Practical Research 2 PDF

PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 collection is critical to conducting scientific 1st GRADING_FIRST HALF research. To do this, we need reliable research instruments. In quantitative research, these IMPORTANC...

PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 collection is critical to conducting scientific 1st GRADING_FIRST HALF research. To do this, we need reliable research instruments. In quantitative research, these IMPORTANCE, KINDS, instruments pertain to questionnaires from & VARIABLES OF QUANTITATIVE other RESEARCH research papers, researcher-made questionnaires, standardized tests, INTRODUCTION psychological tests, In almost all subject matters, our knowledge is laboratory tests, imaging, and other methods incomplete, and problems are waiting to be that can be numerated. solved. We can 2. Results are based on larger sample address these unknowns and find answers to sizes that are representative of the G unresolved problems by asking relevant population. Did questions and then you ever wonder how the Philippines’ Social R seeking answers through systematic research. Weather Stations (SWS) conduct surveys Quantitative Research may be defined as the about how O systematic empirical investigation of social Filipinos feel regarding certain issues? In doing phenomena using such surveys, the researchers do not ask all tools of mathematics and statistics (Toreno 106,097,027 Filipinos about how they feel; and Clamor-Toreno, 2018). WHAT IS QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH? It is a structured way of collecting and EM instead, they survey around 1,200 people. How can this be a survey of the entire Philippines, you ask? The answer is that the sample size is the ST analyzing data obtained from different sources representative of the population. involving the use of Representativeness is crucial in quantitative computational, statistical, and mathematical research. tools to get results (SIS International 3. Research study can usually be S Research, 2018). replicated or repeated given its high Quantitative researchers seek explanations reliability. The SH and predictions (Leedy & Ormod, 2015) that reliability of the instrument used to collect can be generalized data can be thought of as consistency. Does and replicated to other persons and places the (Creswell, 2009). The intent is to establish, instrument consistently measure what it is R confirm, validate intended to measure? For example, every relationships, and to develop generalizations December O that contribute to theory (Leedy & Ormod, since year 2000, SWS surveys Filipinos by 2015). asking, “Is it with hope or fear that you enter N In short, quantitative research is explaining the coming phenomena by collecting numerical data that year?” Their results that for 2018, a new U are analyzed all-time high of 96% of Filipino adults are using mathematically based methods in entering the particular statistics’ (Aliaga & Gunderson, year with hope rather than fear surpassing the 2002). previous record of 95% achieved in 2002, 2011, CHARACTERISTICS OD QUANTITATIVE and 2016 (SWS 2017). The consistency of the RESEARCH findings over time proves the reliability of the 1. Structured research instruments are instrument used by SWS. used to gather data. Accurate and 4. Quantitative researcher has a clearly systematic data defined research question to which objective answers are sought. A quantitative form of charts, graphs, or tables, the researcher knows what he/she is specifically highlights of which are explained in textual investigating. form. Quantitative research stands out for its 7. Quantitative research projects can be objectivity. Numbers are exact to the decimal used to generalize concepts more widely, point. They predict don’t lie. A quantitative researcher analyzes future results, or investigate casual numbers and concludes based on numerals, relationships. One factor that can affect the no matter usefulness his or her beliefs, values, and personality. of a quantitative study is its generalizability. It 5. Quantitative research tests hypothesis is the measure of how useful the results of a and measures variables. A hypothesis is a study G specific are for a broader group of people or statement of prediction. It is a formal tentative situations. The study is said to have a good R statement of the expected relationship generalizability, between meaning, what is true to some may be true to O two or more variables a researcher is studying. all. For example, Racca and Lasaten (2016) Variables are those simplified portions of the found phenomenon that you intend to study. It is out that there is a significant relationship derived from the root word “vary”meaning changing in amount, volume, number, form, nature, or type. These variables should be measurable EM between the Philippine Science High School students’ English language proficiency and their academic performance in Science and ST i.e., they Mathematics. Could can be counted or subjected to a scale. it be the same with the students from other For example, if you want to study the high schools across the country? Quantitative performance of Senior High School students in research S college is a numbers game: the larger the sample entrance exams, then your variables may population, the more one can generalize the SH include, entrance exam scores, number of results and hours devoted predict future results. to studying, age, general average, etc. Variables may be weight, height, anxiety STRENGTHS OF QUANTITATIVE R levels, income, RESEARCH body temperature, and so on. It could be 1. Quantitative methods offer breadth. With O demographic, religion, income, occupation, enough samples and data, it is easier to draw temperature, generalizable conclusions using quantitative N humidity, language, food, fashion, gender, research methods compared to single case or birth order, types of blood group, etc. small population studies using qualitative U 6. Data are in the form of numbers and research methods. statistics, often arranged in tables, 2. Studies using quantitative research charts, figures, approaches are generally easier to replicate. or other non-textual forms. Quantitative Furthermore, the data are presented in the form of numbers - results also tend to be somewhat more from consistent when the same methods are precise measurements and statistical tests. followed. These data are presented in the research 3. Communicating data, procedures, and paper in the results are easier because the statistical terminologies, analytical techniques, and procedures are things, to disprove or provide a new generally consistent across disciplines. hypothesis, or simply to find answers to 4. It is generally easier to summarize, questions or solutions to describe, process, and analyze large volumes problems in daily life. It is important to identify of information and classify the kinds of quantitative research when they are in numerical form. Analysis can and its also be faster, especially when spreadsheets or variables in the inquiry process. statistical software are used. Research findings can affect people’s lives, 5. Quantitative research is better for projects ways of doing things, laws, rules, and where objectivity is desired. Quantitative regulations, as well as methods are policies, among others. Widely, quantitative designed to minimize biases, influence, and research is often used because of its emphasis G subjective interpretations of the researchers. on proof rather than discovery. R WEAKNESSES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH IMPORTANCE OF QUANTITATIVE O 1. Some aspect of people, human behavior, RESEARCH ACROSS FIELDS and interactions are often difficult or Quantitative research is an objective, impossible to methodical, well- determined scientific process measure. 2. Emphasis on generalizability and trends hinders the deeper examination of nuanced factors that EM of investigation. It aims to seek answers to problems through the application of scientific methodology. It is widely used in all ST affect specific cases, especially those that fields to determine the unknown. deviate from the general trend. 3. Context and other information that provide BUSINESS AND MANAGEMENT a richer understanding of observed trends and From the time industry began, advances in S patterns business were made through extensive can get lost in the measurement and macro quantitative research done by the icons of SH examination of data. the industry – Mary Parker Follet, Hugo 4. Errors in the measurement or modelling of Munsterberg, and Elton Mayo of the the omission of data can easily lead to the Hawthorne Studies fame, to name a few. misinterpretation of results. All contributed to how businesses are run R 5. Some tools in quantitative research (e.g., today. We now live in the era of big data, self-accomplished survey questionnaires) may and quantitative methods used by O yield operations analysts provide solid evidence limited or even inaccurate information due to to guide management decisions on N human nature. For instance, respondents may production, distribution, accounting, fill out marketing, and personnel management. U the questionnaire with what they believe is These methods also help managers project socially desirable. Others may simply make future business conditions, enabling them errors in to adjust their strategies as needed. filling out the questionnaire. MARKETING, TOURISM, AND SERVICE IMPORTANCE OF QUANTITATIVE INDUSTRIES RESEARCH Market research plays a key role in People research to find solutions, even determining the factors that lead to tentative ones, to problems, to improve or business success. enhance ways of doing Quantitative research helps service industries by employing data capture methods and statistical analysis. modeling, simulation, and even the Quantitative market research is used for structural strength of beams and columns estimating consumer attitudes and these are all had from quantitative research behaviors, market sizing, segmentation, findings to meet the extremely rapid and identifying drivers for brand recall and product development now being demanded product purchase decisions. by the industry. Thus, the findings help in forecasting, branding decisions, and even deciding what colors to use. KINDS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS SOCIAL SCIENCES The research design refers to the overall In social sciences, quantitative research is strategy that you choose to integrate the G widely used in the fields of psychology, different components of the study economics, sociology, community health, coherently and logically, thereby ensuring R education, human development, gender, you will effectively address the research communication, and political science. problem. O Economic analysts rely on complex Furthermore, a research design constitutes mathematical and statistical procedures to the blueprint for the selection, analyze economic phenomena, explain measurement, and analysis of data. The economic issues, as well as predict future economic conditions. Quantitative psychologists’ study and develop models, methods, and techniques EMresearch problem determines the research you should. Quantitative methods emphasize objective measurements and the statistical, ST used to measure human behavior and mathematical, or numerical analysis of data other attributes. collected through polls, questionnaires, and Sociologists employ quantitative research surveys, or by manipulating pre-existing methods to focus on ways people statistical data using computational S themselves understand and describe their techniques. social worlds. The kind of research is dependent on the SH Political scientists use quantitative research researcher’s aim in conducting the study to predict and explain political phenomena and the extent to which the findings will be and political behavior. used. Quantitative research designs are generally R MEDICAL SCIENCES AND ALLIED FIELDS classified into experimental and non Quantitative research is essential in experimental as the following matrix below. O Medical Sciences and its allied fields, such as Dentistry, Nursing, Physical and N Occupational Therapy, Medical TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH Technology, Pharmacy, etc. EXPERIMENTAL U It plays an important role in finding out TRUE EXPERIMENTAL which treatments are used in the best Rigid manipulation of variables possible ways. Use of control, selection, and random Research and clinical trials are an everyday assignment part of healthcare professionals. The Effect of a New treatment plan for breast cancer ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL Research in engineering and technology Rigid manipulation of variables has overwhelmingly been focused on Use of control without randomization of quantitative designs. variables From inventions, product designs, Intact groups or participants are used in their entirety and related respiratory disorders of The use of conventional versus smokers cooperative learning groups on LONGITUDINAL students’ academic achievement Data is collected at the present The effect of personalized instruction Data collection will be done again at a versus conventional instruction on future time the computational skill Data sets are compared to each other A prospective longitudinal study of NON-EXPERIMENTAL – Research the correlation and consequences of Purpose early grade retention DESCRIPTIVE Describe the current status of a variable THE VARIABLES IN RESEARCH & ITS G Designed to provide systematic information USES of phenomena When conducting research, it is important R i.e. Surveys to identify and measure the variables being A description of the tobacco use studied. O habits of teenagers Variables are properties or characteristics A description of the kinds of physical of some event, object, or person that can activities occurring in nursing homes be assigned with different values or PREDICTIVE Predict or forecast phenomena without establishing cause and effect i.e. Correlational EM amounts. In research, a variable refers to “characteristics that have two or more mutually exclusive values or properties” (Sevilla and Other, 1988). Bernard (1994) ST Factors affecting college success defines a variable as something that can The relationship between the types take more than one value, and values can of activities used in Math classrooms be words or numbers. and students’ academic achievement A variable specifically refers to S EXPLANATORY characteristics or attributes of an individual Develop or test a theory to explain how and or an organization that can be measured or SH why it operates observed, and that varies among the Identify causality behind phenomena people or organization being studied The role of peers and study groups (Creswell, 2002). in students’ attitude in learning and R academic achievement in Mathematics. TYPES OF VARIABLES O INDEPENDENT VARIABLES NON-EXPERIMENTAL – Time Those that probably cause, influence, or N Dimension affect outcomes. CROSS-SECTIONAL They are invariably called treatment, U Data collected at a single point in time manipulated, antecedent or predictor Comparisons are made across variables of variables. interest This is the cause variable or the one Graduating students’ beliefs, responsible for the conditions that act on perceptions, and experiences on something else to bring about changes. their K to 12 schooling Situation: A study is on the relationship of RETROSPECTIVE study habits and academic performance of Comparisons are made between estimated UNO-R senior high school students. data from the past and data sets from the STUDY HABITS is the independent present variable because it influenced the outcome The possible causes of lung cancer or the performance of the students.  Examples: kind of diet –with or without Even if farm production is good, if the supplement, amount of fertilizer, exposure attitude towards payment is negative, to sunlight, dose of a medicine loan repayment would be low, whereas, if the attitude towards DEPENDENT VARIABLES repayment is positive or favorable, Those that depend on the independent loan repayment would be high. variables; they are the outcomes or results of the influence of the independent CONTROL VARIABLES variable. Special types of independent variables that That is why it is also called outcome are measured in the study because they variable. potentially influence the dependent Situation: A study is on the relationship of variable. G study habits and academic performance of Researchers use statistical procedures UNO-R senior high school students. (e.g. analysis of covariance) to control R ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE is the these variables. dependent variable because it is depending They may be demographic or personal O on the study habits of the students; if the variables that need to be “controlled” so students change their study habit the that the true influence of the independent academic performance also change. variable on the dependent variable can be Examples: motor skills and memory tests of rats, growth of plants, response time to Medication EMdetermined. Examples: Income level, gender, educational level, location, ethnicity, race, family ST INTERVENING OR MEDLING size. VARIABLES Variables that “stand between” the ANTECEDENT VARIABLES independent and dependent variables, and Variables that are found before (ante) the S they show the effects of the independent independent variable. variable on the dependent variable. It is These are expected to influence the SH also called a “facilitating variable”, independent variable/s. “moderator” or a “control variable” Example: Examples: In the study entitled “Extent of In the study on “Knowledge of the Exposure to Print Media and R Dangers of Smoking, attitudes Reading ability of Senior High school towards Life, and Smoking Habits of students,” the main concern is the O Young Professionals”, the relationship between students ‘extent intervening variable is ‘attitude of exposure to print media’ N towards life’. A person’s attitude may (independent variable) and their increase or decrease the influence of ‘reading ability’ (dependent variable. U ‘knowledge on the dangers of The students’ exposure to print smoking (independent variable) on media, however, may depend on ‘smoking habits’ (dependent their sex, residence, and their variable). Thus, knowing the dangers parents’ education (antecedent of smoking, one may shun smoking. variables) One may argue, however, that the knowledge about the dangers of VALUE ON A SCALE AND smoking may not necessarily prevent CORRESPONDING LEVELS OF a person from smoking if he does not MEASUREMENT mind dying early as long as he/she CONTINUOUS VARIABLES enjoys life. A variable that can take an infinite number on the value that can occur within the classificatory variable. This is any variable population. Its values can be divided into that has a limited number of distinct values fractions. Examples of this type of variable and which cannot be divided into fractions include age, height, and temperature. like sex, blood group, and the number of Continuous variables can be further children in a family. categorized as: Discrete variable may also be categorized INTERVAL VARIABLES – It has into: values that lie along an evenly NOMINAL VARIABLE – It dispersed range of numbers. It is a represents categories that cannot be measurement where the difference ordered in any particular way. It is a between the two values does have variable with no quantitative value. It meaning. has two or more categories but does G Examples: temperature, a not imply an ordering of cases. person’s net worth (how much Examples: eye color, business R money you have when you type, religion, biological sex, subtract your debt from your political affiliation, basketball fan O assets), time as read on a 12- affiliation, etc. (A sub-type of hour clock, IQ scores, age, etc. nominal scale with only two (In temperature, this may categories just like sex is known illustrate as the difference between a temperature of 60 degrees and 50 degrees is the same as the difference between EM as dichotomous.) ORDINAL VARIABLE – It represents categories that can be ordered from greatest to smallest. ST 30 degrees and 20 degrees. This variable has two or more The interval between values categories that can be ranked. makes sense and can be Examples: education level, interpreted.) income brackets, social class, S RATIO VARIABLES – It has values typhoon signal etc. (An that lie along an evenly dispersed illustration of this is, if you asked SH range of numbers when there is people if they liked listening to absolute zero. It possesses the music while studying and they properties of interval variable, could answer either “NOT VERY nominal, ordinal, and has a clear MUCH”, “MUCH”, “VERY R definition of zero, indicating that MUCH” then you have an there is none of that variable. ordinal variable. While you can O Examples: height, weight, and rank them, we cannot place a distance, work experience, etc value to them. In this type, N (Most scores stemming from distances between attributes do response to survey items are not have any meaning. U ratio-level values because they For example, you used typically cannot go below zero. educational attainment as a Temperature measured in variable on the survey, you degrees Celsius and degrees might code elementary school Fahrenheit is not a ratio variable graduates = 1, high graduates = because 0 under these 2, college undergraduate = 3, temperatures scales does not and college graduate = 4. In this mean any temperature at all.) measure, a higher number means greater education. Even DISCRETE VARIABLES though we can rank these from This is also known as a categorical or lowest to highest, the spacing between the values may not be the same across the levels of the variables. The distance between 3 and 4 is not the same as the distance between 1 and 2 SUMMARY Quantitative research is considered to be objective, methodical, well-determined scientific process of investigation. Its aim is to seek answers to problems through the G application of scientific methodology. It is widely used in all fields in order to R determine the unknown. Research design refers to the overall O strategy that you choose in order to integrate the different components of the study in a coherent and logical way, thereby ensuring you will effectively address the research problem. It is important to identify the types of quantitative research design and classify EM ST the variables in the inquiry process. Experimental research designs are classified as true experimental and quasi experimental. S Non-experimental research designs are organized according to research purpose SH (descriptive, predictive, explanatory) and time dimension (cross-sectional, retrospective, longitudinal). Variables are classified into roles, value on R a scale and the levels of measurement. The roles taken by a variable is classified O into independent and dependent variables. Variables are also categorized according to N their value on a scale (continuous and discrete and according to the levels of U measurement (nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio). NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF researcher does is identify and clearly QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH PROBLEM: define the problem to be studied. If the researcher cannot pinpoint a problem, he/she cannot expect others to understand what problems he wants to solve. Initially, a CHOSSING A RESEARCH TOPIC research problem is stated in a form of a IN DIFFERENT AREA OF INTEREST question, which serves as the focus of the Every research starts with a problem. investigation. Without a problem, there is no need to Initially, a research problem is stated in a conduct research. Very often, however, form of a question, which serves as the neophyte researchers or students of focus of the investigation. research find it difficult to identify a What problems do children of research problem (David, 2002). G separated parents encounter and The first step in the research process is to how do the children cope with these identify a research topic and transform it problems? R into a researchable problem or question What goes on in a government office that can be investigated. In identifying a in a typical week? or How do O research problem, you may confer with government employees spend a people knowledgeable in your field of typical day in the office? interest or read published journals. Do mothers who have attended Formulating research questions involves asking questions that can be answered by means of collecting data. A wellcrafted research question gives a clue to the kind EM health education classes have better health care management practices than those who have not? Does TV viewing affect a child’s ST of variables to be investigated as well as school performance? the data gathering procedures (e.g. Will training of managers of observations, interviews, survey cooperatives in financial questionnaires) to be undertaken by the management improve the financial researcher (Pulmones, 2016). S control system of cooperatives? Have there been changes in the SH portrayal of men and women in RESEARCH PROBLEM commercial advertisements in the A problem is anything which gives a person last five years? a feeling of discomfort. If a person worries What are the perceptions of college about how things are, he/she has a students regarding the granting of R problem. A problem could be a state of emergency powers to the president affairs that needs to be changed or in times of crisis? O anything that is not working as expected. To what extent do students use the For researchers, problems could be internet? conditions they want to improve, difficulties N Does the students’ use of the they want to eliminate, questions for which internet affect their performance in they want answers, or information gaps U school? they wish to fill, or theories they wish to While a problem is the initiating force of validate. research, not all problems require research. A research problem could also be an issue A potential researchable problem exits that should be settled. It may be a question when the following conditions are present about the unknown characteristics of a (Fisher, et. al. 1991): population or about factors that explain the There is a perceived discrepancy presence or occurrence of a phenomenon. between what is and what should be. There are two or more plausible reasons for the discrepancy. IDENTIFYING A RESEARCH PROBLEM There may be an existing difficult or In doing research, the first thing a disturbing situation, but if this condition is THINGS TO REMEMBER WHEN expected to happen because of known DEFINING A RESEARCH PROBLEM circumstances, then the problem is not First review relevant literature and previous researchable. Even if there is a studies on the problem, discrepancy between what is and what Examine current available data/statistics, should be, because the causes of the Seek educated opinions from persons discrepancy are known at this particular concerned with the problem. time, there is no need to conduct research Determine the probable reasons for the anymore. existence of the problem from social, A possible research situation exists when economic, or other theories that may the existing condition (what is) is different explain the existence of the problem and from what is expected (what should be), the possible connection between the G and there are two or more plausible problem and other factors. (reasonable) causes of the discrepancy A careful review of existing information or between what is and what should be. studies on a problem can also help the R investigator determine: O 1. What answers or solutions have been IDENTIFYING A RESEARCH PROBLEM found/tried in the past to solve the problem Once the problem is identified, it should and how successful they then be defined. The problem definition explains the existence and seriousness of the problem. The definition shows evidences that prove the problem really exists, that it is serious, and/or widespread. EM were, and 2. What questions still remain unanswered and what aspects of the problem need to be studied further ST The definition of a problem also identifies the elements of a broader problem that are to be the focus of the search activities. CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD The problem definition must show that the RESEARCH PROBLEM S problem needs serious attention because A research problem should possess four many people are or will be affected by it. In essential characteristics. It must be SH defining a research problem, the following relevant, feasible, clear, and ethical. questions are usually answered: (Fraenkel and Wallen, 1996) Does the problem really exist? What are the evidences of the problem’s A RESEARCH PROBLEM MUST existence? R Is the problem serious? Who and BE how many are affected by it? RELEVANT O What places are affected? How The problem must be timely and relevant. It widespread is it? must be of interest to the one investigating N How often does the problem occur? it. It should yield answers that will In defining the research problem, it is contribute to knowledge and development. U important for the researcher to present a In essence, the problem should be worth valid justification for the conduct of the investigating and worth the time, money study. The problem definition must show and effort to be spent on it. that answers to the research questions are To determine whether a possible research not yet clear or available. To do so, the problem is relevant or not, one should definition should present relevant from consider the following questions. service statistics and related literature. Will answers to the research question/s help advance knowledge? Can answers to the research question/s help in improving practices/behavior/performance? Will answers to the research problem improve human conditions? AN EXAMPLE OF A FEASIBLE PROBLEM The research problem is relevant if the Research Problem: “The Effect of answers to the three questions above are Computer-Assisted Instruction on all positive. Students’ Achievement in Mathematics” EXAMPLE OF A RELEVANT PROBLEM Comment: Instruction in the experimental Research Problem: “The Effect of Computer-assisted instruction on the group is computer-assisted, while that in Students’ Achievement in Mathematics?” the control group is not. The teacher in the Will the answer to the research experimental group can be trained to use question help advance knowledge? the computer in teaching math. The Yes. A finding that shows that experiment can be carries out even if only computer-assisted instruction one computer is available in the classroom. G significantly improves or does not improve achievement in This can be provided by the institution. mathematics comprises new AN EXAMPLE OF A PROBLEM THAT IS R knowledge. NOT FEASIBLE Can answers to the research question Research problem: “The Effect on O help in improving practices / behavior / Achievement of Providing Each Student a performance? Microcomputer in Their Math Class” Yes. Positive findings suggest that teachers must use the computer as an instructional device. Will answers to the research problem EM Comment: It might be worth knowing if computer-based math instruction can improve students’ achievement in the subject but giving each student a computer ST improve human conditions? would be very costly. Moreover, it may not Yes. If the adoption of computer be afforded by most schools. assisted instruction leads to improved learning, students will A RESEARCH PROBLEM MUST S acquire better skills. With better BE CLEAR skills, they will definitely have The research problem must be clearly SH better chances of getting stated so that what is being investigated is employed. Skilled workers are made clear. Major variables of the study better paid than unskilled ones should be measurable and should be and more likely will have better specified in the problem statement. The use quality of life because with more R of ambiguous terms must be avoided. income they can buy what they AN EXAMPLE OF A PROBLEM WHICH IS need. NOT CLEAR O Research Problem: “Women’s A RESEARCH PROBLEM MUST Perceptions about Sexual Harassment” N BE FEASIBLE Comment: This problem is not clear A research problem can only be because it does not specify what group of U investigated if resources like time, money, women will be studied. What is implied is all and personnel are available. A research kinds of women. Even the word problem may be relevant, but if funds are “perception” is not clear. One may ask, not available and there are no skilled “perception regarding ‘what’ of sexual researchers or tools for date gathering, harassment” then it would not be feasible to conduct it. AN EXAMPLE OF A CLEAR PROBLEM Researchers must, therefore be sure of Research Problem: “Attitudes Toward the availability of funds and human Sexual Harassment of Female Rank and resources, as well as appropriate File Bank Employees in Makati City” tools/devices needed in the conduct of the Comment: In this research problem, it is study. clear that what is being examined is attitudes towards sexual harassment. It is paragraph that describes the discrepancy also clear that the study will cover female between what is and what should be. Write rank and file bank employees in Makati the central problem or the main research City. Although the location of the study question. Give two or more plausible need not always be specified, specifying it answers to the problem question. (If there helps further clarify the research problem. is only one plausible answer to the question, the problem is not researchable.) A RESEARCH PROBLEM MUST Add details by presenting statistics or any BE ETHICAL information that can serve as evidence that The conduct of the study should not pose the problem really exists. You can derive any danger, embarrassment, hurt or any these from service statistics, related risk to the research respondents or subjects studies, and other existing documents. G or anyone. Information needed to answer Using data from available research the research questions can be collected literature, current service statistics, without violating the rights of the source/s educated opinions, and other sources of R of information. The respondents’ privacy information, define further the problem must therefore be protected. They should situation you have just identified. Hopefully, O be informed about the purpose of the study your review of related studies will reveal and be given the right to consent or refuse concepts and operational variables that you to participate in the study. may have overlooked. If you listed these AN EXAMPLE OF AN UNETHICAL PROBLEM Research Problem: “The Effect of Punishment on the Self-Esteem and EMconcepts and variables as your come upon them in your review of related studies, the task of defining the problem becomes much easier. ST Academic Performance of Adolescents” With the information you have collected Comment: If an experiment is to be from a literature review and other sources, conducted, punishment will be applied to improve your problem definition and add the experimental group, but withheld from details that will help explain what your S the control group. Even if the result of the research problem is all about and why you study shows that punishment will improve want to study the problem. Organize the SH self-esteem and performance, applying information and your ideas, such that the punishment to students for the sake of readers can be convinced that you really research is unethical. need to undertake the research. AN EXAMPLE OF AN ETHICAL PROBLEM Research Problem: “Students’ R Perceptions on the Effect of Physical CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD Punishment on the Self Esteem and School RESEARCH TOPIC O Performance” The first step in the research process-- Comment: A survey on students’ defining the problem--assumes that the N perceptions about the effect of physical researcher has already identified a punishment on their self-esteem and research topic to be explored. Choosing a U performance does not raise an ethical topic can be easy if you follow certain issue, since respondents are only asked strategies or tips. about their perceptions. It is still important, First, you must select a topic that is however, to explain to the respondents the interesting to you. purpose of the study and get their informed Reading journals in line with your consent to participate in the study. interest is a big help. Choose a topic that can sustain your interest all throughout the research. SUMMARY OF STEPS IN IDENTIFYING AND Oftentimes, students might think that DEFINING A PROBLEM they are deeply involved in a topic, State the problem situation. Write a short only to lose interest in the middle of the inquiry process. In summary, the following are the three Select a topic that you are passionate characteristics of a good research topic. about so that you will be motivated to It is a topic that you are extremely carry out the investigation until the passionate about all throughout the very end. inquiry process. Second, the topic you will decide on must It is a topic that is valuable and be valuable and worthwhile. worthwhile to you, your fellow Do not explore a topic or ask a scholars, and society. question that can be answered by It is a topic that is doable; it allows you browsing through the Internet. as a researcher to demonstrate your You must opt for a topic that is mastery of the topic and methods. significant and relevant to the G consumers of research. Begin with the end in mind. Imagine NARROWING YOUR RESEARCH TOPIC that you will present the findings of A feasible research topic is one that is R your investigation in a research forum focused and manageable. This means that or a discussion group. the topic is not too broad or complicated O Your research must have a significant that it would be extremely difficult to collect contribution to society or to your fellow and analyze data for the study. students or scholars so that your Suppose you are interested in “learning.” audience will be interested in listening to your findings. The results of your research should be a source of input or ideas for EM This is a topic that is too broad and therefore should be narrowed down by asking yourself, “What particular aspects of leaning am I interested in?” You need to ST advocacy. final background information about Your completed study should inspire learning. You can do this by looking up the other researchers to build on or add to definition of learning in the dictionary. You what you have accomplished. can also explore other sources of information S When other researchers use the like encyclopedias, online results of your study to advance a sources, and published journals. SH cause or to engage in scholarly If you think you have enough background discourse, then you can assert that information about learning, then you can your research is worthwhile. begin to narrow down your topic. What Lastly, the topic you intend to pursue as particular aspects of learning do you want your research must be feasible and to explore or investigate? What could be R doable. another layer of specificity that can further The data collection and analysis describe learning? O needed to answer your research Perhaps you might want to explore about questions should be attainable and cooperative learning. Your general topic is N workable. now more focused, but this is still quite Narrow down your topic into broad and additional specifics of the topic U something manageable. are needed. At this point, you need to As the one conducting the research, answer the “so what” or “what for” you need to ask yourself whether you questions. What is your intended purpose have sufficient resources like time, in investigating cooperative learning? money, and technical skills to carry out What additional specifics of the topic can the research. further help you make your topic more You also need to ask yourself whether focused and manageable? you can answer your research From your research of background questions or whether the data information and additional readings, collection techniques for your chosen you may find out that cooperative learning topic are feasible. is a strategy where students are given opportunities to demonstrate small group assigning a working title. The title should process skills as they study content be short and concise. It should also materials. Cooperative learning is best identify all the variables being studied as used in the study of natural and social well as the presumed relationship between sciences. Thus, to further narrow down these variables. A fitting title of the study your topic, you could focus on cooperative is: learning environment in the study of The Link between Cooperative physics. Your topic is beginning to take Learning Environment, Academic shape. Achievement, and Small Group You are now able to identify additional Process Skills in the Study of specifics of the topic. The intended Physics purpose of the study is becoming clear--to G investigate cooperative learning environment in the study of physics. However, you need to choose a particular R perspective or issue associated with your topic and identify variable that can be O linked with your topic. Hence, the topic can be extended to investigating cooperative learning environment with academic achievement and development of small group process skills in the students’ study of physics. Having successfully narrowed down a EM TOPIC IDEAS You can explore the following topic ideas as you embark on your research. ST broad topic, you are now ready to state your problem statement. The problem ART AND MUSIC statement helps you identify the variables Why do students doodle? you want to investigate and the What do students think about doodling in S relationship between these variables. class? Stating the research problem explicitly Is this activity considered to be a stress SH addresses what they study is all about reliever? (cooperative learning environment in the What are the music preferences of today’s study of physics) and why the study is youth? important (to link engagement in Are the youth still interested in classical cooperative learning activities with music? R academic achievement and development What is the relationship between of small group process skills). Thus, your nationalism and music? O problem statement for this study could be: Prolonged engagement in a BUSINESS, ACCOUNTING, AND N cooperative learning environment ECONOMICS in a physics class will result in How effective is advertising on the Internet U higher academic achievement and in selling products and services? development of small group How much of online shopping is the youth process skills. engaging? The problem statement above provides What are the students’ perceptions of using the scope, purpose, and direction of the social media as a form of advertisement to study. It presents the problem you will sell products and services? investigate, gives the argumentative assertion about your topic, and states EARTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL what you intend to prove at the end of the SCIENCES study. What are the perceptions of students on The last step in narrowing your topic is carbon footprint? How can carbon footprint and its impact on the environment be be affected by the use of social media? reduced? What can students do in their daily activities HEALTH AND BIOLOGICAL to address the increasing threat of global SCIENCES warning? How is artificial sugar harmful? How can students be more conscious of How can people benefit from pet therapy? being a green consumer? Do video games help or hinder childhood development? EDUCATION Should energy drinks be banned from high Is single-sex education effective? school sports? Is music education important? What are the academic and nonacademic benefits of a PSYCHOLOGY, SOCIOLOGY, AND G music program? SOCIAL WORK What can be done to help stop bullying? What do students think of talent search How do students define plagiarism? In what contents as seen on TV? R ways can students avoid plagiarism? Do beauty contests serve any purpose in Society? O HISTORY, PHILOSOPHY, AND What does it mean to be nationalistic or ANTHROPOLOGY patriotic for youth? What can they do to Did humans create the idea of the afterlife? contribute to nation-building? Is the government doing enough to protect indigenous cultures? Does the Information Age mean we are losing important historical information? EM What makes students motivated or unmotivated to study? What do they do to study on their own? ST ENGLISH, COMMUNICATION, AND EVALUATING YOUR RESEARCH TOPIC LANGUAGES To evaluate whether a research topic is a Should the government regulate privacy good one, refer to the following checklist. S settings for social networking services? What is the allure of the “modern vampire CHECKLIST IN EVALUATING A RESEARCH SH tale” How is this different or similar to the TOPIC traditional way of depicting vampires? Am I curious about the topic? Can I sustain Are TV, magazines, and other media my interest on the topic throughout the responsible for eating disorders? study? Am I passionate about pursuing the How have blogging and other methods of study? R electronic transmission affected the Can I answer the why, who, what, where, dissemination of information? and when questions associated with the O What are students’ ideas, perceptions, and topic? beliefs on social networking sites? Can I answer the research questions N generated by the topic? Are the data MATH, COMPUTER, AND collection techniques for this topic feasible U TECHNOLOGY and doable? Are there sound procedures What are the commonly used teaching that can be used to ensure data collection strategies in learning mathematics? and analysis? How does the use of technology impact Can I afford to conduct the study? Do I one’s learning of mathematics and have sufficient resources like time, money, science? and technical assistance to carry out the To what extent can social media facilitate research? What are the potential problems learning? in carrying out the study? What plans How does social media affect the youth’s should be late out to address these perception of privacy? problems? How do the dynamics of social skills get to Is the topic valuable? Is it worthwhile to pursue? Does the study of value to me, to workplace. Rather than accepting this as my fellow scholars, and the society at Gospel truth, you can put it to a test. You large? Would my study give a significant can contribution to the existing knowledge? Can check your classmates’ English other researchers build on or add to my language proficiency; research? investigate how important it is among Is my study good enough for a class people who are already working; requirement? Is my study practical? Can examine what difficulties your the results of my study be a source of input classmates have in using the for other researchers’ cause or advocacy? language; Is there enough background information to study if knowledge of the Filipino realistically pursue the topic? Is there language is related to knowledge of G enough literature that supports the findings the English language. of the study? Do I have a thorough knowledge of the R literature underlying my inquiry? Have I RESEARCH PROBLEM VERSUS exhausted the available literature about my RESEARCH TOPIC O topic? A research topic is the broad subject matter being addressed in a study. It is a different from a research problem, which is defined RESEARCH PROBLEM VS. RESEARCH TOPIC Systematic research begins with a research problem. EM as an issue or concern in the study. The research purpose is the major intent or objective of the study. Finally, research question is the general, major question that ST Your first step in quantitative research is, you would like answered or addressed in therefore, to select a problem for the study. To aid in our understanding of investigation. the terms, take a look at this illustration. S WHAT IS A RESEARCH PROBLEM? Most beginning researchers are stomped SH when it comes to conceptualizing a research problem. One question that students usually ask is this: Should the topic really be problematic? The answer is yes. However, we must keep in mind that SOURCES OF RESEARCH TOPICS R the word “problem,” as we use in everyday Ideas for a research topic can come from a life, connotes something that is a difficulty, range of sources such as personal or O a trouble of some sort, a setback that student experience, a theory, the media, or needs hurdling, a misfortune that occurred, other research studies. N and generally, anything and everything that is negative. In research, however, the word PERSONAL OR STUDENT U “problem” is used in a very different way. In EXPERIENCE general, a research problem may be an Every day personal or student experience issue or concern, a condition that needs to may lead us to identify a problem for which be improved, or a troubling question that we would like a solution. Alternatively, we you want an answer to. may encounter a question or questions that For Senior High School students, this we would like to try and answer. problem may arise from your strand or your For example, on a personal level, you may track. For example, your English teacher prefer to be a vegetarian and thus wonder if told you that the English language is other people, in general, would choose to important and that knowledge of it would be be one as well. The research topic is a useful, especially in your eventual study into eating preferences. Alternatively, for example, as a student, you have always topics. These may provide a good basis for wondered how students cope with the lofty research. We are also flooded with ambitions that their parents impose on their information presented by the media, such children. The research topic may be on as television, which again might give rise to parental ambitions and children’s coping research idea. methods. THEORY FORMULATING RESEARCH PROBLEM, Theories, in general, are ideas about how RESEARCH QUESTIONS, AND things relate to each other. These may HYPOTHESIS range from commonly held beliefs (such as Systematic research begins with a research the Philippines being the texting capital of problem. Our first step in the quantitative G the world) to more formal ideas (for research process is, therefore, to select a example, that colonization and media problem for investigation. The research exposure have affected the Filipino R problem is further specified through the standards of beauty.) research questions, which examines the goals Theories are beliefs that we hear about in O of your study. To predict the possible outcome the classes we take. Hence, if you actively of your study, a hypothesis is then formulated listen to your teachers or note the new based on the research questions. learning you read from books, all these are sources of research topics. If you’ve ever asked yourself: is this true to me? Is this true to my classmates? Is this common among teens? —this may just be the topic EM STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM The statement of the problem is the core of the research study. Essentially, it is ST you are interested in. Theories are useful in composed of the general problem and suggesting interesting answers but should the specific questions. The general not restrict us from exploring alternative problem is a restatement of the research explanations. Hence, your curiosity and title, including some details relevant to the S eventual research may add to what is study. It may also include the research unknown about the theory, how it applies to setting and the participants of the study, if SH your specific population, or confirm what is applicable. The following example already known. The end result of the result illustrates these considerations: of the research process is knowledge. Research Topic: Students’ problem solving skills LITERATURE AND THE MEDIA Research Problem: This study aims to R In research, literature pertains to scholarly enhance the problem-solving skills of senior papers, which includes not only what is high school students in physics at the O already known about the research problem Philippine Normal University Institute of but also substantive findings, as well as Teaching and Learning for the school year N theoretical and methodological 2016-2017 using canned lessons. contributions. Textbooks and journal If the researcher cannot pinpoint a problem, U articles, and even newspapers are rich he/she cannot expect others to understand sources of literature that may pique our the problems he/she wants to solve. interest. When searching and reading literature it is possible to encounter gaps in information and knowledge, and problems for which there is currently no solution. RESEARCHABLE VS. NON When reading research journals, often the RESEARCHABLE PROBLEMS section of “recommendations for the future While a problem is the initiating force of studies” suggest potential research research, not all problems require research. problems. Social, political, economic news A potential researchable problem exists in daily broadsheets may be sources of when the following conditions are present (David, 2002): Province X have dropped out. Records There is a perceived discrepancy show that more than 50% of the students between what is and what should be. have already dropped out before the middle There are two or more plausible of the school year (What is) reasons for the discrepancy. What should be: Students are expected to There may be an existing difficult or finish high school because it is free. They disturbing situation, but if this condition is should not drop out (What should be). On expected to happen because of known the contrary, a big number of students circumstances, then the problem is not dropped out (Discrepancy). researchable. Even if there is a discrepancy Research Question: Why do students between what is and what should be, drop out? What factors contribute to the because the causes of the discrepancy are high dropout rate? G known at this particular time, there is no Possible Answer: There are many need to conduct research anymore. possible reasons why students drop out. EXAMPLE OF A NON-RESEARCHABLE Among the possible reasons are: financial R PROBLEM difficulties, far distance of students’ houses Situation: Despite free tuition, many high from school, students’ lack of interest to O school students in a public high school in study, and poor health. Province X have dropped out. Records Comment: Since there are a number of show that more than 50% of the students possible reasons for the dropping out of have already dropped out before the middle of the school year (What is) What should be: Students are expected to finish high school because it is free. They EMstudents despite free tuition, the problem is researchable. Research can determine the existence and extent of relationship between the identified possible factors and ST should not drop out (What should be). On the students; decision to drop out of school the contrary, a big number of students or to stay. Furthermore, research can dropped out (Discrepancy). determine the relative contribution of each Research Question: Why do students factor in the students’ decision to drop out. S drop out? What factors contribute to the high dropout rate? SH Possible Answer: Fear of being caught in THINGS TO REMEMBER WHEN DEFINING crossfire between military and rebel groups. A RESEARCH PROBLEM Comment: There have been violent Review relevant literature and previous encounter between the military and rebel studies on the working problem. groups and many civilians have been Examine current available data/statistics. R caught in the crossfire. It seems clear that Seek educated opinions from persons the dropping out of the students is due to concerned with the problem. O the armed encounters in the area. If they go Determine the probable reasons for the to school, they might die, so parents keep existence of the problem from social, N them out of school until the peace and economic, or other theories that may order situation in the area returns to explain the existence of the problem and U normal. the possible connection between the A possible research situation exists when problem and other factors. the existing condition (what is) is different from what is expected (what should be), and there are two or more plausible RESEARCH QUESTIONS (reasonable) causes of the discrepancy After stating the research problem, the next between what is and what should be. step is formulating your research questions. EXAMPLE OF A RESEARCHABLE Unlike the general nature of a research PROBLEM topic, the research questions are a specific Situation: Despite free tuition, many high inquiry. A good research question gives school students in a public high school in your reader a good idea of what your research is about. A well-articulated the Top 5 Philippine universities research question provides clear direction, Q3: What qualities does the Filipino while a poorly constructed one lacks youth electorate look for in a presidential direction and confuses you and the reader. candidate? Like your general problem, research Variable: Voting preference of Filipino youth questions are also at the core of your study. electorate First, research questions guide the Group: Sample group composed of 1,500 literature search. They help in narrowing registered voters aged 18-30, randomly down the scope and focus of the literature sampled review. Second, research questions guide COMPARATIVE RESEARCH you on what research design to use. Third, QUESTIONS research questions guide the researcher compare two or more characteristics or G about what data to collect and from whom. attributes of two or more persons, groups, Fourth, research questions are important in institutions, or phenomenon. This may analyzing and presenting the data. Fifth, involve comparing the similarities or R research questions limit the scope of the differences between variables or study and prevent the research from going determining which has a greater or lesser O off in different directions. And lastly, value. Below are examples of comparative research questions provide a clear sense of research questions: what the research is about and what it Q1: Is there a significant difference in the wishes to achieve. COMMON TYPES OF RESEARCH EM reading proficiency of senior high school students when they are grouped according to sex and strand? Dependent Variable: Reading proficiency ST QUESTIONS IN QUANTITATIVE Group: A sample group of 400 senior high RESEARCH school students from a university There are at least three types of questions Q2: Is there a significant difference in the in quantitative research, each serving a level of awareness towards cashless S particular purpose and characteristics. transactions of employees when they are These are: grouped according to sex? SH Descriptive research questions Dependent Variable: Level of awareness Comparative research questions towards cashless transactions Relational research questions Group: A sample group of 50 employees from a company DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH Q3: Is there a significant difference in the R QUESTIONS permeability of the plastic flake hollow seek to objectively describe particular block and the commercial hollow block? O characteristics or attributes of a person, Dependent Variable: Permeability group, institution, or phenomenon. Below Groups: Plastic flake hollow blocks N are examples of descriptive research Commercial hollow blocks questions: U Q1: How many calories does the average RELATIONAL RESEARCH American consume per day? Variable: QUESTIONS Daily intake of calories Group: A sample seek to understand the relationship group of 1,200 Americans, adjusted for between two or more aspects or gender, race, and generational characteristics of one or more persons, proportions groups, institutions, or phenomenon. In Q2: What are the factors that influence quantitative research, these aspects must Filipino college students to strive for be measurable or quantifiable and are often academic honors? expressed as variables. The relationship Variable: Academic efforts being investigated can be simple Group: A sample group of 100 students from association, interaction, or causation. Below are some examples of relational have a significant contribution to the field of research questions: knowledge. Q1: Is there a significant relationship Other researchers should be able to between the study time and exam expand or add on to your research. Others scores of university students? could refute, rebut, or offer contrary Dependent Variable: Exam scores evidence to your findings. Independent Variable: Study time They might rephrase or recast your Group: University students research questions as they present new or Q2: Is there a significant relationship alternative interpretations of your findings. between a locally-elected politician’s Thus, the inquiry process is dynamic and ability to bring development to their evolving because right questions have constituents and their family’s political been asked in the first place. G history? Dependent Variable: Gross domestic product per capita in selected CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING RESEARCH R constituencies over the past 10 years QUESTIONS Independent Variable: Locally elected The research question should be O politician’s family background researchable. A researchable question is Groups: Locally elected politicians that one that can be answered by collecting and come from a traditional political family analyzing data. Locally elected politicians that come from other backgrounds Q3: Is there a significant relationship between Call Center Agents’ customer EM The problem implied in the research question should be valuable and worthwhile. Answers to the research question should have theoretical or practical importance. ST service attitude and their work The research question should point toward schedule? the data gathering procedures to be Dependent Variable: English employed in the study. The research proficiency question should provide structure, direction, S Independent Variable: sleeping and guidepost to the researcher as the study patterns is conducted. SH Groups: Agents who go to work from The research question should specify the 10PM-6AM Agents who go to work samples or participants of the study. These from 2PM-10PM are the people whom the researcher intends The central process at play in an inquiry is to investigate. the systematic collection and analysis of The research question should specify the R empirical data to arrive at answers to variables of the study. The independent and research questions. O dependent variables, and the presumed Thus, research questions are central to the relationship between them should be research process; they make one’s identified. A good benchmark is to name the N knowledge claims (i.e., those that were variables and how they are related in one uncovered in the search for background sentence. U information) more concrete and explicit. To a large extent, research questions The research question should indicate the address the gaps in the literature. This methods or data gathering procedures to be means that once you have collected and adopted. analyzed data to answer your research The problem implied in the research questions, your findings can open up new question should be clear. It is not too broad discourses in your conclusions. nor too narrow. Are you proposing a new argument, definition, clarification, elaboration, or perhaps supportive evidence for your RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS findings? The results of your study should Imagine that you have an exam on a Monday morning; however, you were not able to study on the weekend before the hypothesis is not a result of the Monday class because you did some researcher’s whim. The hypothesis must household chores or you went out with your identify the independent and dependent friends. What do you think would happen variables. It must also establish the after taking the exam? Will you be able to relationship between the variables. The verify your prediction? statement of the hypothesis must have a Your prediction on the most logical good theoretical or conceptual basis from outcome of your exam is called a the review of related literature. hypothesis. A hypothesis is an educated guess on the outcome of an experiment or study. The most logical outcome if you take TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS the exam without studying is not getting a Hypothesis can be classified either as null G high score on the exam; in fact, it is or alternative hypothesis, and directional or possible that you might fail the exam. This non-directional hypothesis. outcome of not doing very well or failing the R exam can be tested. This means that taking NULL HYPOTHESIS the actual exam would tell you if your A null hypothesis is a negative statement O hypothesis or prediction was correct. which indicates the absence of a Thus, a hypothesis is verifiable. This means relationship/correlation between two you can test your hypothesis with an variables, an absence of a significant experiment or by conducting a study. When the hypothesis is incorrect, it is called the falsity of the hypothesis. EM difference between the proportions of two groups of people or objects possessing a particular characteristic or an absence of difference ST between or among the means of two or WHAT ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF A more groups with respect to a particular GOOD HYPOTHESIS? variable, such as “mean age of males and A good hypothesis should: mean age of females,” and “mean score in S explain what you expect to happen, Math of students who attended tutorial be clear and understandable, classes and mean score of those who did SH be testable, not attend tutorial classes.” be measurable and contain independent Examples of Null Hypotheses and dependent variables. “There is no significant relationship A good hypothesis also establishes the between mass media exposure and relationship between your independent and attitude towards land reform among R dependent variables. In the example lowland farmers.” previously mentioned, the independent “There is no significant difference in O variable is the lack of time to study and the the mean age of male faculty dependent variable is performing poorly on members and the mean age of female N the exam. faculty members.” Additional examples of hypothesis are: “There is no significant difference in U Engaging in study groups prior to an exam the proportion of health care providers will result in higher exam scores. who are smoking and the proportion of Active participation, diet, and exercise those who are not smoking.” among obese children will lead to healthy There is no significant relationship eating attitude and good physical well between the amount paid in being. advertisement and gross sales among Discussion of shared practices and beliefs food establishments in Iloilo City. on cheating and plagiarism among students will bring about the culture of academic ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS honesty. An alternative hypothesis, also called the It is important to remember that a research hypothesis, is the positive form of the presence or absence of a relationship null hypothesis. It may state the between variables. It merely states the presence of a significant relationship presence or absence of a relationship between the independent and dependent between two variables or that one variable variables, or the presence of a significant influence another, or there is a significant difference between two means or two difference in the mean values of the two proportions. variables. Examples of Alternative Hypotheses Examples of Non-Directional “There is a significant relationship Hypotheses between mass media exposure and “The women’s educational attainment attitude towards land reform among is significantly associated with their lowland farmers.” extent of participation in decision G “There is a significant difference in the making at home.” mean age of male faculty members “There is a significant difference and the mean age of female faculty between the proportion of women and R members.” the proportion of men who are “There is a significant difference in the engaged in dry goods business.” O proportion of health care providers “Students who attend tutorial classes who are smoking and the proportion of perform better than those who do not those who are not smoking.” attend.” There is a significant relationship between the amount paid in advertisement and gross sales among food establishments in Iloilo City. EM “Taking vitamins regularly tend to improve a workers’ total health status.” ST DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESIS A direct