REVIEWER.pdf

Instrumentation and Measurement Reviewer Instrumentation Overview - Definition: Instrumentation is the art and science of using instruments in control systems or processes for observation, measurement, and control of variables. - Benefits: Instrumentation ensures product qua...

Instrumentation and Measurement Reviewer Instrumentation Overview - Definition: Instrumentation is the art and science of using instruments in control systems or processes for observation, measurement, and control of variables. - Benefits: Instrumentation ensures product quality, improves production efficiency, enables real-time process management, saves energy, and enhances safety. Measurement Systems - Sensing Element: Contacts the process and gives output based on the variable measured (e.g., thermocouples measure temperature). - Signal Conditioning: Converts the sensing element's output into a form suitable for further processing. - Signal Processing: Converts conditioned signals into a format for presentation, like digital data for computers. - Data Presentation: Displays measured values (e.g., analog pointer, alphanumeric display). Instruments and Their Functions - Types of Instruments: - Indicating Instruments: Show the instantaneous value of a measured quantity. - Recording Instruments: Provide a graphic record of variations in the measured quantity. - Controlling Instruments: Widely used in industrial processes to regulate measured quantities. - Measurement Techniques: Mechanical, electrical, and electronic means of measurement. - Common Instruments: - Analog Meters: Traditional devices with mechanical movement and a pointer.  - Digital Meters: Electronic devices providing numerical read-outs. Key Concepts in Measurement - Accuracy: - Accuracy is the closeness of a measurement to the true value. - Formula: Relative Accuracy, a_r = |y_max - x| / x Where: - a_r = relative accuracy (unit/unit) - x = input true value (unit) - y_max = instrument output (unit) Example: The true length of a steel beam is 6 m, and repeated readings are 6.01 m, 6.0095 m, and 6.015 m. - Absolute accuracy a_a = 6.015 - 6 = 0.015 m - Relative accuracy a_r = (6.015 - 6) / 6 = 0.0025 m/m - Relative accuracy percentage a% = 0.25% - Precision: - Precision is the closeness of agreement among a set of results. - Formula: Average Deviation, a_v = |y_max - y_min| / y_avg Where: - y_max = maximum measurement - y_min = minimum measurement - y_avg = average of the measurements  Example: If a student measures an object's mass three times: 14.568 g, 14.566 g, and 14.565 g. - Average precision a_v = (14.568 - 14.565) / ((14.568 + 14.566 + 14.565) / 3) * 100 = 0.02% - Tolerance: - The maximum error that is to be expected in some value. - Example: A resistor with a nominal value of 1000 Ohms and a 5% tolerance could have an actual value between 950 Ohms and 1050 Ohms. - Sensitivity: - Sensitivity refers to how much the output of an instrument changes for a given change in the input. It is the ratio of the change in the output signal to the change in the input signal. - Formula: s = Delta y / Delta x Where: - s = sensitivity (output unit/input unit) - Delta y = change in output (e.g., volts, ohms) - Delta x = change in input (e.g., temperature, pressure) Example: A Pt100 Platinum Resistance Thermometer. When the temperature changes from 0°C to 50°C, the resistance changes from 100 Ohms to 119.4 Ohms. - Input change Delta x = 50°C - 0°C = 50°C - Output change Delta y = 119.4 Ohms - 100 Ohms = 19.4 Ohms Sensitivity is: s = 19.4 Ohms / 50°C = 0.388 Ohms/°C This means that for every 1°C increase in temperature, the resistance of the Pt100 increases by 0.388 Ohms. - Linearity: - Describes whether the output of an instrument is directly proportional to the input. - Formula: Non-linearity, N = (Max deviation from linearity / Full-scale output) * 100% Example: If the deviation from linearity is 0.5 mV and the full-scale output is 10 mV, then: N = (0.5 / 10) * 100 = 5% Dynamic Characteristics - Time Response: - Describes how an instrument responds to a change in input over time. - Step Response of a First-Order System: System transfer function: H(s) = 1 / (tau s + 1) Time constant tau gives the system's speed to reach the steady state. - Rise Time (First-order System): The time taken for the system output to rise from 10% to 90% of the steady-state value. - Settling Time: The time required for the output to settle within a certain percentage (e.g., 2%) of the steady-state value. Transducers - Devices that convert one form of energy into another (e.g., sensors and actuators in instrumentation systems). - Examples: - Thermocouple: Converts temperature changes into electrical signals. - Strain Gauge: Converts mechanical strain into electrical resistance.  Detailed Reviewer: Proximity Sensors 1. Introduction to Transducers and Sensors - Transducer: A device that converts energy forms such as movement, electrical signals, radiant energy, thermal or magnetic energy, etc., into another form of energy. - Sensor: Detects physical changes like heat or force and converts them into an electrical signal. - Actuator: A device that converts electrical energy into another form, usually motion. Examples of Transducers: - Movement: Proximity and Position sensors like potentiometers and encoders. - Speed/Acceleration: Tachometers, gyroscopes, and motors. - Light Level: LDR (Light Dependent Resistor), solar cells, LEDs. - Temperature: Thermocouples, thermistors, heaters, fans. - Force/Pressure/Sound: Strain gauges, microphones, loudspeakers, buzzers. 2. Types of Proximity Sensors - Mechanical Proximity Sensor: A mechanical switch operating in either Normally Open (NO) or Normally Closed (NC) mode. Common example: Reed Switch, an electrical switch operated by a magnetic field. - Optical Proximity Sensor: Uses light frequency as a signal. Examples include: - Ambient Light Sensor: Detects the amount of light in the environment. - Infrared (IR) Sensor: Consists of an infrared light source and a detector. It detects objects by interrupting the light beam. - PIR (Pyroelectric Infrared) Sensor: Detects the infrared radiation emitted by warm objects, like the human body, within the 9um to 14um wavelength range. Used for motion detection. - Ultrasonic Proximity Sensor: Emits sound pulses (~40 kHz) and measures the time taken for the echo to return after hitting an object. Common uses include level monitoring of solids and liquids, and collision avoidance. Works well in dusty or wet environments, but ambient noise can be an issue. - Capacitive Proximity Sensor: Measures changes in capacitance when an object (usually non-metallic) enters the sensor's field. It detects objects by sensing changes in the dielectric constant between two plates. - Inductive Proximity Sensor: Operates based on Faraday's Law of inductance, detecting changes in magnetic flux when metallic objects pass by. Ideal for detecting metallic objects. 3. Sensor Details - Mechanical Proximity Sensor: Simple, reliable, but limited to on/off operations. - Optical Proximity Sensor: Non-contact, fast switching, no moving parts. However, alignment is critical, and it can be affected by ambient light conditions. - Ultrasonic Proximity Sensor: Effective for measuring distance and working in tough environments. Noise can be problematic. - Capacitive Proximity Sensor: Best for detecting changes in dielectric materials (non-metallic objects). - Inductive Proximity Sensor: Excellent for metallic object detection due to magnetic flux changes. 4. Proximity Sensors Operational Modes - Through Beam: Long range (~20m), requires precise alignment. - Retro-reflective: Moderate range (1-3m), cost-effective. - Diffuse-reflective: Short range (12-300mm), simple and affordable.