Scientific Classification of Insects PDF

Scientific Classification is a system used to classify all living things through a breakdown starting with the largest grouping called a Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus and down to the smallest grouping called Species. Taxonomy is the science of classification. It involves the accurate...

Scientific Classification is a system used to classify all living things through a breakdown starting with the largest grouping called a Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus and down to the smallest grouping called Species. Taxonomy is the science of classification. It involves the accurate naming and identification of species. Insects are classified into order, family, genus, and species. They are named with a scientific name and one to many common names. The major categories for the Italian honeybee are presented below: Phylum Arthropoda Class Insecta Order Hymenoptera Family Apidae Genus Apis Species mellifera Scientific name: Apis mellifera Linnaeus Additional categories are formed by adding the prefixes super- and sub- to any of the major categories. Prescribed endings are: -oidea for the Superfamily, -idea for the Family, -inae for the Subfamily and -ini for the Tribe. Common names are used to facilitate easy communication among professional and lay persons, particularly in agriculture. Scientific names are being used for international communi- cation. The scientific name consists of genus name and specific name. The binomen nature of the scientific names as we use today was started by the Swedish naturalist, Carl von Linne (Carolus Linnaeus) when he published his Binomial System of Nomenclature in the 10th Edition of Systema Naturae in 1758. Morphological Characteristics used to Distinguish Insect Orders ▪ Insects can be placed into groupings based upon their physical characteristics. ▪ Morphological characteristics include: 1. number of wings: a. presence or absence b. forms c. venation d. structure 2. mouthparts: a. chewing b. piercing-sucking c. rasping-sucking d. siphoning, chewing-lapping, etc 3. metamorphosis: a. lacking b. gradual c. incomplete d. complete 4. special morphological features Basis of modern insect classification Insect classification is evolving, it is a dynamic area that is under the process of continuous refinement. Modern classification of insects is based on knowledge gained from multiple sources like Anatomy, Paleontology, Molecular Biology, and Embryology leading to more natural and reliable classification scheme (Kumar, Naresh, Meshram, Anooj and Sreedevi, 2020). With the invention of electron microscopy and advanced molecular biology tools, it has become easier to establish more accurate phylogenetic relationships among various higher taxa. To gain wider and more accurate insights, modern entomologists employ sequence data from both Genomic DNA and Mitochondrial DNA. In silico tools and publically accessible data bases containing DNA sequences over internet has revolutionized molecular analyses thereby establishing more reliable phylogenetic relationships among taxa (Wilson, et al. 2017). Class Insecta Apterygota (Ametabola) Members of the apterygote orders of insects are all primitively wingless. Except for size differences and presence of genitalia, there are no major changes in form between the adults and immature, hence the ametabolic or “ametamorphic” development. This group includes the orders Protura, Collembola, Diplura, Archeognatha and Thysanura. The first 3 orders (Protura, Collembola, Diplura) show close affinities with Archeognatha and Thysanura. The Protura, Collembola and Diplura have mouthparts that are somewhat pulled into the head (entognathous). The presence of ectognathous (not pulled into the head) mouthparts, both simple and compound eyes well-developed ovipositor support the hypothesis of a close relationship among the Archeognatha, Thysanura and pterygote insects. Classification of Class Insecta (From Wheeler et al, 2001) ORDER/ORIGIN TYPE OF TYPE OF TYPE OF DISTINGUISHING /EXAMPLE WINGS MOUTHPARTS DEVELOPMENT FEATURES Subclass APTERYGOTA (Primitively Wingless Insects) Entognathous Apterygotes PROTURA Wingless Sucking Ametabola Minute, elongate, whitish, eyes, ocelli and antennae lacking, Prot -first; ura- abdomen short tail; bilateral styli on  first 3 segments; cerci lacking. Inhabit soil and Proturans leaf litter, feed on decaying organic matter. Exhibits anamorphosis (progressive addition of abdominal segments during development) COLLEMBOLA Wingless Chewing Ametabola Tarsi fused to tibia (tibiotarsus), lobe-like organ on venter of 1st Coll-glue, embol- abdominal a wedge segment, ventral tube or collophore (for water uptake and Springtails adhesive organ) forked, furcula on venter of 4th segment,tenacul um on venter of 3rd segment. Furcula directed antero-ventrally, secured by tenaculum; springing is accomplished by sudden release of furcula from tenaculum DIPLURA Wingless Chewing Ametabola Eyes and ocelli lacking, antenna long, filiform, cerci forcep-like Dipl-two; ura-tail or long caudal filaments, styli present on segments 1-7 or  2-7. Found in Two-pronged damp areas like bristle tails caves, under tree bark, in the soil. Ectognathous Apterygotes ARCHAEOGNATH Wingless Chewing Ametabola Small, elongate, A/Mi crocoryphia scales on the body arranged in distinctive pattern, Archeo-ancient; Antennae gnath-jaw filiform, abdomen with 3 long tail-like appendages, Jumping bristle body laterally tails compressed. Cerci multi- segmented. Females elongate, jointed ovipositor decomposers of plant debris and/or fungi THYSANURA/ Wingless Chewing Ametabola Small, elongate, Zygentoma dorsoventrally flattened; usually covered with Continue to molt scales; Thysan- fringe; periodically after compound eyes ura-tail bristle reaching sexual and ocelli small, tails, maturity antennae filiform, cerci elongate, multisegmented, silverfish, elongate median firebrats caudal filament present. Feed on materials with starch (paper, clothing, etc.) Paleopterous Exopterygotes (wings cannot be flexed or folded down against the body) EPHEMEROPTERA Membranous Naiad-chewing Hemimeta-bola Small to medium, ; many cross Adult- non- (Incomplete) fragile, soft- veins; functional bodied; pleated compound eyes Ephemero - for a appear-ance present, 3 dorsal day or short - Naiad aquatic ocelli, antennae lived; Ptera-wings short, setaceous; Adults terrestrial Mayflies Presence of winged sub-adult stage (sub- imago) identical to adult but lacks functional genitalia. Immature serves as food of freshwater fish ODONATA Membranous Chewing Hemimeta-bola Medium to very ; netlike Naiad aquatic large, elongate, venation, (naiad with Adults terrestrial large compound well-deve - prehensile eyes, 3 dorsal Odon-a tooth loped cross labium) ocelli; antenna vein short, bristle-like; legs basket like for prey Dragonflies and capture;1 damselflies segmented cerci of males serve as claspers during copulation. Naiads prey on aquatic organisms, adults prey on flying insects. Beneficial as predator. Neopterous Exopterygotes (wings can be folded against the body when at rest) PLECOPTERA Forewingme Naiad-Chewing Hemimeta-bola Small to medium /PERLARIA mbra-nous, soft-bodied; hindwings elongate, folded in flattened; body  pleats parallel-sided; Pleco-pleated or beneath Adult-vestigial Naiad aquatic compound eyes folded; Ptera- forewings well-developed; wings 3 dorsal ocelli, antennae long Adults terrestrial and tapering; ovipositor Stoneflies lacking; many segmented cerci; naiad closed tracheal system, adult open tracheal system. Naiad herbivorous, few carnivorous on aquatic insects. Adults feed on blue green algae; naiads serve as food for freshwater fish and bioindicators of aquatic pollution. DICTYOPTERA includes Blattaria, Isoptera and Mantodea which are classified as sub-orders by other authors. Another scheme of classification treats Dictyoptera as a suborder of the order Orthoptera, with both the Blattodea as superfamilies of the Dictyoptera (Romoser and Stoffolano, Jr. (1994). BLATTODEA/ Forewing Chewing Paurometabola Flattened dorso- BLATTARIA/ Tegmina; (Gradual) ventrally, BLATTOPTERA Hindwing antennae long, Blattodea- membra- filiform, cockroach nous compound eyes well-developed; Cockroaches large shield-like pronotum covers dorsum of head. Nocturnal. Household pests ISOPTERA Membranous Chewing Paurometabola Antennae short, ; others moniliform or Iso- equal Ptera = wingless filiform, wings wings when present  shed by breakage along a basal fracture line. Termites, white Very significant ants structural pests damaging wooden structures. MANTODEA Forewing Chewing Paurometabola Body elongate, Tegmina; somewhat Hindwingme cylindrical, with mbra-nous elongate Mantid – prothorax, soothsayer antennae filiform, wings present in males, reduced or Praying mantids absent in females, forelegs raptorial, abdomen short, head triangular with wide range of movement. Solitary, exclusively carnivorous predators. EMBIOPTERA/ Membranous Chewing Paurometabola Minute to small, EMBIIDINA ; wings brown to yellow, smoky elongate; appearance, compound eyes with fine present; Embio-lively setae antennae filiform, shorter than body, basal tarsal segment of Webspinners, foreleg enlarged embiids containing silk glands; hind femur thickened live in network of silken tunnels beneath stones  and bark. Feed on dead plants and lichens GRYLLOBLATTARI Wingless Chewing Paurometabola Somewhat A (Secondarily) elongate and /GRYLLOBLATTOD slender; medium EA to large, light brown to gray color; compound eyes reduced or Gryll-cricket absent, ocelli lacking, antennae filiform, well- developed Blatta- cockroach sword-shaped ovipositor. Omnivorous; feed on mosses & Rock crawlers, ice dead or sluggish bugs insects. PHASMATODEA/ Wingless; Chewing Paurometabola Large, elongate, PHASMIDA cylindrical, short prothorax, elongate meso Forewing and metathorax, Phasm -phantom, Tegmen some flattened cryptic often and leaf-like. appearance reduced; Antennae filiform or moniliform, ovipositor small, somewhat Stick and leaf Hindwing hidden, sluggish, insects walking scleroti-zed solitary and stick anteriorly herbivorous. Nymphs exhibit autoamputation (autotomy). Feed on dead vegetables ORTHOPTERA Forewing Chewing Paurometabola Minute to very large, well developed compound eyes, Ortho-straight antennae filiform  in many, hind- Ptera- wing Tegmina; legs adapted for Hindwing jumping (hind- membranous femur enlarged), with well- Grasshoppers, developed locusts, crickets, ovipositor in katydids several families, cerci variable. Phytophagous, some (locusts) are serious pests of field crops. DERMAPTERA Forewing Chewing Paurometabola Small to medium, short, narrow, elongate, leathery, antennae long tegmina, and slender. Derma-skin Hindwings folded fan-like beneath forewings. Hindwing Abdomen forcep- Earwigs membra- like, not covered nous with by wings. Mostly radially nocturnal, prefer arranged damp areas. mostly omnivorous. Feeding small, dead or live insects. PSOCOPTERA Membranous Chewing Paurometabola Small, soft- /CORRODENTIA with reduced bodied, fast venation (With labial silk runner head glands) capsule large compared to rest Psoco-rub small of the body; refers to the enlarged clypeus; insects gnawing antennae long habits and filiform, cerci lacking; found under bark, old books and Barklice, booklice, papers, others psocids feed on organic  matter. Generally, of little economic importance. PHTHIRAPTERA Wingless Chewing Paurometabola Small to minute dorsoventrally flattened; triangular head Suborder broader than MALLOPHAGA thorax, reduced compound eyes, legs modified to grasp hairs of Mallo-woo, avian host, cerci phaga-eat lacking. Parasitic on birds Chewing lice Suborder Wingless Piercing-sucking Paurometabola Minute to small, ANOPLURA (Retracted into dorsoventrally head when not flattened, head feeding) narrower than thorax, tarsi of Anopl- unarmed; middle legs and ura- tail hindlegs adapted for grasping Sucking lice hairs, cerci lacking, blood feeders. Major pests of domestic animals and man. Cause pediculosis. Transmit human pathogens THYSANOPTERA Fringed Rasping-sucking Paurometabola Minute to small, (right mandible head cone- lacking or shaped, reduced) abdomen Thysano-fringe tapering, small compound eyes, Ptera-wings antennae short, wings narrow  with basal hooks, cerci lacking. Some Thrips predaceous, most are plant feeders, some are pests of horticultural crops, transmits plant viruses. HEMIPTERA Forewing Piercing-suckin Paurometabola Minute to very Hemelytra large, wings held horizontally over abdomen at rest, Suborder many Heteroptera brachypterous and wingless forms; pronounced with Hemi-one-half distinct triangular scutellum on Ptera-wings mesothorax between forewing bases.Cerci True bugs lacking. Many adult bugs possess repugnatorial or scent glands in the metathoracic coxae that release unpleasant odor. Mostly herbivorous, others carnivorous, some hematophagous. Suborder Membra- Piercingsucking Paurometabola Small to very Homoptera nous uniform large, eyes in nature, usually present, held roof-like antennae filiform  over body, to bristle-like, Homo-alike or absent in legs variable; uniform Ptera- some cerci lacking; wings many are destructive pests feeding on plant juices causing Aphids, oviposition leafhoppers, damage, serving cicadas and as vectors of relatives plant viruses. Useful products: crimson dye from Cochineal insects, chewing gum from asterolecannid scale, and shellac and varnishes from lac insects. Neopterous Endopterygotes (Undergo complete metamorphosis) COLEOPTERA Forewings Chewing Holometabola Minute to very Elytra large, mostly sclerotized; hard-bodied, hindwings larval antennae Coleo-Sheath membra- small, variable; wing nous legs cursorial some adapted for referring to the swimming, elytra jumping, digging; pronotum-single, Ptera-wings conspicuous sclerite. Largest order of insects. Herbivorous or Beetles predatory, few scavengers or feed on fungi. With large number of very destructive pests of agricultural crops, stored  grains and other products. STREPSIPTERA Only males Reduced chewing Holometabola Minute, are winged, mouthparts compound eyes elytriform present in males forewings and freeliving Strepsi-turning or (similar to Hypermetamorp females; Male twisting halteres) hic antennae expanded flabellate; larvae Ptera- wings hindwings; and adults females legless. Purely wingless endoparasitic. Males Stylopids, twisted endoparasitic as wing parasites larva but emerge as free-living adults. Females are grublike, legless, no antennae and eyes. Useful in biological control of rice pests. NEUROPTERA Membranous Chewing or Holometabola Minute to large, , similar in grasping-sucking soft-bodied; appearance larvae campodeiform; Neuro – nerve pupae exarate in Ptera-wings silken cocoon. Compound eye present, antenna filiform; Lacewings, ovipositor dobsonflies, variously alderflies, modified; weak antlions, owlflies fliers. Both are predatory MECOPTERA Long and spots Chewing Holometabola Small to medium, membranous fragile, larvae with dark eruciform, pupae spots exarate Meco- long Ptera- compound eyes wings present, antennae long  and filiform, legs long and slender, abdomen long Scorpionflies and slender in some, genitalia prominent, last segment in male carried upright suggestive of a scorpion. Found in decaying vegetation. DIPTERA Forewing Sponging:housefli Holometabola Minute to very membranous es; large, larvae 2nd pair of apodous, some wings: with welldefined Di: two; ptera- haltere; head and thorax, wing knob-like piercing-sucking: others worm-like structure for mosquitoes and (vermiform), balancing gnats pupae obtect or coarctate. True flies Compound eyes present, most cutting sponging: species 3 ocelli, horsefly antennae variable. Cerci present or absent. Many larvae are herbivorous as larvae some are fungus-eaters, many are detritivores. Others are external or internal parasites of humans and anjmals. Large number are predaceous hence, beneficial SIPHONAPTERA Wingless Piercingsucking Holometabola Small to minute, (adult); chewing adults mostly (larvae) hard-bodied, bilaterally Siphon-tube; Secondarily compressed, ptera-wings apterous compound eyes lacking, antennae short. larvae vermiform, Fleas pupae exarate in silken cocoons. TRICHOPTERA Fore- and Mouthparts Holometabola Small to medium, hindwings vestigial; adapted sombercolored, membranous for imbibing fluid, usually brownish ; covered mandibles weakly larvae eruciform, Tricho-hair Ptera- with developed; larvae Almost all pupae exarate. wings modified chewing caddisflies are Compound eyes hairlike setae aquatic in egg, present, larva and pupal antennae range stages. from setaceous Caddisflies to filiform, adults terrestrial. Important predators of black flies. Aquatic larvae and pupae serve as food for freshwater fish. Good bioindicators of water pollution. LEPIDOPTERA Fore and Adults Siphoning; Holometabola Minute to very hindwings larvae chewing large; covered scaly; fore with scales, wings larger larvae eruciform, Lepidos- Scale than pupae obtect. Ptera-wings hindwings Compound eyes large, antennae prominent, with tympanal organs, Butterflies,moths, 2nd largest order skippers of insects, fore and hindwings  coupled with frenulum. Most larvae are pestiferous. Some adults are pollinators. Some are sources of useful products. HYMENOPTERA Fore and Chewing: ants Holometabola Minute to very hindwings large; larvae membranous legless with. distinct head, Hymeno - god of Chewing-lapping: larvae of marriage, bees and wasps; suborder referring to the Symphyta with union of fore and Hindwings distinct legs and hindwings by smaller than prolegs, pupae means of hamuli forewings, Suckingparasitic exarate, usually wasps within a cocoon. Compound eyes well developed; Ants, bees, Many wigless antennae long sawflies, wasps and filiform or geniculate with elbowed scape and distal segments clubbed; first abdominal segment in suborder Apocrita fused with metathorax forming a petiole. Ovipositor modified for piercing tissues, sawing or stinging. Pollinators, parasitoids, predatory and herbivorous (few) and sources  of useful products. Unit VI. Insect Pests of Major Crop and Stored Products Some Insect Pests of Major Crops 1. RICE a. Rice whorl maggot – Hydrellia philippina (Diptera: Ephydridae) Degenerated tissue found along the inner margins of merging leaves. As leaves expand, yellow damaged areas become evidently visible. b. Green leafhopper (GLH) – Nephotettix virescens, N. nigropictus, N. malayanus (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) Stunted plant growth as a result of sucking of sap from leaves and tillers. GLH are important vectors of viruses causing tungro disease. c. Brown planthopper (BPH) – Nilaparvata lugens (Homoptera: Delphacidae) Drying and browning of tillers due to removal of sap (hopperburn). BPH are vectors of ragged and grassy stunt viruses in rice. d. Rice stemborers Striped stemborer – Chilo suppresalis (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) Dark headed stemborer – Chilo polychrysus (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) Yellow stem borer – Scirpophaga incertulas (Lepidoptera: Shoenobiidae) White stem borer – S. innonata Pink stem borer – Sesamia inferens (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) Unfolding, browning and drying of the central leaf whorl as a result of larvae feeding within the stem. If plants are attacked before the flowering stage the damage is called deadheart; if plants are attacked after flowering stage, unfilled grains or dried panicles which remain straight and whitish results (whiteheads). e. Rice bug –Leptocorisa oratorius (Hemiptera: Alydidae)  Rice grains with darkened spots as a result of adult and nymphal feeding. Feeding during the milk stage results in empty grains; feeding during the soft dough stage results in lower grain quality and broken grains. f. Leaffolder/ Leaf roller – Cnaphalocrosis medinalis (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) Edges of leaves fastened together forming a tube where pupation occurs. g. Common cutworm – Spodoptera litura (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) Young rice plants are often cut at ground level while older plants are defoliated due to larval feeding. Newly hatched larvae usually feed together on the leaf surface while older ones are found in the soil around the base of the plants. h. Rice black bug – Scotinophara coarctata (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) Feeding by nymphs and adults on the sap results to “bug burn” 2. CORN a. Corn earworm – Helicoverpa armigera armigera (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) Rows of feeding holes on leaves after they unfold at whorl stage; cut silk and hole at opening of ears from silking to soft dough stage. b. Corn seedling maggot – Atherigona oryzae (Diptera: Muscidae) Yellowing of younger leaves and rotting of tissues. c. Corn aphids – Rhopalosiphum maidis (Homoptera: Aphididae) Stunted growth due to removal of sap if attacked 2-3 weeks before tasseling; seedlings may wither and die if infested at early growth stages; leaf surface with sooty molds due to heavy deposits of honey dew. d. Corn semilooper – Chrysodeixis chalcites (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) Leaf blades of younger plants eaten up with only the midrib and parallel veins left; corn silk cut. e. Common cutworm – Spodoptera litura (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) Leaves including veins and midribs almost consumed; young plants completely defoliated. f. Oriental migratory locust – Locusta migratoria manilensis (Orthoptera: Acrididae)  Leaves are irregularly chewed. In serious cases, whole plants sometimes stripped bare. g. Corn borer - Ostrinia furnacalis (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) Borings into the stalk results to breakage; clumping and subsequent breakage of tassels at tasseling stage. 3. SWEET POTATO a. Sweet potato weevil – Cylas formicarius formicarius (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) Tubers are contaminated with disagreeable odor and bitter taste due to secondary infection by microorganisms on tubers bored or tunneled by larvae. b. Hornworm - Agrius convulvoli (Lepidoptera: Sphingidae) c. Sweet potato bug – Physomerus grossipes (Hemiptera: Coreidae Plants are stunted due to piercing of the stem and sucking by both the nymphs and adults. d. Tortoise beetles – Laccoptera tredecimpunctata, L. philippinensis, Cassida circumdata, Aspidomorpha miliaris, Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae Irregular holes on leaves, in cases of large populations, plants are defoliated leaving only the stalks and midribs (both larvae and adult feed). 4. CUCURBITS (ampalaya, squash, melon, patola, upo, kundol, cucumber, chayote, pepper, eggplant, watermelon) a. Cucurbit beetle – Aulacophora indica, (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) Succulent tissues of leaves and flowers of host plants are scraped by adults, leaves exhibit a shredded appearance. Larvae bore into the roots or any portion of the plant near the ground and feed on the tissues. b. 28-spotted lady beetle – Epilachna vigintisexpunctata philippinensis (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) Voracious feeding by both larvae and adults result to scraped off appearance of succulent portions of leaves, with epidermis and veins intact. The plant may be defoliated when pest is numerous. c. Ampalaya/melon fruitfly – Bactrocera cucurbitae (Diptera: Tephritidae)  Stem and fruit rot due to maggots/larvae feeding on the stems and fruits. Severe cases lead to many fruit drops or decay of immature fruits. d. Tobacco whitefly – Bemisia tabaci (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) Vector of plant viruses e. Melon/Cotton aphid – Aphis gossypii (Homoptera: Aphididae) Leaves of young plants are cupped and distorted. Drops of honeydew and/ or patches of sooty molds are found on the upper sides of the leaves. 5. CRUCIFERS (Cabbage, Pechay, Cauliflower, Brocolli, Kale, Brussel sprouts) a. Diamond-back moth (DBM) – Plutella xylostella (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae) (Most serious pest of cabbage) Newly hatched caterpillar crawl underside the leaf, penetrates the epidermis and feeds on the leaf tissues. Later instars feed on the underside of leaf causing “windows” or holes right through it. b. Cabbage worm – Crocidolomia binotalis (Lepidoptera: Pyraustidae) Non-formation of heads in cabbage and perforations on leaves of non-head forming crucifers. c. Green peach aphid – Myzus persicae (Homoptera: Aphididae) Plant parts stunted, curl and crumple and lose color due to continuous sucking of plant sap. d. Striped flea beetle – Phyllotreta striolata (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) Young plants have round holes on cotyledons and leaves. This is often referred to as “shot-hole effect.” The seedlings may be killed if severe damage occurs. e. Cabbage webworm – Hellula undalis (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) Silken webbing on the surface of the leaves and stalks and surrounding regions with feeding holes. f. Common cutworm – Spodoptera litura (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) Soft epidermal tissues of leaves are eaten by young larvae. Leaf tissues are eaten by full-grown larvae, starting along the midribs towards the margins of leaves. 6. SOLANACEOUS CROPS (tomato, eggplant, pepper) a. Eggplant shoot and fruit borer – Leucinodes orbonalis (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), (Most serious pest of eggplant) The internal tissues of the fruit are devoured by the larvae. Shoots, midribs, petioles and flowers are also attacked b. Tomato fruitworm – H. armigera (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) Fruits dry up and subsequently fall because larvae bore into the fruit and feed voraciously on the tissues. c. Sweet pepper fruitfly – Bactrocera sp (Diptera: Tephritidae) Maggots feed on the tissues of the fruits. Fruits eventually rot. d. 28-spotted lady beetle – Epilachna vigintisexpunctata philippinensis (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) Voracious feeding by both larvae and adults result to scraped off appearance of succulent portions of leaves, with epidermis and veins intact. The plant may be defoliated when pest is numerous. 7. LEGUMES a. Bean fly – Ophiomyia phaseoli (Diptera: Agromyzidae) Attacked plants are stunted and yellow; often many are dead. Stems just above the soil level are thickened and usually cracked. b. Bean pod borer – Etiella zinckenella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) Larvae feed and make tunnels inside the pods, stems are partially stained dark and filled with pulpy excrement. c. Black bean aphid – Aphis craccivora (Homoptera: Aphididae) Wilting due to sap-sucking by the aphids. This is a vector of many plant viruses. d. Bean lycaenid – Euchrysops cnejus (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) Larva occupy the interior parts of flowers and feed on the seed pods It also feeds on the young buds where the body remains outside while feeding on succulent tissues.  e. Green soldier bug – Nezara viridula (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) Feeding punctures on developing fruits cause local necrosis resulting to spotting, deformation, fruit fall may result if attacked at very young stage. f. Leafminer – Stomopteryx subsecievella (Diptera: Gelechiidae) Larva mines and feeds on tissues of the leaves. As a result of feeding, only silvery membrane remains with the larvae visible inside. Heavy infestation causes premature leaf drop. 8. STORED PRODUCTS a. Bean weevil – Callosobruchus chinensis (Coleoptera: Bruchidae) b. Rice weevil – Sitophilus oryzae (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) c. Corn weevil – Sitophilus zeamays (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) Larvae enter the seeds and feed inside the grains. Severe infestation makes the grains unusable for human consumption and for seedling purposes. 9. BANANA a. Banana aphid – Pentalonia nigronervosa (Homoptera: Aphididae) Vector of virus which causes bunchy top disease. This aphid species also transmits 3 other plant viruses. b. Banana weevil – Cosmopolites sordidus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) Boring of the larvae cause irregular tunnels in the rhizome and pseudostem at ground level are bored by the larvae. The tissues at the edge of the tunnel turn brown and rot. Infected plants are easily blown over. Larva tunnels may extend up to the leaf petioles to a height of a meter or more. c. Banana leafroller – Erionota thrax (Lepidoptera: Hespiriidae) Larvae feed towards the midrib, cutting and rolling the leaf with a white web. The rolls eventually wilt and the affected leaf is no longer functional. d. Banana thrips – Thrips florum (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) Flowers and young fruits are attacked by the insects. Infested young fruits develop spotted skins upon maturity. 10. CITRUS a. Citrus psyllid – Diaphorina citri (Hemiptera: Psyllidae)  Vector of citrus greening (Huanglubin disease) b. Citrus butterflies – Papilio spp., (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae) Feeding by the larvae on the flush and mature leaves causes tree defoliation. c. Wooly whitefly – Aleurothrixus floccosus (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) Larvae and adults suck the sap of leaves which later turn yellowish. Honeydew secreted by larvae and adults favors the growth of sooty molds that interfere with photosynthesis. A dense mat of wooly material secreted by the larvae persists on the leaves for months. d. Citrus aphids – Toxoptera spp. (Hemiptera: Aphididae) Important vectors of citrus tristeza virus. e. Citrus green locust – Melicodes tenebrosa (Orthoptera: Acrididae) Nymphs and adults feed on fruit and foliage. Gregarious nymphs feed together and may defoliate a twig. 11. MANGO a. Mango leafhoppers – Idioscopus niveosparsus (Hemipterta: Cicadellidae) Both nymph and adults suck juices on the leaves, inflorescence and flower stems causing them to wither, dry and fall-off, thereby preventing fruit formation. Sticky substance known as honeydew is secreted on where sooty molds develop interfering with photosynthetic activity of the leaves. b. Mango twig borers – Callimetopus longicollis (Southern Tagalog), C. capito (Central Luzon), (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) Girdled twigs dry up, eventually wither and die. Infested twigs do not bloom and fruit production is reduced. c. Oriental fruitfly – Bactrocera sp. (Diptera: Tephritidae) Maggots which hatch from the eggs laid/ inserted into the fruits, feed and destroy the tissue of the fruit. d. Mango pulp weevil (Endemic to Palawan only) Sternochetus frigidus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)  No visible damage can be observed from the outside as the wound inflicted by the larva upon entry into the fruit, immediately heals. The weevil completes its development inside the fruit. When sliced open, infected fruits show pupal cells or chambers filled with frass, dead and live weevils, pupae or larvae. The presence of dark-brown, soillike frass, moving larvae and weevils makes the fruits unfit for human consumption. e. Mango seed borer – Deanolis albizonalis (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) Developing larvae which enter the fruit by boring on the apex or narrow tip of the fruit, which feed on the tissues beneath the skin of the fruits including the seed. The damaged area collapses causing the apex to burst. Infected fruits fall to the ground, with the seed entirely consumed and destroyed. 12. COCONUT a. Rhinoceros beetle – Oryctes rhinoceros (Coleoptera: Dynastidae) Adults feed on the growing bud of the coconut such that emerging fronds display a characteristic triangular pattern or geometric cuts as if the component leaflets had been cut with scissors. Only the adult is destructive. Entry holes of the beetles can be recognized by the presence of chewed-up tissues. b. Asiatic palm weevil – Rhynchoporus ferrugineus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) Larvae bore into the tissues or crown and tunnel in all directions and eventually hallow out a fairly large cavity. The only indication of attack are small holes found in the stem where pieces of chewed fibers protrude and brownish liquid oozes. Young crown usually wilts when the cabbage is totally destroyed by the larvae. Both larvae and adults are destructive. c. Coconut scale – Aspidiotus rigidus (Homoptera: Diaspididae) Yellowing of leaves due to sucking up of plant sap. d. Coconut leaf beetle - Brontispa longissima (Gestroi), (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae Larvae and adults feed on the tissues of emerging leaves which lead up to drying of the emerging fronds. Severe infestations show only the midribs. 13. OTHER FRUIT TREES a. Chico blossom moth – Eustalodes anthivora (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) Larvae enter and consume the contents of the ovary of newly opened flower, thus, preventing fruit-set. Infested flowers dry up. b. Nangka fruitfly – Bactrocera umbrosa (Diptera: Tephritidae) Fruitfly maggots penetrate into the tissues of maturing fruits where they feed and develop causing fruit rot. c. Nangka fruitborer – Diaphania caesalis (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) Larvae feed on the tissues of the outer portions of the developing fruit. d. Atis fruitborer – Heterographis bengalella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) Larvae bore into the immature fruit where it develops and feeds, destroying the fruit in the process. Young infested fruits dry up; older ones dry up in parts only but are useless. e. Spiraling whitefly on guava – Aleurodicus dispersus (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) Insects suck the sap of the leaves which become. infected by sooty molds interfering with photosynthesis. Leaves may dry up and curl. f. Atlas moth on santol and other fruit trees like atis, guyabano and avocado - Attacus atlas (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae) Larvae feed on the leaves. Defoliation of a branch may result when a number of larvae feed on branch. g. Blister mites on santol – Eriophyes sandorici (Eriophyidae: Acarina) Mites feed on the surface of tender foliage, stems and fruits, which causes the plant to form felt-like outgrowth and blister-like galls on leaves. h. Mealybugs on Guyabano and other fruit trees- Planococcus lilacinus (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) The insects suck the sap of the fruits. Honeydew secreted by them favors the growth of sooty molds which covers the leaves and interfere with photosynthesis. i. Lacewing Bug on Guyabano – Stephanitis typicus (Hemiptera: Tingidae) Young and adults feed together on the underside of the leaves. Infested leaf loses its shiny green luster, become yellowish, often fall off the tree prematurely. Heavily infested trees are stunted in growth and become unproductive. j. Aphids on Papaya – Aphis gossypii, A. craccivora (Hemiptera: Aphididae)  These species do not colonize the crop but are important vectors of the non- persistent papaya ringspot virus. 14. ORNAMENTALS a. Spider mites on roses: Tetranychus urticae, Oligonychus biharensis (Acari:Tetranychidae) The pest feeds and breeds on the undersurface of rose leaves. The mouthparts pierce the epidermis of the leaf causing leaves to appear yellow or bronze. During severe infestation webbing over blooms, stems and leaves is visible. Extreme infestation and continued drought conditions can cause the entire plant to die. Unit VII. The Pest Management Concept and Strategies General basis of the concept of pest management Pest Management refers to totality of activities initiated by human to intervene with normal interaction of pest and crop. It has the main objective of preserving crop potential yield, desirable quality and economic benefits. It involves three main aspects which are: 1. Goal: Maintaining Pest at tolerable level 2. Tools: Knowledge (Crop, Pest, Natural enemy, Environment) + Available technologies 3. Output: Appropriate pest management procedures The implementation of the various pest management concepts needs to be strategized to successfully reduce the pest status. This is determined by the crop, pest and natural enemy situation and the environmental condition. Approach. Overall worldview of agroecosystem situation Management. Maintaining pest population level at tolerable level Strategy. Decisive actions done thru the course of management practices Tactic. The actual method used to implement management program Agricultural Pests Categories of pest based on occurrence 1. Regular pest – frequently occurs on crop in close association, i. e. yellow stem borer in rice (Scirpophaga incertulas)  2. Occasional pest – infrequently occurs, with no close association, i. e. caseworm (Nymphula depunctalis) 3. Seasonal pest – occurs during a particular season every year, i. e. mango hopper (Idioscopus clypealis) 4. Persistent pest – occurs on the crop throughout the year and is difficult to control, i. e. mealy bugs 5. Sporadic pest – pest species that occur in isolated localities during some period, i. e. rice black bug, (Scotinophara coarctata) Categories of pest based on infestation 1. Epidemic pest – sudden buildup of pest population in a severe form in a region at a particular time 2. Endemic pest – occurrence of the pest in a low level, regularly and confined to a particular area Injury vs. Damage Injury is defined as the physical harm or destruction to a valued commodity primarily brought about by the presence or activities of a pest. Example: leaf defoliation, fruit boring, crop wilting Damage on the other hand, is the monetary value lost from the commodity as a result of the injury brought by the pest. Example: crop yield loss, produce quality reduction Any level of pest infestation may cause injury, however, not all levels of injury may translate to economic damage. Plant can naturally tolerate small injuries exhibiting no damage. On the other hand, at some point in the growth phase of a pest population, it may reach a level where it begins to cause damage that may justify the use of pest management. Monitoring /surveillance and sampling Surveillance: an official process which collects and records data on pest presence or absence by survey, monitoring or other procedures Monitoring: an official ongoing process to verify the characteristics of a pest population Survey: an official procedure conducted over a defined period to determine the characteristics of a pest population or to determine which species are presence in an area Purposes of surveillance  a. Promote early detection of pests to facilitate eradication or management b. Support trade by demonstrating areas of pest freedom or low pest prevalence c. Describe the distribution and prevalence of risk organism already present d. Delimit the full extent of pest population following detected incursion e. Measure the success of biosecurity system f. Enable management and cost benefit decisions g. Develop a list of pest or host present in an area h. Monitor progress in a pest eradication campaign i. Enable reporting to other organization Types of surveillance operation 1. General surveillance ✓ information on pests in an area is gathered from many sources wherever it is available ✓ secondary data a. Sources of information ✓ NPPOs ✓ Other national and local government agencies ✓ Research institutions ✓ Universities ✓ Scientific societies ✓ Producers ✓ Consultant ✓ Museums ✓ The general public ✓ Scientific and trade journals ✓ Unpublished data ✓ Contemporary observation b. Uses of information ✓ To support NPPO declarations of pest freedom ✓ To aid early detection of new pests ✓ For reporting to other organizations such as RCPC and FAO ✓ In the compilation of host and commodity pest list and distribution record 2. Specific survey ✓ information on pests is obtained on specific sites over a defined period ✓ Primary data a. Delimiting: survey conducted to establish the boundaries of an area considered to be infested by or free from pest (FAO, 1990) b. Detection: Survey conducted in an area to determine if pests are present (FAO,1990;revised FAO, 1995)  c. Monitoring: Ongoing survey to verify the characteristics of a pest population (ISPM 4, 1995) Pest monitoring Significance ✓ to assess pest situation and determine what sort of pest activity is occurring ✓ to aid in decision making ✓ to predict pest problem before they occur Techniques and procedure What to look for: ✓ Presence and evidence of pests ✓ Evidence of damage ▪ Nature of damage ▪ Where the damage is found ▪ Are there still pests present in the damaged area ✓ Presence of natural enemies ✓ Evidence of potential contributing activities to the pest problem ✓ If unrecognized pests are found, samples should be collected and brought to an expert for identification Frequency of monitoring: ✓ Determined by the biology of the pest ✓ Determined by the crop, if a crop has a low threshold of damage, more intensive monitoring may be needed ✓ At regular intervals (weekly and may be more frequently when a pest approaches a border line to becoming a threat to a crop Tools and techniques a. Visual counts over a representative area ✓ Counting the number of pests present per plant, per leaf, per fruit, per terminal, per area bases ✓ Damage counts which estimate pest population per plant, per area or per fruit (pre- and post-harvest) b. Trapping ✓ Light trap: for flying insects, nocturnal and light-attracted ✓ Pheromone: species specific, adult males ✓ Yellow sticky trap: for flying insects  c. Sweep nets ✓ Need to use standard sweep ✓ Sampling locations need to be consistent ✓ In some cases, sampling times need to be consistent d. Field history, look for patterns of pest problems ✓ Farmer and key person interview ✓ Reports e. Beat sheet ✓ Made from yellow or white tarpulin material with a dowel on two opposite end ✓ 1.5 x 2 m the larger dimensions being preferred for taller crops ✓ the extra width on each side catches insects thrown out sideways when sampling and the sheet’s depth allows it to be draped over the adjacent plant row. This prevents insects being flung through or escaping through this row. f. Suction sampling ✓ Uses a vacuum machine or aspirator ✓ Effective for dry vegetation and smaller arthropods g. Destruction sampling ✓ Randomly select individual plants or plant parts, uproot from soil or remove from the main plant ✓ Look for pests inside leaf sheets, stems, pseudostems, roots, etc Table 1. Monitoring technique for various pest Arthropod Technique Lepidopteran adult Visual sweep net, light trap, pheromone trap Lepidopteran larva Visual, sweet net, destructive Aphids visual Plant hoppers, leafhoppers, Visual, sweep net suction other homopterans Orthopterans Visual, sweep net Coleopterans Visual, sweep net, destructive suction Mites Visual, suction, destruction Standard Rating Scales Table 2. Leaf damage Scale Description 1 No damage 3 1-10% leaf area damage 5 11-25% leaf area damage  7 26-50% leaf area damage 9 Above 50% leaf area damage Source: IRRI (1980) - rice whorl maggot Cayabyab (2017) - army worm Mattock (2014) - slugs Table 7. Fall armyworm damage Scale Description 0 No visible leaf damage 1 Only pin-hole damage to the leaves 2 Pin-hole and shot-hole damage to the leaves 3 Small elongated lesions (5-10mm) on 1-3 leaves 4 Mid-sized lesions (10-30 mm) on 4-7 leaves 5 Elongated lesions (>30 mm) and small portions eaten on 3-5 leaves 6 Elongated lesions (>30 mm) and large portions eaten on 3-5 leaves 7 Elongated lesions (>30 mm) and 50% of leaf eaten 8 Elongated lesions (>30 mm) and 70% of leaf eaten 9 Most leaves have long lesions and complete defoliation is observed Source: Fertilizer and Pesticide Authority (2001) Damage and Infestation Assessment Percent incidence: Downy mildew, fungal disease of tobacco, postharvest disease No. of infected plants/fruit % DI = Total no. of plant/fruit samples X 100 Percent infestation: Aphids, leafhoppers, whitefly, thrips and mites No. of infested plants % In = Total no. of plant samples X 100 Percent leaf damage: Army worm, rice blast No. of plants with leaf damage % LD = X 100 Total no. 0f plant samples Development of Pest Management Concept The concepts of ‘Economic Injury Level’ and ‘Economic Threshold’ are considered keystones of the present Integrated Pest Management (IPM) (Stern et al., 1959). Originally Stern et al. (1959) defined the ‘Economic Injury Level’ (EIL) as the lowest population density that will cause enough economic damage to justify the cost of artificial control measures. Later, Southwood and Norton (1973) and Ramirez and Saunders (1999) redefined EIL as the pest density at which the cost of additional control equals the economic loss prevented by implementing the control measure. Clearly, the EIL provides, as a decision-making tool, information whether the cost of damage caused by pest organisms justifies the cost of artificial control measures (Stern et al., 1959). Economic-injury Level (EIL) (Stern et al., 1959). “The lowest population density of a pest that will cause economic damage; or the amount of pest injury which will justify the cost of control.” The EIL concept was developed hand-in-hand with the Integrated Pest Management (IPM) concept and was used to promote the more rational use of pesticides. That is to delay pesticide resistance, prevent pest resurgence and pest shifting, and to conserve the non-target organisms and environment (Pedigo and Higley, 1992). ▪ Action Threshold (AT) – “The pest density at which control measures should be implemented to prevent it from reaching the Economic-injury Level (point where economic loss occurs).” ▪ Aesthetic-injury Level – “Analogous to the EIL, except that aesthetic rather than economic considerations motivate the pest management decisions.” Economic threshold Level (ETL). The density of a pest (or level of injury) at which control measures should be initiated to prevent an increasing pest population from reaching the EIL. The ETL is sometimes called the action threshold. Below this level of pest population, no significant economic loss is caused to the crop, so no human intervention is recommended Above the threshold, economic losses from pests exceed the incurred pest control costs. Threshold level of any pest is expressed either in terms of percentage of damaged plant parts or of population density, for instance: one rice stemborer (white tiller) per rice hill, or one Pyricularia rice blast fleck per rice leaf. Economic threshold is dependent on the crop, pest and environmental condition. Same pest may establish different ETL depending on its habitat and host.  General Equilibrium Position (GEP). The average density of a population over a long period of time, around which the pest population over a long period of time, around which the pest population tends to fluctuate due to biotic and abiotic factors and in the absence of permanent environmental changes. Economic-Based Model of Pest Management Relationship between the EIL, ETL, and GEP of a pest population In most crops, at almost all seasons, certain pest species inhabit, feed, or oviposit on various plant parts at some point of the crop’s growth stage. However, the presence of a pest does not always mean that action should be taken by the farmer to control the pest. Pedigo (1989) discussed that “In seeking to reduce a pest’s long term average density, the general equilibrium position (GEP), is low compared with the economic threshold (problems are not particularly severe), the best strategy would be to dampen pest population peaks. This action would not change the GEP appreciably, yet would prevent economic damage from occurring during outbreaks.” By contrast, “severe pest problems call for more drastic population reductions. With these pest problems, the GEP lies very close to or is above the economic threshold. What is required for these populations is a general lowering of the GEP so that highest population peaks never reach the economic threshold.” Figure 1. The General Equilibrium Position Now, how does a farmer know when the number of pests in his crop field is too many? To help farmers decide on this, we may use the concept of economic-based model. This concept allows the farmer to compare the value of the damage caused by the pest to the value of action or control to be taken against the pest. In the figure below, the point where the cost of control intersects the value of loss is the Economic Injury Level (EIL). Pedigo also contributed a simplified equation to calculate a pest’s EIL. The equation includes the following values:  V = Market value per unit of produce (e. g. current market price/ha) I = Injury units per production unit (e. g. % defoliation/insect/ha expressed as a proportion P = Density or intensity of pest population (e.g. insects/ha) D = Damage per unit injury (e. g. sacks lost/ha) K = Proportionate reduction in injury (e.g. 0.50 for 50%) C = Cost of control (Peso/ha) EIL = P P = C / (V x I x D x K) Figure 2. Pest Population dynamics on GEP, AT and EIL. If the calculated EIL of a certain pest species reached a level where the farmer should take action, the Economic Threshold Level (ETL) concept may be used to justify the course of taking action against a pest species. At or above this level, the damage cost caused by the pest is greater than the cost of control; below this level, the cost of control is higher than the cost of damage.  Figure 3. The Economic Threshold Level. Unlike the EIL, there is no equation in determining the ETL. However, to calculate it you must: 1. Know how to identify the pest 2. Know how to do sampling of pest specimen to assess the level of infestation 3. Know the crop growth stage and the relative severity of damage 4. Know approximate threshold levels of pests 5. Consider how ETL vary according to damage caused at various crop stages Table 1. Economic threshold / injury level of important insect pests of rice. Insect Pest Stage of the Crop Economic Threshold Level Stem borer Nursery and Tillering One adult or one egg mass per one sq. m or 5% of dead hearts per sq. m. Panicle stage 2% of white ears per sq. m Gall midge Nursery and Tillering One silver shoot per hill or 5% silver shoots per sq. m. BPH/WBPH Tillering 10-15 insects per hill After Flowering 20-25 insects per hill Leaf folder All stages One to two damaged leaves per hill or 4%folded leaves per sq. m. Green leaf hopper Nursery One or two insects per sq. m Tillering 10 insects per hill Flowering 20 insects per hill *Dunna V. and Bidhan R. (2013) Table 2. Economic threshold level for major pests of selected vegetables. Crop/ Pest Economic threshold/injury level Cabbage Diamond back moth 4 larvae/ plant in nursery; 10 larvae/ plant in main crop up to one month after transplanting; 20 larvae/ plant in main crop between 1 and 2 month safter transplanting Cabbage looper 0.1 larvae/ plant (Greene 1972) Cabbage worm 2 larvae/ plant Leaf webber One larvae/ plant, 0.3 egg mass/ plant (Singh 1978) Lepidopteran defoliator 8-10 % of leaf area/ plant Tomato Fruit borer One larva/ plant or one damaged fruit/ plant Whitefly Four adults/ leaf Leaf miner 26 mines/ 6 trifoliate or 6 adults/ 6 row Stink bug 0.5/ 6 feet row Horn worm 1/ 6 feet row Okra Leaf hopper 4.66 hoppers/ plant Shoot & fruit borer 5.3 percent damaged fruits Eggplant Shoot & fruit borer 1-5 percent damaged fruit *Sardara et. al. Categories of Pest according to GEP, ETL, EIL, and DB 1. Key pest – most severe and damaging pests which GEP level always lie above the EIL 2. Major pest – a pest whose GEP level lies very close to EIL or coincides with EIL. The damage may be prevented by timely and repeated control implementation 3. Minor pest – GEP level usually lies below the EIL 4. Sporadic pest – the GEP level generally lies below the EIL. Sometimes this type of pest crosses the EIL and cause severe loss in some places/periods 5. Potential pest – they are organisms that are currently not considered pest, but they may become such if environmental factors favor their development. Unit VII: Pest Control Techniques in Integrated Pest Management A. Biological Control History Harry Scott Smith ✓ introduced the term "biological pest management” during conference of the American Association of Economic Entomologists in California in 1919 ✓ father of modern biological control. ✓ established the use of natural enemies (either introduced or manipulated) to manage and control unwanted pest populations in the field. Ji Han (botanist) ✓ The book of entitled “Nan Fang Cao Mu Zhuang” (Plants of the Southern Region), was the first record of the utilization of insect species in controlling insect pests. Charles V. Riley ✓ sent the first worldwide consignment of a biological control agent, Cotesia glomerata, a parasitoid wasp in 1873.This wasp was imported from Europe to manage the populations of the cabbage white butterflies in the United States Governor Martines ✓ introduced Acridotheres sp. in the Philippines in 1849 (crested myna), commonly known as Chinese Starling, to manage the problem in migratory locusts (Gruber, 1989). Paul De Bach and Evert I. Schliner ✓ edited the published book entitled “Biological Control of Insect Pests and Weeds,” in 1964 which became an important reference for the BC community. Frank Howarth ✓ published a paper entitled “Biological Control: Panacea or Pandora's Box” in 1983, which notably affected the concept of classical BC. In his paper, he concluded that the application of classical BC of arthropods significantly contributed to the extinction of desirable species (e.g., endemic). ▪ As a result, legislative guidelines, as well as introduction methods, have been reformed and are currently still being updated. ▪ In Hawaii, BC efforts have diminished and have not recovered to levels recorded prior to 1985. ▪ Research into this field was stimulated by the overall conclusion that many of Howarth's findings were unsubstantiated, but certain impacts had been revealed. Currently, there is still no evidence of species extinction that is related to classical BC efforts. Definition ❖ Is a bio-effect or technique of governing and controlling pests using other living organisms. ❖ It relies on predation, parasitism, herbivory, or other natural mechanisms, but typically also involves an active human management role. ❖ “Life controlling life approach” ❖ Natural enemies of insect pests, also known as biological control agents, include predators, parasitoids, and pathogens. ❖ It can be an important component of integrated pest management (IPM) programs. ❖ Involves human intervention for the effective control and management of pests.  ❖ The use of living organisms to manage and/or control the unwanted population of a target pest organism. Its main goal is to decrease the population of the pest to reduce its abundance or damage in the crop system. Usually, the effectiveness of parasitoids and predators (typically other insect species) in the field increases when the population of the target pest species have been stabilized or are at a low level. The effect of the presence of parasitoids and predators in the population increase of the target pest populations is typically minimal. ❖ On the other hand, disease pathogens are found to be most effective when the pest population is high. To take advantage of the natural biological control taking place on the farm, the fostering of natural predators (e.g., preying mantids, ladybugs, lacewings and ground beetles) is usually encouraged. Meanwhile, commercialized natural predators are generally only effective for a limited amount of time since they do not prefer to stay in the location where they are placed (Vreysen et al, 2007). ❖ To be cost-effective, biological control requires an in-depth understanding of the biology, behavior, and nutritional requirements of natural enemies, as well as their interactions with the target pest species. It requires interdisciplinary efforts from the field of research, extension, and private sectors to complete the research, development and eventually application of biological agents in IPM. Overall, biological control can provide safe and long-term effects when properly studied and used in conjunction with other suitable resource management tactics (Eilenberg et al, 2001, Vreysen et al, 2007). Types of Biological Pest Management Strategies 1. Importation ✓ Sometimes called Classical Biological Control ✓ Involves the introduction of a pest's natural enemies to a new locale where they do not occur naturally ✓ deliberate introduction of an exotic biological control agent into an infested region for permanent establishment and long-term pest control. The goal is to re-establish the equilibrium between pest and natural enemy populations that  was lost when the pest relocated to a new geographical region without its natural enemies (Eilenberg et al., 2001). ✓ This is usually done by government authorities. ✓ The process of importation inv