition, Prayer, and Protest (3Ps) to get their demand done PERIOD OF RADICAL NATIONALISTS (1905-15) Important Events:- A group of people in INC was not convinced by the way INC protested, later this group formed extremists. Bengal Partition: In 1905 British announced their plan of dividing Bengal. Official explanation said, it was for administrative convenience but other understood that it was part of Britain’s divide and rule policy. In protest of this Swadeshi movement started in 1905. And later in October 1905, when partition took place, people went for harthal, tied rakhi, and sang ‘Vande mataram’ to show their unity. And as a part of Swadeshi movement, people boycott British goods and English education. And India witnessed a revival of vernacular literary activity. Split in Congress: Extremists wanted to extend Swadeshi Movement throughout India and continue boycotting British goods. But moderates in INC, rejected this proposal which led to the Split in INC in its 1907 Surat session. After split most of the extremist leaders were arrested on the charges of sedition. But after the suppression of extremists, 1st phase of Revolutionary Terrorism emerged in India. 1909: Morley-Minto reform Reasons for the rise of Revolutionary Terrorism:- 1. Realisation of the true nature of the British rule 2. Growth of education 3. Reaction against westernisation 4. International development 5. Failure of moderates and extremists First revolutionary act started in Maharashtra, among the Chitpavan Brahmins. They felt that they lost their ruling power because of British and adopted a revolu

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