Introducing Communication Theory Analysis and Application (2010) PDF

wes85077_fm.qxd 1/21/09 5:35 PM Page i Introducing Communication Theory wes85077_fm.qxd 1/21/09 6:04 PM Page ii wes85077_fm.qxd 1/21/09 6:04 PM Page iii F OURTH EDITION Introducing Communication T...

wes85077_fm.qxd 1/21/09 5:35 PM Page i Introducing Communication Theory wes85077_fm.qxd 1/21/09 6:04 PM Page ii wes85077_fm.qxd 1/21/09 6:04 PM Page iii F OURTH EDITION Introducing Communication Theory A N A LY S I S A N D A P P L I C AT I O N Richard West Emerson College Lynn H. Turner Marquette University wes85077_fm.qxd 1/21/09 5:35 PM Page iv Published by McGraw-Hill, an imprint of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020. Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004, 2000. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distrib- uted in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning. This book is printed on acid-free paper. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 FGR/ FGR 0 9 ISBN: 978-0-07-338507-5 MHID: 0-07-338507-7 Editor in Chief: Michael Ryan Publisher: Frank Mortimer Executive Editor: Katie Stevens Marketing Manager: Leslie Oberhuber Developmental Editor: Kate Scheinman Production Editor: Holly Paulsen Manuscript Editor: Rachel Hockett Design Manager: Ashley Bedell Text Designer: Elise Lansdon Illustrators: Joan Carol, John and Judy Waller, Robin Mouat, Ayelet Arbel, Macmillan Media Project Manager: Ron Nelms Production Supervisor: Louis Swaim Composition: 10/12 Sabon by Macmillan Publishing Solutions Printing: 45# New Era Matte, Quebecor World Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data has been applied for. The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a Web site does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw- Hill, and McGraw-Hill does not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites. www.mhhe.com wes85077_fm.qxd 1/21/09 5:35 PM Page v Brief Part One Setting the Stage 1 1. Thinking About Communication: Definitions, Contents Models, and Ethics 3 2. Thinking About the Field: Traditions and Contexts 26 3. Thinking About Theory and Research 44 4. As We Begin... 67 Part Two Understanding the Dialogue 73 THE SELF AND MESSAGES 75 5. Symbolic Interaction Theory 76 6. Coordinated Management of Meaning 92 7. Cognitive Dissonance Theory 112 8. Expectancy Violations Theory 129 RELATIONSHIP DEVELOPMENT 145 9. Uncertainty Reduction Theory 147 10. Social Penetration Theory 167 11. Social Exchange Theory 185 12. Relational Dialectics Theory 201 13. Communication Privacy Management Theory 219 GROUPS AND ORGANIZATIONS 237 14. Groupthink 239 15. Structuration Theory 258 16. Organizational Culture Theory 274 17. Organizational Information Theory 290 THE PUBLIC 309 18. The Rhetoric 310 19. Dramatism 328 20. The Narrative Paradigm 343 THE MEDIA 359 21. Cultural Studies 360 22. Cultivation Analysis 376 23. Uses and Gratifications Theory 392 24. Spiral of Silence Theory 410 25. Media Ecology Theory 427 CULTURE AND DIVERSITY 447 26. Face-Negotiation Theory 448 27. Communication Accommodation Theory 465 28. Muted Group Theory 483 29. Standpoint Theory 501 Part Three On the Horizon... 517 30. Moving in New Directions 519 v wes85077_fm.qxd 1/21/09 5:35 PM Page vi wes85077_fm.qxd 1/21/09 5:35 PM Page vii Contents Preface xix About the Authors xxix PART ONE Setting the Stage 1 Chapter 1 Thinking About Communication: Definitions, Models, and Ethics 3 Defining Communication 4 The Intentionality Debate: Did You Mean That? 8 Models of Understanding: Communication as Action, Interaction, and Transaction 11 Communication as Action: The Linear Model 11 Communication as Interaction: The Interactional Model 12 Communication as Transaction: The Transactional Model 14 Ethics and Communication 15 Business and Industry 17 Religion 18 Entertainment 19 Higher Education 19 Medicine 19 Politics 20 Technology 20 Some Final Thoughts 21 The Value of Understanding Communication Theory 22 Understanding Communication Theory Cultivates Critical Thinking Skills 22 Understanding Communication Theory Helps You to Recognize the Breadth and Depth of Research 23 Understanding Communication Theory Helps to Make Sense of Personal Life Experiences 23 Communication Theory Fosters Self-Awareness 23 Conclusion 24 Discussion Starters 24 Online Learning Center 25 Chapter 2 Thinking About the Field: Traditions and Contexts 26 Seven Traditions in the Communication Field 27 The Rhetorical Tradition 28 The Semiotic Tradition 29 vii wes85077_fm.qxd 1/21/09 5:35 PM Page viii The Phenomenological Tradition 29 The Cybernetic Tradition 30 The Socio-Psychological Tradition 30 The Socio-Cultural Tradition 31 The Critical Tradition 31 Putting It All Together 32 Seven Contexts in the Communication Field 32 Intrapersonal Communication 32 Interpersonal Communication 34 Small Group Communication 35 Organizational Communication 37 Public/Rhetorical Communication 38 Mass/Media Communication 40 Cultural Communication 41 Collating the Contexts 42 Conclusion 42 Discussion Starters 43 Online Learning Center 43 Chapter 3 Thinking About Theory and Research 44 Defining Theory: What’s in a Name? 46 Level of Generality 47 Components 48 Goals 49 Relationship Between Theory and Experience 50 Approaches to Knowing: How Do You See (and talk about) the World? 50 The Positivistic, or Empirical, Approach 51 The Interpretive Approach 51 The Critical Approach 51 Approaches to Knowing: What Questions Do You Ask About the World? 52 Approaches to Knowing: How Do You Go About Theory Building? 55 Covering Law Approach 55 Rules Approach 57 Systems Approach 58 The Research Process 60 Conclusion 65 Discussion Starters 65 Online Learning Center 66 Chapter 4 As We Begin... 67 For Review 67 Something New 69 Scope 69 Logical Consistency 69 Parsimony 70 Utility 70 Testability 70 viii Contents wes85077_fm.qxd 1/21/09 5:35 PM Page ix Heurism 70 Test of Time 70 Conclusion 71 PART TWO Understanding the Dialogue 73 THE SELF AND MESSAGES 75 Chapter 5 Symbolic Interaction Theory 76 History of Symbolic Interaction Theory 78 Themes and Assumptions of Symbolic Interaction Theory 79 The Importance of Meanings for Human Behavior 79 The Importance of the Self-Concept 82 The Relationship Between the Individual and Society 83 Key Concepts 85 Mind 86 Self 87 Society 88 Integration, Critique, and Closing 89 Scope 89 Utility 90 Testability 90 Discussion Starters 91 Online Learning Center 91 Chapter 6 Coordinated Management of Meaning 92 All the World’s a Stage 93 Assumptions of Coordinated Management of Meaning 94 The Hierarchy of Organized Meaning 97 Content 98 Speech Act 99 Episodes 99 Relationship 100 Life Scripts 100 Cultural Patterns 101 Charmed and Strange Loops 101 The Coordination of Meaning: Making Sense of the Sequence 104 Influences on the Coordination Process 105 Rules and Unwanted Repetitive Patterns 106 Integration, Critique, and Closing 108 Scope 109 Parsimony 109 Utility 110 Heurism 110 Discussion Starters 111 Online Learning Center 111 Contents ix wes85077_fm.qxd 1/21/09 5:35 PM Page x Chapter 7 Cognitive Dissonance Theory 112 Assumptions of Cognitive Dissonance Theory 115 Concepts and Processes of Cognitive Dissonance 117 Magnitude of Dissonance 117 Coping With Dissonance 118 Cognitive Dissonance and Perception 118 Minimal Justification 119 Cognitive Dissonance Theory and Persuasion 120 Integration, Critique, and Closing 124 Utility 125 Testability 127 Discussion Starters 128 Online Learning Center 128 Chapter 8 Expectancy Violations Theory 129 Space Relations 131 Proxemic Zones 131 Territoriality 133 Assumptions of Expectancy Violations Theory 134 Arousal 137 Threat Threshold 138 Violation Valence 138 Communicator Reward Valence 139 Integration, Critique, and Closing 140 Scope 142 Utility 142 Testability 142 Discussion Starters 143 Online Learning Center 143 Relationship Development 145 Chapter 9 Uncertainty Reduction Theory 147 Assumptions of Uncertainty Reduction Theory 150 Axioms of Uncertainty Reduction Theory 153 Expansions of Uncertainty Reduction Theory 155 Additional Axioms 156 Antecedent Conditions 157 Strategies 157 Developed Relationships: Beyond the Initial Encounter 158 Context 161 Integration, Critique, and Closing 163 Utility 163 Heurism 164 Discussion Starters 165 Online Learning Center 166 x Contents wes85077_fm.qxd 1/21/09 5:35 PM Page xi Chapter 10 Social Penetration Theory 167 Assumptions of Social Penetration Theory 169 “Tearing Up” the Relationship: The Onion Analogy 172 A Social Exchange: Relational Costs and Rewards 175 Stages of the Social Penetration Process 176 Orientation: Revealing Bit by Bit 177 Exploratory Affective Exchange: The Self Emerges 178 Affective Exchange: Commitment and Comfortability 179 Stable Exchange: Raw Honesty and Intimacy 180 Integration, Critique, and Closing 181 Scope 181 Heurism 182 Discussion Starters 183 Online Learning Center 184 Chapter 11 Social Exchange Theory 185 Assumptions of Social Exchange Theory 188 Evaluation of a Relationship: Why We Stay or Go 191 Exchange Patterns: SET in Action 193 Exchange Structures 196 Integration, Critique, and Closing 197 Scope 197 Utility 198 Testability 199 Heurism 199 Discussion Starters 200 Online Learning Center 200 Chapter 12 Relational Dialectics Theory 201 Assumptions of Relational Dialectics Theory 204 Elements of Dialectics: Building the Tension 205 Basic Relational Dialectics 206 Autonomy and Connection 206 Openness and Protection 208 Novelty and Predictability 209 Contextual Dialectics 209 Beyond Basic Dialectics 211 Responses to Dialectics 212 Integration, Critique, and Closing 215 Parsimony 216 Utility 216 Discussion Starters 217 Online Learning Center 218 Contents xi wes85077_fm.qxd 1/21/09 5:35 PM Page xii Chapter 13 Communication Privacy Management Theory 219 Evolution of Communication Privacy Management Theory 221 Assumptions of CPM 222 Basic Suppositions of CPM 223 Private Information 224 Private Boundaries 225 Control and Ownership 225 Rule-Based Management System 226 Management Dialectics 227 Privacy Rule Management Processes 229 Privacy Rule Characteristics 229 Boundary Coordination 231 Boundary Turbulence 232 Integration, Critique, and Closing 233 Logical Consistency 233 Utility 234 Heurism 234 Discussion Starters 235 Online Learning Center 235 Groups and Organizations 237 Chapter 14 Groupthink 239 Assumptions of Groupthink 242 What Comes Before: Antecedent Conditions of Groupthink 245 Group Cohesiveness 245 Structural Factors 246 Group Stress 247 Symptoms of Groupthink 247 Overestimation of the Group 248 Closed-Mindedness 249 Pressures Toward Uniformity 250 (Group)Think About It: It’s All Around U.S. 251 Think Before You Act: Ways to Prevent Groupthink 252 Integration, Critique, and Closing 254 Scope 255 Testability 255 Heurism 255 Test of Time 256 Discussion Starters 256 Online Learning Center 257 Chapter 15 Structuration Theory 258 Assumptions of Structuration Theory 262 Elements of Structuration Theory 264 Agency and Reflexivity 264 xii Contents wes85077_fm.qxd 1/21/09 5:35 PM Page xiii Duality of Structure 266 Social Integration 268 Application of Time and Space 269 Integration, Critique, and Closing 270 Scope 271 Parsimony 271 Discussion Starters 273 Online Learning Center 273 Chapter 16 Organizational Culture Theory 274 The Cultural Metaphor: Of Spider Webs and Organizations 277 Assumptions of Organizational Cultural Theory 278 Ethnographic Understanding: Laying It On Thick 282 The Communicative Performance 284 Ritual Performances 284 Passion Performances 285 Social Performances 286 Political Performances 286 Enculturation Performances 286 Integration, Critique, and Closing 287 Logical Consistency 287 Utility 288 Heurism 288 Discussion Starters 289 Online Learning Center 289 Chapter 17 Organizational Information Theory 290 The Only Constant Is Change (in Organizations) 293 General Systems Theory 294 Darwin’s Theory of Sociocultural Evolution 295 Assumptions of Organizational Information Theory 296 Key Concepts and Conceptualizing Information 297 Information Environment: The Sum Total 297 Rules: Guidelines to Analyze 299 Cycles: Act, Respond, Adjust 300 The Principles of Equivocality 301 Reducing Equivocality: Trying to Use the Information 303 Enactment: Assigning Message Importance 303 Selection: Interpreting the Inputs 303 Retention: Remember the Small Stuff 304 Integration, Critique, and Closing 304 Logical Consistency 305 Utility 306 Heurism 306 Discussion Starters 307 Online Learning Center 307 Contents xiii wes85077_fm.qxd 1/21/09 5:35 PM Page xiv The Public 309 Chapter 18 The Rhetoric 310 The Rhetorical Tradition 312 Assumptions of the Rhetoric 313 Syllogisms: A Three-Tiered Argument 315 Canons of Rhetoric 316 Invention 316 Arrangement 317 Style 319 Memory 319 Delivery 321 Types of Rhetoric 321 Integration, Critique, and Closing 324 Logical Consistency 325 Heurism 326 Test of Time 326 Discussion Starters 327 Online Learning Center 327 Chapter 19 Dramatism 328 Assumptions of Dramatism 330 Dramatism as New Rhetoric 332 Identification and Substance 332 The Process of Guilt and Redemption 333 The Pentad 335 Integration, Critique, and Closing 337 Scope 338 Parsimony 338 Utility 339 Heurism 340 Discussion Starters 341 Online Learning Center 342 Chapter 20 The Narrative Paradigm 343 Assumptions of the Narrative Paradigm 346 Key Concepts in the Narrative Approach 350 Narration 351 Narrative Rationality 351 Integration, Critique, and Closing 354 Scope 355 Logical Consistency 355 Utility 355 Testability 357 Heurism 357 Discussion Starters 357 Online Learning Center 358 xiv Contents wes85077_fm.qxd 1/21/09 5:35 PM Page xv The Media 359 Chapter 21 Cultural Studies 360 The Marxist Legacy: Power to the People 363 Assumptions of Cultural Studies 364 Hegemony: The Influence on the Masses 367 Counter-Hegemony: The Masses Start to Influence the Dominant Forces 369 Audience Decoding 371 Integration, Critique, and Closing 373 Logical Consistency 373 Utility 373 Heurism 374 Discussion Starters 375 Online Learning Center 375 Chapter 22 Cultivation Analysis 376 Developing Cultivation Analysis 378 Assumptions of Cultivation Analysis 379 Processes and Products of Cultivation Analysis 382 The Four-Step Process 383 Mainstreaming and Resonance 383 The Mean World Index 385 Cultivation Analysis as Critical Theory 385 Integration, Critique, and Closing 388 Logical Consistency 388 Utility 389 Heurism 389 Test of Time 389 Discussion Starters 391 Online Learning Center 391 Chapter 23 Uses and Gratifications Theory 392 Stages in Uses and Gratifications Research 394 Assumptions of Uses and Gratifications Theory 397 The Active Audience 400 Media Effects 401 Uses and Gratifications and New Media 404 Integration, Critique, and Closing 406 Logical Consistency 407 Utility 408 Heurism 408 Discussion Starters 408 Online Learning Center 409 Contents xv wes85077_fm.qxd 1/21/09 5:35 PM Page xvi Chapter 24 Spiral of Silence Theory 410 The Court of Public Opinion 412 Assumptions of Spiral of Silence Theory 414 The Media’s Influence 418 The Train Test 420 The Hard Core 421 Integration, Critique, and Closing 423 Logical Consistency 424 Heurism 425 Discussion Starters 426 Online Learning Center 426 Chapter 25 Media Ecology Theory 427 Assumptions of Media Ecology Theory 430 Making Media History and Making “Sense” 432 The Tribal Era 433 The Literate Era 433 The Print Era 434 The Electronic Era 434 The Medium Is the Message 436 Gauging the Temperature: Hot and Cool Media 437 The Circle Is Complete: The Tetrad 438 Enhancement 439 Obsolescence 440 Retrieval 440 Reversal 440 Carrying the McLuhan Banner: Postman and Meyrowitz 441 Integration, Critique, and Closing 443 Testability 444 Heurism 444 Discussion Starters 445 Online Learning Center 446 Culture and Diversity 447 Chapter 26 Face-Negotiation Theory 448 About Face 450 Face and Politeness Theory 451 Facework 452 Assumptions of Face-Negotiation Theory 453 Individualistic and Collectivistic Cultures 456 Individualism and Collectivism 457 Face Management and Culture 458 Managing Conflict Across Cultures 458 xvi Contents wes85077_fm.qxd 1/21/09 5:35 PM Page xvii Integration, Critique, and Closing 461 Logical Consistency 462 Heurism 463 Discussion Starters 463 Online Learning Center 464 Chapter 27 Communication Accommodation Theory 465 Social Psychology and Social Identity 468 Assumptions of Communication Accommodation Theory 469 Ways to Adapt 472 Convergence: Merging Thoughts Ahead 472 Divergence: Vive la Différence 475 Overaccommodation: Miscommunicating With a Purpose 477 Integration, Critique, and Closing 479 Scope 480 Testability 480 Heurism 481 Discussion Starters 481 Online Learning Center 482 Chapter 28 Muted Group Theory 483 Origins of Muted Group Theory 485 Makeup of Muted Groups 487 Assumptions of Muted Group Theory 488 Gender-Based Differences in Perception 489 Male Dominance 491 Women’s Translation Processes 492 The Process of Silencing 493 Ridicule 494 Ritual 494 Control 495 Harassment 496 Strategies of Resistance 496 Integration, Critique, and Closing 497 Utility 498 Test of Time 499 Discussion Starters 499 Online Learning Center 500 Chapter 29 Standpoint Theory 501 Historical Foundations of Standpoint Theory 503 Assumptions of Standpoint Theory 505 Key Concepts of Standpoint Theory 508 Standpoint 508 Situated Knowledges 510 Sexual Division of Labor 511 Contents xvii wes85077_fm.qxd 1/21/09 5:35 PM Page xviii Relationship to Communication 511 Integration, Critique, and Closing 512 Utility 512 Discussion Starters 515 Online Learning Center 516 PART THREE On the Horizon... 517 Chapter 30 Moving in New Directions 519 Thinking About the Future 521 Technology 523 Work and Family Life 525 Aging and Health 526 Culture and Identity 527 Thinking About Career Opportunities 528 Remain Ethical 528 Be Flexible 530 Embrace Diversity 530 Cultivate New Technologies 531 Maintain Creativity 532 Don’t Forget Basic Skills 532 Keep a Sense of Humor 532 Conclusion 533 Glossary G-1 References R-1 Name Index I-1 Subject Index I-9 xviii Contents wes85077_fm.qxd 1/21/09 5:35 PM Page xix Preface It is with great enthusiasm that we provide the fourth edition of Introducing Communication Theory: Analysis and Application. The success of the three previous editions shows that communication theory courses are thriving and teachers and students of communication understand the importance of theo- retical thinking. This text explores the practical, engaging, and relevant ways in which theory operates in our lives. It is written for students who have little or no background in communication theory. We originally wrote the book be- cause we felt that students needed to know how theorizing helps us understand ourselves, our experiences, our environment, and our culture. We also wrote this book because we believe that students should have a text that relates the- ory directly to their lives. In this text we make a concerted effort to achieve the following objectives: Familiarizing students with the principles and central ideas of important theories they are likely to encounter in the communication discipline Demystifying the concept of theory and helping students see the applica- tion of theory in their everyday activities Helping students become more systematic and thoughtful critical thinkers Providing students with an overview and brief history of how the com- munication discipline is developing Introducing students to the research process and the place of theory within this process The fourth edition of this book maintains its original focus of introducing communication theory to students in an accessible, appealing, and memorable way. We believe that students understand material best when it is explained in a clear, direct way through a number of realistic and applicable examples. Our hope is that students will take away a basic knowledge of, and appreciation for, communication theory from reading our text. Together, we have nearly fifty years combined of teaching communication theory. During this time, we have learned a great deal. Introducing Communication Theory: Analysis and Appli- cation utilizes and applies all that we as teachers have learned from our students. We continue to be indebted to both students and colleagues whose suggestions and comments have greatly influenced this fourth edition. The theories in communication studies have roots in both communication and in other fields of study. This exciting interdisciplinary orientation is reflected in the selection of the various theories presented in the text. We not only in- clude the unique contributions of communication theorists, but also theories xix wes85077_fm.qxd 1/21/09 5:35 PM Page xx with origins in other fields, including psychology, sociology, biology, and phi- losophy. Communication theorists have embraced the integration of ideas and principles forged by their colleagues across many disciplines. Yet the applica- tion, influence, and inherent value of communication are all sustained by the theorists in this text. In other words, although you will read theories that cut across various fields of study, their relevance to communication remains. We do not presume to speak for the theorists; our goal is to frame their words and illustrate their theories with practical examples and applications so that their explication of communication behaviors becomes accessible for students. The Challenges of Teaching and Learning Communication Theory The instructor in a communication theory course may face several challenges that are not shared by other courses. Because many students think of theory as distant, abstract, and obscure, teachers must overcome these potentially negative conno- tations. Negative feelings toward the subject can be magnified in classrooms where students represent a variety of ages and socioeconomic, ethnic, cultural, and linguistic backgrounds. Introducing Communication Theory addresses this challenge by offering a readable and practical guide that integrates content with examples, capturing the essence and elegance of theory in a straightforward man- ner. In addition, the book takes an incremental approach to learning about the- ory, resulting in a thoughtful and appropriate learning pace. A second challenge associated with teaching and learning communication theory relates to preconceived notions of research: Students may view scholar- ship as difficult or remote. This book demonstrates to students that they already possess many of the characteristics of researchers, such as curiosity and ambition. Students will be pleasantly surprised to know that they operate according to many personal theories every day. Once students begin to revise their misconceptions about research and theory, they are in a position to understand the principles, concepts, and theories contained in this book. A third challenge of teaching and learning communication theory is cap- turing the complexity of a theory in an approachable way without oversimpli- fying the theoretical process. To address this problem, instructors often present a skeletal version of a theory and then fill in the missing pieces with personal materials. By providing a variety of engaging examples and applications reflecting a wide range of classroom demographics, Introducing Communication Theory facilitates such an approach. Special Features and Learning Aids To accomplish our goals and address the challenges of teaching communica- tion theory, we have incorporated a number of special features and learning aids into the fourth edition: xx Preface wes85077_fm.qxd 1/21/09 5:35 PM Page xxi Part One, Setting the Stage. The first four chapters of the book con- “The first four chapters tinue to provide students a solid foundation for studying the theories of the book continue to that follow. This groundwork is essential in order to understand provide students a solid how theorists conceptualize and test their theories. Chapters 1 and 2 foundation for studying define communication and provide a framework for examining the the theories that fol- theories. We present several traditions and contexts in which theory is customarily categorized and considered. Chapter 3 provides an low. This groundwork is overview of the intersection of theory and research. We see Chapter 4 essential in order to un- as a bridge to the theories that follow. In this chapter, we present derstand how theorists students with a template of various evaluative components that we conceptualize and test apply in each of the subsequent theory chapters. their theories.” Updated coverage of all 25 theories. Separate chapters on each of twenty-five theories provide accessible, thorough coverage for stu- dents and offer flexibility to instructors. Because of the feedback we received from the previous edition, we retained the original theories from the third edition, but each chapter has been updated. This updating results in a more thoughtful, current, and applicable presentation of each theory. Section openers. The theory chapters in Part Two, Understanding the Dialogue, are organized into six sections. We have written section openers to introduce these groups of chapters. The overviews provide students with an explanation for our choices, placing the theories in context and allowing students to see the connections between and among theories. Chapter opening vignettes. Each chapter begins with an extended “Every theory chapter vignette, which is then integrated throughout the chapter, providing has a consistent format examples to illustrate the theoretical concepts and claims. These sto- that begins with a ries help students understand how communication theory plays out vignette, followed by in the everyday lives of ordinary people. Students have commented an introduction, a sum- that these opening stories help drive home the important points of the theory. In addition, the real-life tone of each vignette entices mary of theoretical as- students to understand the practicality of a particular theory. sumptions, a description A structured approach to each theory. Every theory chapter has a of core concepts, and consistent format that begins with a vignette, followed by an intro- a critique (using the duction, a summary of theoretical assumptions, a description of core criteria established in concepts, and a critique (using the criteria established in Part One). Part One). This consis- This consistency provides continuity for students, ensures a balanced tency provides continu- presentation of the theories, and helps ease the retrieval of informa- ity for students, ensures tion for future learning experiences. a balanced presentation NEW Visual template for theory evaluation. The critique section in of the theories, and every theory chapter has been extensively revised for this edition. Each theory is critiqued using the criteria for theory evaluation helps ease the retrieval presented in Chapter 4. In addition, the theory’s context, scholarly of information for tradition, and approach to knowing are articulated. Each of these future learning areas are elucidated in Part One of the text. experiences.” Preface xxi wes85077_fm.qxd 1/21/09 5:35 PM Page xxii Theory at a Glance boxes. In order for students to have an immediate and concise understanding of a particular theory, we incorporate this fea- ture at the beginning of each theory chapter. Students will have these brief explanations and short summaries before reading the chapter, thereby allowing them to have a general sense of what they are about to encounter. Tables and figures. To increase conceptual organization and enhance the visual presentation of content, we have added several NEW tables and figures throughout the text. Many chapters have new visual aids for students to consider, helping them to understand the material. These visu- als provide a clearer sense of the conceptual organization of the theories, and they support those students who best retain information visually. NEW End-of-book glossary. Students have expressed interest in having a compiled list of definitions at the end of the text. This Glossary provides an easily accessible definition of all terms contained in the book. NEW Significant revisions of several theories. Coordinated Management of Meaning, Structuration Theory, Organizational Information Theory, Media Ecology Theory, and Cultural Studies have all undergone major revision. NEW Incorporation of over 150 new references. The explosion in com- munication research is reflected in the integration of dozens of new stud- ies, essays, and books that help students understand the theory or theo- retical issue. NEW Integration of Robert Craig’s “Seven Traditions of Communication Theory.” Craig’s category system is discussed as one way to frame the discussion of communication theory. Theory Into Practice (T*I*P) boxes. These boxes, featured in every chap- ter, present student comments on a particular concept or theoretical issue. These student voices, extracted from journals in classes we have taught, illustrate the practicality of the topic under discussion and also show how theoretical issues relate to students’ lives. Research Notes boxes. These boxes present annotated abstracts of research articles and essays that are relevant to the chapter and, like T*I*P boxes, appear in every theory chapter. Research Notes boxes demonstrate how theories or theoretical principles are utilized in research studies; they also serve to familiarize students with the content and con- ventions of original research. Updated research and examples. Each chapter has undergone a revision to reflect the most current thinking and research. Furthermore, examples reflect and include a variety of different situations and experiences, such as disagreements in a publishing company, health benefits at a small jewelry store, dating problems, a public speech about drunk driving, the struggles of a single father, public perceptions of spanking, and the problems encountered by celebrities such as Martha Stewart. In providing up-to-date scholarship and incorporating diverse examples, xxii Preface wes85077_fm.qxd 1/21/09 5:35 PM Page xxiii we wish to show students the depth and breadth of communication theory in society. Running glossary. Throughout each chapter, a running glossary gives students immediate access to unfamiliar terms and their meanings. Theory Application in Groups (TAG) boxes. Working with others can help students better appreciate the material. We developed this feature to encourage collaborative learning and to foster critical thinking across different learning styles. In Chapter 15, Structuration Theory, for instance, we ask small groups to think about ethical lapses in judgment from organizational leaders and how principles can inform their thinking about this issue. Discussion Starters conclude each chapter. These thought-provoking questions prompt students to critically examine the chapter and focus on critical issues. Supplemental Resources For the Student The Online Learning Center at www.mhhe.com/west4e provides interactive resources to address the needs of a variety of teaching and learning styles. For every chapter, students and instructors can access chapter objectives, quizzes, and summary. We believe that many theories cut across multiple contexts. Therefore, we ask students to look at how two theories from different contexts relate to each other. We also consider how some theories may deal with similar contexts but approach them in very different ways. The Theory Connection feature at the Online Learning Center asks students to think about these contrasts. For instance, we ask students to consider the role of silence in both Groupthink and Muted Group Theory. For the Instructor For instructors only, the Online Learning Center offers an online Instructor’s Manual with general guidelines for teaching the basic theory course, sample syl- labi for quarter and semester courses, chapter onlines, and classroom activities. Also available at the Online Learning Center are PowerPoint lecture slides, which provide instructors with a comprehensive presentation to organize their lectures. In addition, a computerized test bank with multiple-choice and short- answer questions for every chapter is available. Organization Part One, Setting the Stage, provides a conceptual foundation for the discrete theory chapters in Part Two. Chapter 1 begins by introducing the discipline and describing the process of communication. Chapter 2 provides the prevailing Preface xxiii wes85077_fm.qxd 1/21/09 5:35 PM Page xxiv traditions and contexts that frame the communication field. In this chapter, we focus on Robert Craig’s guide to the ways in which communication theory can be considered. The chapter then turns to primary contexts of communication, which frame the study of communication in most academic settings across the country. Chapter 3 explores the intersection of theory and research. In this chapter, we provide students an understanding of the nature of theory and the characteristics of theory. The research process is also briefly discussed, as are perspectives that guide communication research. Our goal in this chapter is to show that research and theory are interrelated and that the two should be con- sidered in tandem as students read the individual chapters. Chapter 4 provides a list of evaluative criteria for judging theories as well as for guiding students toward assessment of each subsequent theory chapter. With this foundation established in Part One, Part Two, Understanding the Dialogue, introduces students to twenty-five different theories, each in a dis- crete, concise chapter. Many of these theories cut across communication con- texts. For example, Relational Dialectics Theory can be understood and ap- plied in an organizational context as well as in an interpersonal context. However, to facilitate understanding, we have grouped theories into six sec- tions according to primary focus: The Self and Messages, Relationship Devel- opment, Groups and Organizations, The Public, The Media, and Culture and Diversity. It was not easy for us to decide which theories to include because there are so many from which to choose. In making our selections, we were guided by four broad criteria: (1) whether the theory is significant in the field, (2) whether it reflects the interdisciplinary nature of the field, (3) whether it is important in the context of current thinking in the field, and (4) whether it contributes to a balance of pioneering and contemporary theories in the book. In addition, we were sensitive to the need to include theories developed by a diverse group of scholars. Finally, in Part Three, On The Horizon..., Chapter 30 describes the con- stant evolution of theory and theory building based on new societal trends. To show students that the communication major provides practical knowledge leading to employment, we conclude with a focus on career paths that make use of communication theory. We also make suggestions for becoming more adept in a communication career. Acknowledgments Any book owes its existence to efforts made by others in addition to the listed authors, and some people who have helped with this book may not even realize the debt we acknowledge here. We would like to thank all those who have helped us as we worked our way through this large project. First, our work rests on the shoulders of the theorists whose creations we profile in this book. We are grateful for their creative thinking, which allows us to understand and predict the complexities of the communication process. Second, our insights represent the discussions that we have had with our xxiv Preface wes85077_fm.qxd 1/21/09 5:35 PM Page xxv communication theory students and colleagues over the years. Several parts of this book are based upon student input at both of our institutions. Stu- dents have contributed to this book in both direct and indirect ways. Our families, too, contributed in ways both large and small in helping us com- plete this project. For providing us with patience, support, and food, we cannot thank them enough. As is customary in each book he writes, Rich would like to acknowledge his mother for her continual focus on what matters in life: family, fun, and spir- ituality. He remains grateful for her continued positive influence. Rich would also like to thank his partner, Chris, who knows precisely when to make things less intense and more relaxing. Finally, Rich would like to thank his colleagues and administration at Emerson College in Boston. Their continued support and ongoing student-centeredness are exemplary. Changing schools mid-career was much more palatable because of the encouragement and engagement at Emerson. Lynn would like to thank her family: her husband, Ted; her daughter’s family, the Spitznagles—Sabrina, Billy, Sophie, and Will; her stepdaughter’s family, the Kissels—Leila, Russ, Zoe, Dylan; and her stepson’s family, the Feldshers—Ted, Sally, Ely, and Lucas for invaluable lessons in communication theory and practice. Further, she is indebted to her parents and her brother and his family, as well as all of her extended family members who helped in ways great and small as this project continued over time. Friends and colleagues, es- pecially Pat Sullivan, Helen Sterk, Bob Shuter, and Patrice Buzzanell, provided great support and have taught her many valuable lessons about scholarship and communication theory. She also owes a significant debt to her research as- sistant, Diana Turner, for tracking down those elusive sources and for a great deal of helpful copyediting. We wish to thank Emerson College and Marquette University. They con- tinue to offer supportive climates that allowed us to finish this project in a timely manner. We are grateful for the secretarial help, the research assistance, and the general tenor of encouragement fostered by the administration, faculty, and staff. We also thank those people who worked hard to put this book into pro- duction. We need to first thank Katie Stevens, Executive Editor, at McGraw- Hill. She served as an excellent resource as we worked through ideas for this edition. In addition to Katie, several other people gave their time, talent, and expertise to make this a book of which we are proud. They include our devel- opmental editor, Kate Scheinman, a stellar editor whose support has been invaluable; marketing manager Leslie Oberhuber; media project manager Ron Nelms; production editor Holly Paulsen; and design manager Ashley Bedell. We thank each of these individuals for their contributions to the fourth edition of the text. Their determination in making this an outstanding product is deeply appreciated. Finally, we thank the manuscript reviewers who gave their time and ex- pertise to keep us on track in our interpretation of the ideas of others. We are grateful for their careful reading and insightful suggestions, which expanded and clarified our thinking in many ways. The errors in this book are our own, Preface xxv wes85077_fm.qxd 1/21/09 5:35 PM Page xxvi but the strengths were established through their help. Our text is a much more useful product because of the comments and suggestions of the following re- viewers who have shaped this book over the years: Fourth Edition Rebecca Dumlao, Anna Laura Jansma, East Carolina University University of California, Santa Edward T. Funkhouser, Barbara North Carolina State University Anne M. Nicotera, Scott Guest, University of Maryland Bowling Green State Mark Zeigler University Florida State University Third Edition Randall S. Chase, Reed Markham, Salt Lake Community College Salt Lake Community College Chrys Egan, Rita L. Rahoi-Gilchrest, Salisbury University Winona State University Kathleen Galvin, Northwestern University Second Edition Sue Barnes, Matthew McAllister, Fordham University Virginia Tech Jack Baseheart, Janet Skupien, University of Kentucky University of Pittsburgh Jamie Byrne, Jon Smith, Millersville University Southern Utah University Thomas Feeley, Katy Wiss, State University of New York, Western Connecticut State Geneseo University Amy Hubbard, Kevin Wright, University of Hawaii at Manoa University of Memphis xxvi Preface wes85077_fm.qxd 1/21/09 5:35 PM Page xxvii First Edition John R. Baldwin, Debra Mazloff, Illinois State University University of St. Thomas Holly H. Bognar, Elizabeth M. Perse, Cleveland State University University of Delaware Sheryl Bowen, Linda M. Pledger, Villanova University University of Arkansas Cam Brammer, Mary Ann Renz, Marshall University Central Michigan University Jeffrey D. Brand, Patricia Rockwell, North Dakota State University University of Southwestern Randy K. Dillon, Louisiana Southwest Missouri State University Deborah Smith-Howell, Kent Drummond, University of Nebraska University of Wyoming Denise Solomon, James Gilchrist, University of Wisconsin Western Michigan University Tami Spry, Laura Jansma, St. Cloud State University University of California–Santa Rebecca W. Tardy, Barbara University of Louisville Madeline M. Keaveney, Ralph Thompson, California State University–Chico Cornell University Joann Keyton, University of Kansas Preface xxvii wes85077_fm.qxd 1/21/09 5:35 PM Page xxviii wes85077_fm.qxd 1/21/09 5:36 PM Page xxix About the Authors Richard West is Professor and Chairperson of Communication Studies at Emerson College in Boston. Prior to coming to Emerson, Rich was a professor at the University of Southern Maine. Rich received his B.A. and M.A. from Illinois State University and his Ph.D. from Ohio Uni- versity. Rich has been teaching since 1984, and his teaching and re- search interests range from family diversity to teacher–student com- munication. He began teaching communication theory as a graduate student and has taught the class in lecture format to more than 200 students. Rich is the past President of the Eastern Communication As- sociation (ECA), the oldest professional communication organization in the country. He serves on the Executive Committee of the National Communication Association, where he is also the Director of the Ed- ucational Policies Board. He is a past recipient of the Outstanding Alumni Award in Communication at Illinois State University and Ohio University. Rich is the co-author (with Lynn Turner) of Gender and Communication, Perspectives on Family Communication, and Understanding Interpersonal Communication. He has been recog- nized as an ECA Research Fellow and is a member of the editorial boards for six communication journals. Lynn H. Turner is Professor in Communication Studies at Marquette University in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Lynn received her B.A. from the University of Illinois and her M.A. from the University of Iowa, and she received her Ph.D. from Northwestern University. She has taught communication theory and research methods to undergraduates and graduates in the Diederich College of Communication at Marquette since 1985. Prior to coming to Marquette, Lynn taught at Iowa State University and in two high schools in Iowa. Her research interests in- clude interpersonal communication, family communication, and gen- dered communication. She is the recipient of several awards, including Marquette’s College of Communication Research Excellence Award and the Book of the Year award from the Organization for the Study of Communication, Language, and Gender for her book with Patricia Sullivan, From the Margins to the Center: Contemporary Women and Political Communication. Lynn is a past president of the Central States Communication Association and was recently elected 2nd Vice President of the National Communication Association. xxix wes85077_ch01.qxd 1/20/09 8:12 PM Page 1 P A R T One Setting the Stage Communication, Theory, and Research Chapter 1 YOU MIGHT NOT HAVE THOUGHT ABOUT THIS, BUT Thinking About each day the decisions we make, the media we consume, Communication 3 and the relationships we experience can be enriched and explained by communication theory. Communication the- Chapter 2 ory helps us to understand other people and their commu- Thinking About the Field: Traditions and Contexts 26 nities, the media, and our associations with families, friends, roommates, co-workers, and companions. Perhaps most Chapter 3 important, communication theory makes it easier to under- Thinking About Theory and stand ourselves. Research 44 We begin our discussion of communication theory by Chapter 4 asking you to consider the experiences of Morgan and Alex. As We Begin... 67 After randomly being assigned as roommates, the two met on “move-in day” at Scott Hall. They were both pretty nerv- ous. They had checked out one another on Facebook, e-mailed each other, and talked on the phone a few times, so they knew-quite a bit about each other. Once they met, they started talking. They went out for coffee the first few weeks of school, getting to know each other better. They spent a lot of time telling stories about their families and friends, and talking about what they look for in a partner. They both loved television, especially the “reality shows,” because they loved to see how other people dealt with their lives in times of stress. After several weeks, Morgan and Alex became closer. They were going to have to balance their desire to hang out with each other with their need to be alone. And it was going to be give-and-take because their schedules were completely opposite. Eventually, the two became great friends. To illustrate the various ways in which communication theory functions in the lives of Morgan and Alex, let’s identify important aspects of their story and see how theory 1 wes85077_ch01.qxd 1/20/09 11:05 AM Page 2 provides some understanding of Morgan’s and Alex’s behaviors. First, these roommates supported the research of Uncertainty Reduction Theory (Chapter 9) through their need to reduce their uncertainty about each other. They also probably self-disclosed some personal information to each other, underscoring a central feature of Social Penetration Theory (Chapter 10). Next, they discovered that they both watch televi- sion and use it to see how others live their lives, highlighting the essence of Uses and Gratifications Theory (Chapter 23). Balancing the need to be together with the need to remain private encompasses Relational Dialectics Theory (Chapter 12). Morgan and Alex also told personal stories to each other; storytelling is at the heart of The Narra- tive Paradigm (Chapter 20). In sum, at least five communication theories could help explain the experiences of the two roommates. The first four chapters provide an important foundation for discussing each com- munication theory that follows. These chapters give you a general introduction to communication and to theory. First, to provide you some insights into the communi- cation field, in Chapter 1 we present our definition of communication, the prevailing models of communication, and other important issues including ethics and communi- cation. Chapter 2 is dedicated to a discussion of the various traditions and contexts of communication, two important frameworks to consider as you read the remainder of the book. We prepare you directly for understanding the intersection of theory and research in Chapter 3. As you will learn, when scholars develop a theory, it is a result of a great deal of research. Finally, in Chapter 4 we provide an important referent point for you as you review each theory in the text. This chapter provides important criteria for evaluating a theory and also includes a model for you to examine. This “bridge chapter” is differentiated from the rest of the text so you can quickly refer to its contents as you are introduced to various theories. 2 Part One Setting the Stage wes85077_ch01.qxd 1/20/09 11:05 AM Page 3 Thinking About Communication: C H A P T E R 1 Definitions, Models, and Ethics The Bollens Jhaveimmybeen and Angie Bollen and disappointment, they quickly recalled the difficulty of their son’s situation. They didn’t want married for almost thirty years, and to upset him any further. The Bollens tried to they are the parents of three children who have figure out a way to communicate to their son that been out of the house for years. But a recent layoff although they love him, they wished that he would at the company where their son Eddy worked has get a job and leave the house. They simply wanted forced the 24-year-old to return home until he can some peace, privacy, and freedom, and their son get another job. was getting in the way. It wasn’t a feeling either one At first, Eddy’s parents were glad that he was of them liked, but it was their reality. home. His father was proud of the fact that his son They considered a number of different ap- wasn’t embarrassed about returning home, and proaches. In order to get the conversation going, his mom was happy to have him help her with they even thought about giving Eddy a few website some of the mundane chores at home. In fact, links related to local apartment rentals. Recently, Eddy showed both Jimmy and Angie how to in- the couple’s frustration with the situation took a stant message their friends and also put together a turn for the worse. Returning from one of their family website. His parents were especially happy long walks, they discovered Eddy on the couch, about having a family member who was “tech- hung over from a party held earlier at his friend’s savvy” hanging around the house. house. When Jimmy and Angie confronted him But the good times surrounding Eddy’s return about his demeanor, Eddy shouted, “Don’t start soon ended. Eddy brought his laptop to the table lecturing me now. Is it any wonder that none of each morning, marring the Bollens’ once-serene your other kids call you? It’s because you don’t breakfasts. Jimmy and Angie’s walks at night know when to stop! Look, I got a headache and were complicated because their son often wanted I don’t want to hear it from you guys!” Jimmy to join them. At night, when they went to bed, the snapped, “Get out of my house. Now!” Eddy left parents heard Eddy talking on his cell phone, the home, slamming the front door behind him. sometimes until 1:00 A.M. When Eddy’s parents Angie stared out of the window, wondering thought about communicating their frustration whether they would ever hear from their son again. I n the most fundamental way, communication depends on our ability to understand one another. Although our communication can be ambiguous (“I never thought I’d get this gift from you”), one primary and essential goal in communicating is understanding. Our daily activities are wrapped in 3 wes85077_ch01.qxd 1/20/09 11:05 AM Page 4 conversations with others. Yet, as we see with the Bollen family, even those in close relationships can have difficulty expressing their thoughts. Being able to communicate effectively is highly valued in the United States. Corporations have recognized the importance of communication. The National Safety Management Society (www.nsms.us/pages/opermishaps.html) reports that industrial safety is contingent on the ability of employees and management to communicate clearly and to avoid jargon when possible. Health care, too, is focusing more on the value of communication. In doctor– patient relationships, for instance, research shows that communication is es- sential for the recovery of patients and impacts the extent to which doctors offer medical advice to their patients (Blanquicett, Amsbary, Mills, & Powell, 2007; Jucks & Bromme, 2007). In the classroom, researchers (e.g., Goodboy & Myers, 2008) have concluded that affirming feedback positively affects stu- dent learning. And, with respect to social networking sites such as Facebook, individuals in romantic relationships report using communication (technology) as a way to check up on the status of their relationship—from commitment to fidelity (Stern & Taylor, 2007). Make no mistake about it: Abundant evidence underscores the fact that communication is an essential, pervasive, and conse- quential behavior in our society. As a student of communication, you are uniquely positioned to deter- mine your potential for effective communication. To do so, however, you must have a basic understanding of the communication process and of how communication theory, in particular, functions in your life. We need to be able to talk effectively to a number of very different types of people during an average day: teachers, ministers, salespeople, family members, friends, auto- mobile mechanics, and health-care providers. Communication opportunities fill our lives each day. However, we need to understand the whys and hows of our conversations with others. For instance, why do two people in a rela- tionship feel a simultaneous need for togetherness and independence? Why do some women feel ignored or devalued in conversations with men? Why does language often influence the thoughts of others? How do media influ- ence people’s behavior? These and many other questions are at the root of why communication theory is so important in our society and so critical to understand. Defining Communication Our first task is to create a common understanding for the term communica- tion. Defining communication can be challenging. Katherine Miller (2005) underscores this dilemma, stating that “conceptualizations of communication have been abundant and have changed substantially over the years” (p. 3). Sarah Trenholm (1991) notes that although the study of communication has been around for centuries, it does not mean communication is well under- stood. In fact, Trenholm provocatively illustrates the dilemma when defining the term. She states “Communication has become a sort of ‘portmanteau’ term. Like a piece of luggage, it is overstuffed with all manner of odd ideas and 4 Chapter 1 Thinking About Communication: Definitions, Models, and Ethics wes85077_ch01.qxd 1/20/09 11:05 AM Page 5 Communication Environment Meaning Social Symbols Process Figure 1.1 Key Terms in Defining Communication meanings. The fact that some of these do fit, resulting in a conceptual suitcase much too heavy for anyone to carry, is often overlooked” (p. 4). We should note that there are many ways to interpret and define communication—a result of the complexity and richness of the communica- tion discipline. Imagine, for instance, taking this course from two different professors. Each would have his or her way of presenting the material, and each classroom of students would approach communication theory in a unique manner. The result would be two exciting and distinctive approaches to study- ing the same topic. This uniqueness holds true with defining communication. Scholars tend to see human phenomena from their own perspectives, something we delve into further in the next chapter. In some ways, researchers establish boundaries when they try to explain phenomena to others. Communication scholars may approach the interpretation of communication differently because of differ- ences in scholarly values. With these caveats in mind, we offer the following communication A social process in definition of communication to get us pointed in the same direction. Commu- which individuals nication is a social process in which individuals employ symbols to establish employ symbols to and interpret meaning in their environment. We necessarily draw in elements establish and interpret of mediated communication as well in our discussion, given the importance meaning in their that communication technology plays in contemporary society. With that in environment mind, let’s define five key terms in our perspective: social, process, symbols, social meaning, and environment (Figure 1.1). the notion that First, we believe that communication is a social process. When interpreting people and interactions are communication as social, we mean to suggest that it involves people and interac- part of the tions, whether face-to-face or online. This necessarily includes two people, who communication act as senders and receivers. Both play an integral role in the communication process process. When communication is social, it involves people who come to an process interaction with various intentions, motivations, and abilities. To suggest that ongoing, dynamic, communication is a process means that it is ongoing and unending. Commu- and unending nication is also dynamic, complex, and continually changing. With this view of occurrence Defining Communication 5 wes85077_ch01.qxd 1/20/09 11:05 AM Page 6 communication, we emphasize the dynamics of making meaning. Therefore, com- munication has no definable beginning and ending. For example, although Jimmy and Angie Bollen may tell their son that he must leave the house, their discussions with him and about him will continue well after he leaves. In fact, the conversa- tion they have with Eddy today will most likely affect their communication with him tomorrow. Similarly, our past communications with people have been stored in their minds and have affected their conversations with us. The process nature of communication also means that much can happen from the beginning of a conversation to the end. People may end up at a very different place once a discussion begins. This is exemplified by the frequent conflicts that roommates, spouses, and siblings experience. Although a conver- sation may begin with absolute and inflexible language, the conflict may be resolved with compromise. All of this can occur in a matter of minutes. Individual and cultural changes affect communication. Conversations between siblings, for example, seem to have shifted from the 1950s to today. Years ago, siblings rarely discussed the impending death of a parent. Today, it’s not uncommon to listen to children talking about nursing home care, home health care, and even funeral arrangements. The 1950s was a time of postwar euphoria; couples were reunited after World War II and the baby boom began. Today, with an ongoing U.S. troop presence in Iraq, Afghanistan, and else- where around the world, Americans rarely experience the euphoria they once had. The tensions and uncertainties are too vivid. As you can see, perceptions and feelings can change and may remain in flux for quite some time. Some of you may be thinking that because the communication process is dynamic and unique it is virtually impossible to study. However, C. Arthur VanLear (1996) argues that because the communication process is so dynamic, researchers and theorists can look for patterns over time. He concludes that “if we recognize a pattern across a large number of cases, it permits us to ‘gen- eralize’ to other unobserved cases” (p. 36). Or, as communication pioneers Paul Watzlawick, Janet Beavin, and Don Jackson (1967) suggest, the intercon- nectedness of communication events is critical and pervasive. Thus, it is possi- ble to study the dynamic communication process. To help you visualize this process, imagine a continuum where the points are unrepeatable and irreversible. Frank Dance (1967) depicts the communi- cation process by using a spiral, or helix (Figure 1.2). He believes that Figure 1.2 Communication Process as a Helix Source: Reprinted by permission of Frank E. X. Dance. 6 Chapter 1 Thinking About Communication: Definitions, Models, and Ethics wes85077_ch01.qxd 1/20/09 11:05 AM Page 7 communication experiences are cumulative and are influenced by the past. He notes that present experiences inevitably influence a person’s future, and so he emphasizes a nonlinear view of the process. Communication, therefore, can be considered a process that changes over time and among interactants. A third term associated with our definition of communication is symbols. A symbol is an arbitrary label or representation of phenomena. Words are sym- symbol bols for concepts and things—for example, the word love represents the idea arbitrary label given of love; the word chair represents a thing we sit on. Labels may be ambiguous, to a phenomenon may be both verbal and nonverbal, and may occur in face-to-face and medi- ated communication. Symbols are usually agreed on within a group but may not be understood outside of the group. In this way, their use is often arbitrary. For instance, most college students understand the phrase “this course has no prereqs”; those outside of college may not understand its meaning. Further, there are both concrete symbols (the symbol represents an object) and abstract concrete symbol symbols (the symbol stands for a thought or idea). symbol representing Robin Toner (2008, May 4) of the New York Times underscored the an object importance of symbols during presidential elections. She states that in 1988, abstract symbol presidential candidate Michael Dukakis vetoed legislation that would have re- symbol representing quired students to recite the Pledge of Allegiance. This veto was later used by an idea or thought George H.W. Bush to question the patriotism of Dukakis. In much the same way, as a 2008 presidential candidate, Barack Obama’s earlier decision to cam- paign without wearing a lapel pin depicting the American flag drew questions about his patriotism. Despite Obama’s assertion, that the “pins had become a substitute for true patriotism” (Rutenberg & Zeleny, 2008), he eventually wore the flag lapel pin. Clearly, symbolic meaning can be significant. In addition to process and symbols, meaning is central to our defini- tion of communication. Meaning is what people extract from a message. meaning In communication episodes, messages can have more than one meaning and what people extract even multiple layers of meaning. Without sharing some meanings, we would all from a message have a difficult time speaking the same language or interpreting the same event. Judith Martin and Tom Nakayama (2008) point out that meaning has cultural consequences: [W]hen President George W. Bush was about to go to war in Iraq, he referred to this war as a ‘crusade.’ The use of this term evoked strong negative reactions in the Islamic world, due to the history of the Crusades nearly 1,000 years ago... While President Bush may not have knowingly wanted to frame the Iraq invasion as a religious war against Muslims, the history of the Crusad