reli-2736-notes-alyshea-cummins.pdf

lOMoARcPSD|18189970 RELI 2736 notes - Alyshea Cummins Religion and Society (Carleton University) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by Darcy Niyomukiza ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|18189970 Week 1 (September 14th) What is Anth...

lOMoARcPSD|18189970 RELI 2736 notes - Alyshea Cummins Religion and Society (Carleton University) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by Darcy Niyomukiza ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|18189970 Week 1 (September 14th) What is Anthropology? Anthropology is the study of humankind Anthropologists study societies as systematic sums of their parts, as integrated wholes Thus, they take a holistic approach to the study of human societies There are four major fields in anthropology; 1. Physical anthropology The study of human biology and evolution 2. Archeology The study of humans as we know them from their physical or cultural remains 3. Linguistic Anthropology The study of language, (myths, literature, prayers) 4. Cultural Anthropology A lot of literature exists today especially due to our great anthropologist Holism Holism: viewing “human societies as systematic sums of their parts, as integrated. Wholes” Holistic approaches look at the systematic relationships between two or more phenomena Holism is studying human societies in relation to various societal systems Studying human societies as “integrated-wholes” The approach is often divided into the four areas of anthropology The Holistic Approach requires lengthy research in the community of interest Methodologies Ethnography: the descriptive study of human societies Often enough those anthropologists first completing their study will do field work, they go a small scale society and conduct ethnography. There they conduct rich descriptive accounts of that society. (roles women have, roles men have, what time do people wake up, where do they go, etc) Participant observation Which means they will as much as possible become a part of that society by partaking in their activities in order to really understand their societies Ethnographic Present Students introduced to small-scale societies Etic Perspective: The study of a society using concepts that were developed outside of the culture First understand its bias… this early perspective was developed using early judio christian understandings Pros? We will be able to have a better comparison of societies What is the religious text? Who is their god? Today we know that not all religions have sacred text or even maybe a concept of god Cons? We can miss key understandings of that society We may miss how that society makes meaning in the things we are saying Emic Perspective: The study of a society through the eyes of the people being studied Pros? We can build a richer understanding through their own eyes Cons? This is very subjective We may not really be able to understand it fully as a foreigner Is it really possible to understand a society we don’t belong to Ethnocentrism vs. Cultural Relativism Ethnocentrism: judging and Interpreting another culture with one’s own cultural lens Downloaded by Darcy Niyomukiza ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|18189970 We may look at death rights in a culture, the most common is a burial… but if we look at a society who after the deceased dies where they eat their bodies, we may look at that in a negative way. But the reason they do this is so that their loved ones stay with them, and we need to understand their reasoning for doing to Cultural Relativism: Attempting to analyze and understand cultures without one’s own biased cultural lens Trying to understand why they would bury their dead vs cremate their dead Examples? Case Study: The Fore and Kuru New Guinea (Melanesia Culture Area) Disease broke out that mainly effected women and children of the Fore The Fore called this disease, Kuru, Meaning “to tremble with fear” Medical team determined that Kuru was spread due to an infectious agent called a prion Couldn’t determine how it was being transmitted Anthropologists to investigate using holistic approach Anthropologists determined it was being transmitted through cannibalism Fore custom is to eat their dead Cooking the meat does not kill the prions Because women and children are of lower stratus in society, they would be given the brain making them more susceptible to kuru For the Fore, kuru was a result of sorcery Medical science conflicted with their worldview Impacts of kuru Loss of women Men taking on domestic duties Defining Religion The problem with defining Religion — a definition that is too narrow (too exclusive) or too vague (too inclusive) Need an operant definition in order to observe and measure religion Analytic definitions Functional definitions Essentialist definitions Analytic Definitions of Religion “focus on the way religion manifests itself or is expressed in a culture” Ninan Smarts 6 dimensions of religion: 1. The institutional dimension (organization and leadership) 2. The narrative dimension (myths, creation stories, worldview) 3. The ritual dimension (rites of passage and other important ritual activities) 4. The social dimension (religion being a group activity that binds people together) 5. The ethical dimension (customs, moral rules) 6. The experimental dimension (religion involving experiences of a sacred reality that is beyond ordinary experience) Functional Definitions of Religion Focus on the social and/or psychological function of religion Clifford Geertz: “a religion is: (1) a system of symbols which acts to (2) establish powerful pervasive, and long-lasting moods and motivations in men by (3) formulating conceptions of a general order of existence and (4) clothing these conceptions with such an aura of factuality that (5) the moods and motivations seen uniquely realistic” Limitations It is difficult to separate religious and non religious systems using a functional definition Too inclusive Essentialist definitions of Religion Downloaded by Darcy Niyomukiza ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|18189970 “Religion is a system of beliefs and behaviours that deals with the relationship between humans and the sacred supernatural” Looks at the essential nature of religion - the extraordinary Supernatural: Things that are beyond the natural Sacred: a subject object that is set apart from the ‘normal’ world, that is entitled to reverence and respect Edward Burnett Tylor — E.B. Tylor Religion = animism (1871) Animism: The belief in spirit beings I.e. spirits and ghosts So what is Religion? Religion: is an aspect of culture that concerns the sacred and the supernatural It is a human construct that is characterized by a set of beliefs and practices Characteristics include: 1. Anthropomorphic Supernatural beings 2. Sacred supernatural 3. Supernatural power or energy 4. Rituals 5. Worldview or Moral Code 6. Social Bonds / Social Control Week 2 (September 21) What are Myths? Myths are sacred religious stories that provide the basis for religious beliefs, motivations, and practices They are sacred stories and are regarded as factual They include supernatural elements (gods, spirits, etc). These stories don’t necessarily take place in our world (Heaven or Hell) You will often find similar stories but sometimes told differently based on where the story is told Judeo-Chrsitian Abraham went to sacrifice his son but then sacrifices a ram instead Muslim Abrahim attempts to sacrifice his son but god replaces him with a goat They went on to establish the caba in Macao the muslim holy city where islam first began Oral vs Written Transmission Myths are depicted and transmitted in various manners Performances (e.g. christian passion play at easter) Art, music, and dance Texts and Oral narratives Oral transmission vs written transmission Myths transmitted orally are often part of a smaller scale tradition Makes it difficult to identify the original version Cultural adaptations of the myth are often present These adaptations can be seen as a positive making the myth more relevant tot he current cultural context, however original meaning may also be lost Myths recorded in text can have the same version passed on from generation to generation Interpretations of the myth may also change when texts are translated The Qur’an Literally means the recitation Word of god as recited by the prophet Muhammad (d 632) Similar retellings of myths found in Judaism and Christianity Central to Muslim belief and practice Muslim Ethics Downloaded by Darcy Niyomukiza ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|18189970 Hero Myth Is another theme found in myths across cultures In Joseph Campbell’s book The Hero With a Thousand Faces, he discusses different accounts of the hero myth found throughout the world and identifies a common storyline that these myths all seem to follow - he calls this the monomyth Week 3 (September 28) Symbols A shared understanding about the meaning of certain words, attributes, or objects Symbols stands for something else They shape how we see and interpret our realities Symbols carry a certain meaning that is usually only recognized by a particular culture Written, spoken, or non-verbal such as gestures E.g. waving hello is a way of greeting people E.g The word women, in some societies all girls are considered women, while in other societies people may not be considered a women until they have gotten married, had children etc. Found in images, physical objects, or artistic expressions [Culture] denotes a historically transmitted pattern of meanings embodied in symbols, a system of inherited conceptions expressed in symbolic forms, by means of which men communicate, perpetuate and develop their knowledge about attitudes towards life He is saying this system of symbols its transmitted from one generation to another and is something that influences the way we think, behave, and interpret our world He believed this was the same for religion We may have religious symbols that mean something to me but nothing to someone outside of these religious traditions “By symbols and meanings I mean the basic premises which a culture posits for lief; what its units consist in; how those units are defined and differentiated; how they form an integrated order or classification; how the world is structured; in what parts it consists and on what premises it is conceived to exist, the categories and classifications of the various domains of the world of man and how they relate to one another, and the world that man sees himself living in” Sees symbols as greatly influencing our lives As people from different cultures migrate to different places around the world, they bring with them their religious and cultural symbols they also then adapt new symbols Religious Symbols With meaning particular to a religious tradition They can be found in myths, art, architecture, material culture They can be words: written, spoken, or gestured E.g. The bible, praying/meditation Religious Symbolism in Dance and Music Religious symbolism can be found in dance and music. Dance and music can play a special role in religious rituals Dance is usually performed to some sort of music., such as to instruments, collective chanting, and the recitation of scripture Dance also involves the manipulation of symbols, such as through costumes and dress, masks, elaborative sets, and certain props Dance can be understood as non-verbal gestures depicting a particular narrative These gestures have meaning for those who belong to that community Downloaded by Darcy Niyomukiza ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|18189970 A video in class was watched of a young Khmer man who teaches viewers some symbols used in Khmer classical dance It is important to note that the Khmer people are Buddhist and, thus, believe in the cycle of Birth, Death, and re-birth Week 4 (October 5) Ritual vs Religious Ritual Ritual: a patterned, recurring sequence of behaviours e.g. your morning routine consists of many smaller rituals that make up the routine: the way you brush your teeth, make your tea, etc Religious Ritual: a ritual that involves that manipulation of religious symbols Such as prayers, offerings, sacrifices, and reading sacred literature In some traditions in might be common to light incense or sage to make the space more secret, maybe music is played in the background Is there a prescribed time where prayers can occur, are they done in private or public? Do you recite your sacred versus aloud or in your mind? All these factors are important to the practitioner, give us insight to their way of thinking Rituals can be both private and public Public rituals reinforce group acceptance and facilitate group belonging Religious Practice Two elements of Religious practice: 1. Ritual Christmas 2. Myth Myth of Abraham Types of rituals Prescriptive Rituals: a ritual that a deity or religious authority requires to be performed Examples? Prayer Often the central requirement for most religions Identified as the most essential process across differing traditions Situational Rituals (AKA Crisis Rituals): a ritual that arises as needed, frequently in times of crisis Examples? Coming together for some sort of collective service after a mass shooting Periodic Rituals (AKA Calendrical Rituals): rituals that are performed on a regular basis as part of a religious calendar Examples? Muslim daily prayer New moon/full moon Christmas Occasional Rituals: a ritual that is performed when an occasion arises Examples? Coming of age ceremonies Death Rites of Passage A ritual that involves the transition from one status to another this ritual serves to legitimize the new status and to imprint it on the community’s collective memory Aid the individual to their position of their new role Often public Religious of Secular Examples? Downloaded by Darcy Niyomukiza ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|18189970 Status: a social position that is defined in terms of appropriate behaviour, rights, and obligations, and its relationship to other statuses Husband, wife, mother, adult, teacher, student, graduate, etc. Why are rites of passage important Rites of passage have three phases Phase 1 is separation: Which is characterized by the individual being remove from their former status Marriage Example: This phase occurs after the proposal up until the actual wedding ceremony Phase 2 is Transition: Which is the process of moving from one status to another Marriage Example: the actual wedding ceremony, up until the bride and groom say, “i do” Phase 3 is the Incorporation Phase: Which occurs when the individual is reintroduced to the community with their new status Marriage Example: when the Bride and Groom are accepted by their guests as a married couple One example of Rites of passage are Coming of Age Ceremonies For girls Coming of Age ceremonies usually occur after their menses They might be given new names, new clothes, tattoos, or scars to mark this transition from one phase to another It is important to note that is some cases, girls might be forced to undergo Female Genital Mutilation (FGM, also known as Genital Cutting) This phrase is highly condemned by the global community because (1) it is considered violence against women and (2) it has serious implications including: infection, painful menstruation, pain during intercourse, childbirth. complications, infertility, trauma, and even death FGM is not a religious practice it is practiced by different communities regardless of religious affiliation There are four types of Female Genital Mutilation 1. Type l, also called clitoridectomy: Partial or total removal of the clitoris and/or the prepuce 2. Type ll, also called excision: Partial or total removal or the clitoris and the labia minora, with or without excision of the labia majora. The amount of tissue that is removed. Varies widely from community to community 3. Type lll, also called infibulation: Narrowing of the vaginal orifice with a covering seal. The seal is formed by cutting snd re-positioning the labia minor and/or the labia majora. This can take place without removal of the clitoris 4. Type lV: All other harmful procedures. To the female genitalia for non-medical purposes, for example: Pricking, piercing, incising, scraping or cauterization For boys, Coming of Age Ceremonies can take place at different ages depending on maturity This is because unlike with girls, boys don’t have a physical marker for puberty Rituals can involve male circumcision, physical or mental exertion, or other body alterations like tattooing and scarification Week 5 (October 14) Religious Experience Any type of experience that the subject deems religiously significant “sensations, emotions, conceptual thought, intuitions, hallucinations, dreams, ecstatic states of great joy, and moments of serene calm” They are subjective and can manifest on various emotional and psychological levels Not always positive, can leave you with feelings of fear and anxiety or feelings of love comfort and oneness for the supernatural entities Altered States of consciousness (ASC): any state that differs from our normal state dreaming, daydreaming, intoxication, intense focus Downloaded by Darcy Niyomukiza ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|18189970 Depression and anxiety is also an example of this but if it is for long periods of time it becomes the normal Examples of Religious Experiences Islam Profit mohammed is recorded to have many religious experiences, each time he received the revelation from the angel Gabriel he was said to have been in either a dream like state or a trance like state Altered State of Consciousness (ASC) Characterized by various experiences such as Alterations in thinking Disturbed time sense Loss of control Change in emotional expression Body image change Perceptual distortions Change in meaning or significance Sense of an indescribable experience Feeling of rejuvenation ASC can be brought by numerous factors such as Reduction of external stimulation and/or motor activity Constant exposure to repetitive stimulation Increase of external stimulation (sensory overload) and/or strenuous physical activity Increase alertness or mental involvement sustained over time Decrease alertness/passive state of mind Alterations in body chemistry or physiology of the nervous system Fasting One way to bring about an ASC Fasting is the act of abstaining from food and/or drink over a period of time The practice my also require other prohibitions such as speaking, avoiding contact with others, smoking, and sexual intercourse Different religious traditions practice fasting according to their own unique understandings of the faith Further, members within any one religion might make their own amendments to the fasting tradition They might make it more difficult, perhaps by fasting for a longer period, or they might make it easier to accommodate their own lifestyle or health needs Fasting leads to altercations in one’s body chemistry. In the absence of food the body will find other means of glucose to fuel the body First, the body will metabolize fat stores in the liver and elsewhere Once those are depleted, the body begins to break down proteins Overtime the person becomes used to fasting and no longer feels hungry Studies also show that there are numerous health benefits to regulated fasting Most traditions end their fasts after a certain time in the day/night and not exceed fasting for more than a day or two Downloaded by Darcy Niyomukiza ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|18189970 When someone fasts for prolonged periods of time they might start to exhibit severe symptoms of starvation and, in rare cases death; however death rarely occurs as a result of fasting Some characteristics of intense fasting might include Impulsivity Aggressive behaviour Decrease in cognitive ability Fatigue Dizziness Hallucinations Meditation Is an example of an ASC There are many different ways to meditate In some traditions, such as in different schools of Buddhism, meditation is often about releasing attachments to thoughts, emotions, bodily sensations, and desires (accompanied by the practice of clearing one’s mind through deep breathing and relaxation) In Muslim traditions meditation can range from a more contemplative form of mediation, often focusing and reflecting on one of the names of. Allah, to a more active for, such as the Whirling Dervishes in Konya, Turkey The Whirling Dervishes attain an ASC through repetitive stimulation This performative practice is unique to the Mawlawiyya, or Mevlevi Order of Sufi Islam (Mystical Islam). This order, or Tariqah (spiritual path) was founded by Jalal ad-din Rumi, the renowned a Sufi Poet, Theoogian, and Mystic In order to understand the dance, one must be still. And in order to truly understand stillness one must dance” The performance is accompanied by music, Qur’anic recitations, and Dhikr Allah (Forms of devotion and remembrance of God) The performer becomes the vessel to receive divine love and distributes the love to all those around him/her - this act is depicted by the positioning of their hands throughout the performance During this religious practice, the sympathetic nervous system of the performers becomes overstimulated This leads to the orientation association structure, located in the brain, to be shut down When this area of the brain shuts down people report a feeling of being one with the universe, or in this case one with god. This feeling is referred to as a unitary state There are many benefits associated with regular meditation Meditation reduces stress and anxiety and can help improve memory, attention, and concentration Studies have shown that regular meditation actually changes the structure of the brain; increasing the density of the myelin sheath (insulator around neurons) and the brains’ grey matter thereby making your brain more efficient and more resistant to the effects of aging thus, regular meditation can actually permanently alter your normal state of consciousness Meditation has also been used to rehabilitate the minds of criminals A few prisons in the United States and Canada have also started to using Vipsssana to rehabilitate offenders Downloaded by Darcy Niyomukiza ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|18189970 Drug-Induced ASC: Drugs can be used to induce an ASC, a practice found in various religious traditions It is important to not confuse secular drug use with religious Drug use Religious drug use takes place in accordance with religious practice, at a certain time, in certain contexts, and with defined beginning and end points The ritual setting of drug-induced ASC is important. In the textbook it discusses the Yanamamo use. Of snuff, the use of Tobacco in South America, the use of Peyote in theNative American Church, and Cannabis amongRastafarians. Cannabis in the Muslim World For millennia, cannabis has been used as a means to achieve as ASC Cannabis was not only used recreationally but also to treat various medical ailments There is evidence that cannabis was used in India and in Iranas early as 1000 BCE and this. Practice was likely adopted in the Muslim Middle East some 1800 years later Cannabis plants grew freely and were very accessible in the. Middle East In the Muslim world as early as 750CE scholars in t he Abbasid Empire began to translate the Greek texts Galen and Dioscorides, which spoke about the various medical. Benefits of Hashish (the resin of cannabis) Such as treating ear infections, skin irritations, epilepsy, asthma, gonnorhoea, constipation, and even an antidote for poison Cannabis was even used to treat somatic ailments and to also stimulate appetites, however it is important to note that while this scientific inquiry was happening, there was also a religious debate as to whether the inquiry should even continue because of its intoxicating nature The Qur’an clearly prohibits the use of alcohol, but not hashish As a result different islamic Empires dealt with the use of hashish differently For example, under the Fatimid rule of Imamcaliph al-Hakim (around 1000 CE) he issued an edict prohibiting alcohol but not hashish. further, in the 11th century, the Suljuks also permitted the use of hashish and as a result it became quite popular however under the Mamluk dynasty in Egypt, caliph. al-Zahir Babar (1266-1275) prohibited both the cultivation. And consumption of hashish Babar even burned crops and penalized anyone who went against his edict. His successor al-Mnsur Galawan, however, reversed these repressive policies and instead imposed a state tax on both alcohol and hashish - generating state revenues Thus, muslim authorities were not in agreement about whether hashish was clearly forbidden, and as a result health with its cultivation and use quite differently We start to see evidence of the use of hashish in muslim religious practice in the. 12th century, daily in Sufi tariqahs Hashish was used in ritual settings to become one with godm, and to elevate their spiritual consciousness Case Study: The Qalandar Sufi Tariqah The Qalandar Sufi Order is one example of a Muslim community that continues to use hashish in ritual settings This. Order can be mainly found in Pakistan but also in Iran, Central Asia and India In pakistan the ritual use of hashish takes place at the Lal Shavaz Qalandar Sufi shrine This religious ceremony attracts practitioners of different faith backgrounds and everyone is welcome Downloaded by Darcy Niyomukiza ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|18189970 The practitioners smoke hashish alongside the ritual of dhamaal - which consists of chanting, singing, dancing, and drumming. Unlike the whirling Dervishes where there is a prescribed way to dance, the Qalandars dance freely, moving as they see fit to the dhamaal that allows the practitioner to transcend their animal soul and achieve a unitary state Again, the use of hashish in islam is highly contested with the majority of Muslim authorities prohibiting its use This puts muslim communities such as the Qalandars at great risk As such, on February 26th, 2017 a suicide bomb attack took place at the Lal Shabaz shrine, killing 88 people - ISIS claimed responsibility Thankfully this event has not deterred the Qalandar from observing this religious practice and the dhamaal ceremony continues to take place today Week 6 Religious Specialists are individuals who have some ability or knowledge to communicate with the supernatural world. They are seen as mediators between our world and the other world(s). Different societies will have different terms to describe their religious specialists; however, we categorize these specialists into two major categories: Shamans and Priests. These two categories are not mutually exclusive; see them more as two ends of a continuum. As you will see in the examples in your textbook, sometimes priests will have shaman-like characteristics and vice versa. Further, there are also other religious specialists that fall in between these two categories such as Prophets, Healers, and Diviners. Shamans: Shamanism refers to techniques used by specific kinds of religious specialists that can be found across cultures. The term ‘shaman’ originates from the Tungus language of Central Siberia. These shamans use handheld drums and spirit helpers to help members of the community by healing the sick, divining the future, and ensuring a successful hunt. The term 'shaman' was later appropriated to refer to other religious specialists in different cultures, who exhibited some of the same features. Shamans share some general characteristics: They usually work part time as a religious specialist, meaning that they often have to do other work to provide for themselves and their families They are often found in small-scale societies They are chosen by the spirit world and are sometimes reluctant to answer their calling Their abilities come from the spirit-world; they are considered gifts that come with great responsibility and privilege They are able to directly communicate with the supernatural world through an ASC The journey in becoming a shaman is quite significant. The way in which one becomes a shaman can also help us to distinguish a shaman from a priest. A shaman must be chosen by the spirits, and will thus, hear some sort of calling. This calling will often happen during some form of ASC such as a dream or trance, or the individual may seek a call through an induced ASC. The latter usually only happens in societies where being a shaman comes with certain Downloaded by Darcy Niyomukiza ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|18189970 privileges – since the role of shaman can be quite demanding, people don’t usually seek out this role. The spirit world usually calls out to the shaman candidate during a turbulent episode in the individual’s life: such as a stressful period, physical illness, accident, possession, or neardeath experience. This circumstance is important as it marks the beginning of the shaman transformation. Further, there is often a symbolic, sometimes literal, death of the individual that needs to occur before they may be reborn a shaman. The roles and responsibilities of the shaman can be quite strenuous and demanding. For this reason, individuals rarely seek out this role; remember that these are part-time roles primarily because the shaman will still have to support themselves and their families – while in some societies shamans might be compensated for their services, they are not compensated in all. If possible, a young shaman will train with a more experienced shaman to learn the religious knowledge and techniques required to carry out their duties; however, in other circumstances where there might not be another shaman to learn from, they will rely on guidance from the spirit world. One of the most important things that they will need to learn is to how to enter an ASC and control their experience. This is because much of their work takes place in the supernatural world. Often the shaman will have a spirit guide or familiar to help them in the spirit world. Once they are able to make contact and maintain that contact, they will learn how to manipulate the supernatural world in order to achieve their desired ends. Again, the success of the shaman doesn’t rely on their ability to memorize and perform rituals, but their ability to enter and control their ASC experience. Have you ever had a lucid dream? A lucid dream is a dream that feels very real. You might be able to taste, smell, and feel in addition to the more common senses of dreaming: hearing and seeing. Further, in a lucid dream, the dreamer “wakes up” in the dream and the dreamer is aware that they are dreaming. This can cause the mind and body to become excited because the dreamer is experiencing their own dream in a fully present way – and in this state they are also able to control their experiences! However, if the dreamer gets too excited they might wake up, so they need to be able to maintain their heart rate to be able to make the most of this dreaming experience. If any of you have ever had a lucid dream, you will know how easy it is to fall back asleep in that dream. You might get distracted by something in the dream world and forget that you are experiencing a dream. Thus, when in this lucid dream state, it is important to be able to remain present and calm in the dream, fully aware and awake, to carry out what you set out to do. There is one more important thing to keep in mind about lucid dreaming, it is just as easy to enter a 'nightmare' state as it is a good dream state - all it takes is one bad thought and the entire dream can transform into a nightmare. Similarly, shamans train to maintain positive experiences while in an ASC and are able to enter these different realms via the axis mundi. Depending on the religious tradition, shamans might perform their work in higher realms and/ or lower realms. Thus, they need to learn how to navigate both realms and also how to end an undesired experience. Downloaded by Darcy Niyomukiza ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|18189970 Priests: Priests are full time religious specialists that are often associated with a religious institution. Priests are more likely to be present in larger, more complex, industrialized societies. Priests act on behalf of a religious community and represent a particular ideology and moral authority. Just like the term 'shaman' has come to be used to talk about different shaman-like specialists, so has the term 'priest.' For example, Christian ministers, Hindu pundits, Sunni Muslim imams, and Jewish Rabbis would all fall under this category. Priests are considered religious knowledge experts and responsible for performing religious rites and rituals. As such, they undergo some sort of formalized training to be competent in their position. The ability to perform rituals properly is much more important than their ability to achieve an ASC - this feature contrasts to that of shamans. However, it is important to note that even if the rituals are done correctly, it is up to the supernatural entity whether to grant the Priest their request – this is unlike magic rituals which, if they are done correctly, will always work (we will talk about this in Module 7). Rituals are normally conducted in a sacred space such as a church, synagogue, mosque, or temple. These sacred spaces may also be located in some sort of structure outside within nature. In most instances the sacred space is open to all community members and in other instances maybe only the priest is permitted into this sacred site. However, rituals are usually conducted in a congregational setting, for community members to witness - this is not always the case for shamans where they may need to be in solitude to achieve their goals. Depending on the society and religion, becoming a priest might be a choice or an inherited responsibility; such as with the Levites of the Old Testament or the Brahmin Caste in Hinduism. In the case where it is a choice, some may elect to become a priest because of the power and prestige it offers, out of a sense of purpose, or maybe as a means to an end; such as in 19th century Europe where you had to become a priest in order to receive some form of education. This is not to say that priests cannot hear a calling of their own, if they do it is often associated with illness, stress, or some other trauma, just as with shamans. Prophets: Prophets are considered the mouthpiece of the supernatural. Prophets act as the intermediary between the people and the Spirit or God(s). They are responsible for communicating the words and intentions of the spirit world to the community. Examples of prophets include Noah, Moses, Muhammad, and Handsome Lake. Max Weber (1864-1920) distinguished two types of prophets: emissary prophets and exemplary prophets. Emissary prophets believe that the divine has called upon them to communicate the message revealed to them. These revelations often include directions for the community about how to worship, how to live according to divine instruction, and what to believe. Exemplary prophets believe it is their duty to help others achieve Religious Experiences of their own. The Huichol’s Pilgrimage to Wirikuata The Huichol are a native american people that live in the Sierra Madre Occidental of central Mexico Downloaded by Darcy Niyomukiza ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|18189970 Each year they travel over 300 miles to. Wirikuta - located east of their villages This pilgrimage used to be conducted entirely by foot but due to colonial land claims, the journey is now done by bus The annual pilgrimage takes place during the dry season, between the months of October and February The Shaman-priests, the mara’akame guide the pilgrims on their journey in search of the sacred peyote cactus, which the pilgrims will consume as part of sacred ceremony to achieve an ASC The mara’akame often record their shamanic experiences in the form of Yarn paintings Week 7 What is magic? The ways in which a person can compel the supernatural to behave in certain ways Rituals are important in order to get the supernatural to do their bidding Magic can be used for good or bad The person who uses magic for bad is called a Sorcerer and is considered anti-social Religious specialists may use magic in their various activities Ex. Healers may use magic to heal an individual Divination is closely related to magic Trying to gain information about the unknown Magic and Religion Is magic separate from religion? E.B. Tylor “religion is the belief in spiritual beings” Magic is separate from Religion Magic is a”primitive science” Magic is not religion because no spirits are involved James Frazer Magic is a “primitive science” Evolutionary perspective Downloaded by Darcy Niyomukiza ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|18189970 Religion is the Persuasion of supernatural beings vs magic which is manipulation of super natural forces Emile Durkheim Agreed that magic can be distinguished. From religion but focused on social context Individual needs (magic) vs. Collective needs (religion) “in all history, we do not find a single religion without a church … there is no church of magic” These are just generalizations People can practice religion or magic independently or together Bronislaw Malinowski Purpose of magic is what separates it from religion In magic there is always a clear defined end where as religion there is never a clean end “while in the magical act the underlying idea and aim is always. clear, straightforward, and definite, in the religious ceremony there is no purpose directed toward a subsequent event” Our operant definition is broad enough to study magic as religion Magic has a clear aim and the outcome is guaranteed when preformed correctly Magic is the manipulation of supernatural forces In religion, you can ask but may not receive Religion is the persuasion of supernatural beings Rules of Magic Law of sympathy: magic depends on the apparent association or agreement between things Two parts 1. Law of similarity: things that are alike are the same gives rise to homeopathic, or imitative, magic 2. Law of contagion: things that were once. In. Contact. Continue to. be, even after connection is severed Gives rise to contagious magic Immitative magic assumes a casual relationship between things that appear to be similar Similarity can be physical or behavioural Downloaded by Darcy Niyomukiza ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|18189970 Image magic is a type of imitative magic Characterized by making an image to represent a living person or animal and the desired end Ex: voodoo doll, cave paintings Homeopathic Magic (imitative magic) Homeopathic Medicine or Alternative Medicine Uses law of similarity Doctrine of signatures: belief that physical structures found in nature, such as the shape of a plant, are indicative (or signatures). Of their potential use in healing I.e. the supernatural embedded messages in natures Homeopathic Magic: Beng Women of the Ivory Coast, West Africa Pregnant women Cannot eat meat from the Bushbuck Antelope or her child will be born with stripes Enemas using slippery leaves from a vine to depict an easy childbirth Careful of behaviours as to not pass onto child Contagious Magic Magic that is based on the law of contagion, utilizing things that were once in physical contact with an individual The more personal the item, the more the connection Contagious magic for healing and harming Tying a caterpillar to a Childs neck to transfer the illness to the caterpillar Magic in Society - Fore The fore believed that the disease kuru was caused by sorcery Sorcerer would use contagious magic to cause illness. Makes a bundle with leaves and the hair, nails, or excrement of the victim Would bury along with leaves in the muddy cold ground Beats the bundle with a stick and calls the victims name Case spell: “ I break the bones of your arms, I break the bones of your hands, and I finally. Make you die” Downloaded by Darcy Niyomukiza ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|18189970 In fore society, people go out of their way to hide possible remnants What is Divination Divination: techniques used to reveal the unknown and predict outcomes Like magic, divination is another way for people to deal with uncertainty - being able to anticipate whats ahead Make decisions accordingly Magical rituals used to manipulate the supernatural world to provide information Forms of divination are based on the idea that everything in interconnected Magic also acts on the premise that things are connected Imitation magic and contagious magic Magic is based on the manipulation of these connections Divination is based on observing these connections Divination: Forms Inspirational divination: a type of divination that involves a “spiritual experience”, such as a direct contact with a supernatural being through ASC Also referred to as Natural or Emotive divination ex: necromancy (ability to speak to the deceased), oneiromancy (ability to interpret ones dreams) medium, possession Non inspirational divination: types of divination that are performed without the direct involvement of supernatural beings Also referred to as artificial divination This forum uses elements of magic It is interpretive, reading natural events Ex. Oracles (device used for divination, magic 8 ball, ouiji board ) Fortuitous Divination: occurs without any conscious effort (natural) Ex. Omens Deliberate Divination: someone who sets out to do it Ex: tarot readings Four categories: Downloaded by Darcy Niyomukiza ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|18189970 1. Fortuitous Noninspirational (ex. Omens - spoiled milk in the morning) 2. Deliberate noninspirational (ex. Tarot and astrology) 3. Fortuitous inspirational (ex. Necromancy and possession) 4. Deliberate inspirational (ex. Medium and Possession Divination: African Traditional Religions Involves communication with the gods/spirits/ancestors Often part-time religious specialists Chosen by the spirit world Receives training in local divination techniques Identify cause of illness or hardship Divination: Yoruba Ifa Divination ifa, or Orunmila, is the god of divination and. Wisdom, and is called upon in the divination ceremony Religious specialist: priests + priestesses (representing various Orisa/gods) The If a Divination tray represents the image of the original world order (imitative magic) Ordeals An ordeal is painful often life-threatening from of divination that a person is forced to undergo if they are suspected of guilt It is best characterized as deliberate non-inspirational Week 8 What is a soul? Souls The souls is the non-corporeal (not of body), spiritual component of an individual The term “souls” is usually reserved for the spirit that is connected to the human body It is believed that the soul animates the body The soul may take on the personality of the individual or the individual may take on the personality of the soul (or maybe a combination of both) Most cultures believe that the soul has some sort of existence after death Downloaded by Darcy Niyomukiza ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|18189970 Life After Death: souls have some sort of existence after death (at least for some duration of time) Souls & the body It is believed that souls leaves the body during: Comas Faints Trance states Dreams Illness may be due to the soul leaving the body and getting lost In healing, the Shaman will retrieve the soul for the victim Ibn al-‘Arabi: “God placed dreams in the animate world so that all men might witness the World of. The Imagination and know that there exists another world, similar to the sensory world” Souls: Diversity in Understandings How many souls animate the body? Where does the soul reside? If there are multiple souls, do they serve different functions? Do they have different origins and destinations after death? Haitian Vodou: The 3 Spiritual Components 1. Met-tet, the “Master of the Head” This spirit may possess the individual, not necessarily in a bad way Identity is discovered through divination 2. Ti-bonanj, “little angel” This part of the soul makes up a persons consciousness and ego, the sense of me (who I am) In death, ti-bonanj stays near the body for some time and then goes to heaven 3. Gwo-bonanj, “big angel” This part of the soul comes from ancestral spirits and returns after death It is part of Bondye, “High God,” and determines one’s character and intelligence Downloaded by Darcy Niyomukiza ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|18189970 If the person lives a good life than their memory is kept for generations and the Gwo-bonanj can be prayed to and worshiped They believe in multiple souls and possession They believe in ancestors and their interventions in this world They also believe in different destinations after death Jivaro of Ecuador: Three Souls 1. Nekas Born with this soul This soul is the life force 2. Aruntam Acquired in a vision Worldview: this world isn’t real, only the spiritual world is real Function: The aruntam gives a person power, intelligence, and self-confidence and the ability to see and enter between worlds 3. Miusak, the “avenging soul” If a persons aruntam is killed, the miusak will avenge the death This worldview gives rise to headhunting, because it is believed that the miusak resides in the head Souls: Mystical Islam (Ruh and Nafs) Ruh is used to describe the soul when it is not connected to the body Nafs is used to describe the soul when it is connected to the body All souls originate from the spiritual world The soul is the feminine principle between body and spirit The soul undertakes a quest for transformation to realize itself Humans have the ability to elevate their souls in this world Three main stages: 1. Nafs-t-ammarah (the inciting soul): The lower self relies on basic instincts and is selfish in nature. (primitive/animalistic/ego) One is meant to make jihad, struggle, against his soul Downloaded by Darcy Niyomukiza ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|18189970 2. Nafs-i-lawwamah (the self-accusing soul): The soul starts to become self-aware and strives to become disciplined Realizes this world is an illusion Undergoes spiritual death to be reborn with the spirit 3. Nafs-i-muta (the soul that is at peace): The surrendered soul; the disciplined soul Non attachment Reintegrated with the spirit (the Devine intellect) Where do we go after we die? For some, time is linear; meaning when you die you go on to spend eternity in something like a heaven or a hell For others, time is cyclical; meaning that you are reborn into this world and possibly other worlds over and over again Should and Death: The Yup’ik Belief that when a community member dies, they await to be reborn within the community (Reincarnation) The newborn is often given the name of the recently deceased Animals also have immortal souls When one kills a seal for food, the community keeps the seal bladder (they believe the seal soul retracts to the bladder in death) They collect all bladders from the year, inflate them, and hang them throughout a five-day festival They then return the bladders to the water to be reborn, continuing the cycle of life Ancestors Ancestor: deceased family member who has a continued existence and the potential to impact the lives of his or her living descendants Ancestors are respected and attended to, but not really “worshipped” Kinship remains important even after death Ancestors may act as moral authorities, punishing family for misbehaviour Not all souls become ancestors in this context Downloaded by Darcy Niyomukiza ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|18189970 In patriarchal societies usually only men of high influence become ancestors Same is true for societies where women are elders or shamans Bodies and Souls: Ghosts Ghost: the soul of an individual that died, which stays near the community Unlike the soul, that is in essence good, a ghost is bad Souls are meant to go to their final destination but when they don’t they become ghosts Death rites Ghosts are seen to bring illness and misfortune Ghosts: Bunyoro (W. Uganda) For the Bunyoro, ghosts are one cause of illness (sorcery and spirit activity are other causes) Seek a diviner to determine cause of illness Ghosts can only be seen in dreams Techniques to catch, destroy, and remove ghost from community Belief in ghosts reinforces good behaviour Why are Death Rites Important? Death Rituals (Funerals) Important rite of passage where one moves from the status of living to deceased Function is to serve those who are grieving, allowing them to channel emotional behaviour and mourn the individual. Funerals also provide explanations for death and what happens after death Death rites help the soul of the deceased to go to their next destination Funeral Rituals: Disposal of the Body Disposal of the body is an important aspect of the funeral ritual Cultures in their disposal method, which is shaped by belief and worldview Different methods include Burial Cremation Mummification Downloaded by Darcy Niyomukiza ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|18189970 Exposure Disposal of the body: Burial Burial is the most common means of disposal Rituals vary depending on culture Disposal of the Body: Burial Place: where a body is buried. Is important Sacred place Near pens home or underneath the home Cemeteries may have designated lots for different people Religious affiliations, veterans, ethnicities, or classes African Burial Grounds Preparartion: is the. Body washed, purified, or. painted? Dressing: will the body be dressed or wrapped? Positioning: ex: on back, deal position, or on stomach Ex: arms at sides or crossed over chest Secondary Burials Take place sometime after first burial This involves digging up the body after a period of mournings (weeks, months, years), processing and then reburying the body in some capacity Relics such as bones, are often kept by close relatives or placed in a shrine Secondary burials might be related to how one understands the journey of the soul after death; however they also help mark the end of mourning Usually the second burial is a joyful time for the relatives Cremation The process of turning the body into ashes It is more economical than a burial Cremation is becoming more and more popular in industrialized societies as land becomes more valuable and crowded Downloaded by Darcy Niyomukiza ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|18189970 We often find the practice of cremation in societies that believe in reincarnation; that destroying the corps severs the soul’s connection to the body Severing the soul’s connection to the body is usually necessary for the soul’s next destination Mummification A technique used to preserve the body It involves forms of drying and other topical preservatives This technique is. Used to. Preserve the body for all time Embalming is another way of preserving the body, however it is done to preserve the body for short durations of time For example in Canada and the US embalming is done to prevent decay during the funeral period, which can last for days or weeks Methods of preserving the body are usually practiced in cultures that believe that maintaining the integrity of the body is necessary for the soul’s next life; without the body intact, one may not be able to achieve the next destination For example, the ancient Egyptians believed in some sort of continuation after death which required the preservation of the body As such they developed a process of mummification This process was time consuming and expensive, which meant that only those who could afford it were able to enjoy in the after life For the Torajans in the Indonesian island of Sulawesi, living with the dead is a normal part of the culture The Trojans do. Not see death as an abrupt end of life; they see it more like one step in t he next process Funerals are often done collectively and are delayed to ensure that all family can be present Until the funeral, they use formalin treatments (formaldehyde mixed with water) to preserve the body of the deceased While the body is being preserved, it is normal to treat the corpse as if they were living Exposure Another means of body disposal It is characterized by exposing the body to the elements or to be consumed by animals Different traditions practice this method of disposal for various. Reasons. The inuit, for example use this method for practical reasons: the ground is unsuitable and accessibility to fuel for cremation is limited Downloaded by Darcy Niyomukiza ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|18189970 In Tibetan Buddhism, the sky burial is related to the concepts of impermanence, compassion, and generosity The ceremony is sacred and spectators are not welcome however, this unique form of body disposal has attracted unwanted tourists Week 9 Gods and Spirits Both are supernatural entities that do not have human origins (for the most part) unlike ghosts ancestors and vampires Essential to the definition of religion What are spirits Supernatural beings that are less powerful than gods and are often localized Spirits may be individualized or non individualized Non individualized Leprechaun of ireland, gin of middle east, kami of Japan Individualized Guardian spirits, ancestral spirits, spirit helpers Spirits A spirit is a supernatural being that is less powerful than a god and is usually more localized They are of a collection of non individualized supernatural beings that are not given specific names and identities Spirits may look out for us, they may provide protection and abundance but they may also cause illness and misfortune Shamans will develop relationships with spirits to help them in their duties There are some spirits that are individually recognized: Guardian spirits Ancestral spirit Spirit helpers (shamans) Spirits live in, and interact with, the human world Downloaded by Darcy Niyomukiza ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|18189970 In contrast to gods, increased focus on particular individuals, families, or specialists Can be friendly. Or harmful Can assist an individual and offerings are made to develop a good relationship Ignoring. them can cause misfortune, illness, or death Spirits can live in various objects, both natural and human-made Natural: Mountains, waterfalls, trees, rivers, volcanos Human-made: Shrine (an object or. building that contains sacred objects or is associated with a venerated person or deity), statues, a building may be built or a statue may be made for a spirit to inhabit Guardian Spirits: Ojibwa When: vision quests as a rite of passage, a coming-of-age ritual (puberty) Quest: during this quest the individual (usually male) tries to enter an ASC to meet with Guardian Spirits ASC: Trained through fasting, instructed on how to enter an ASC, and how to reject a bad vision Location: The boy is led to a tall pine tree and left to fast until he receives his. Vision Visions include: meeting his guardian spirits, the path his life will take, and important objects that symbolically connect him to his guides End result: New sense of identity; boy becomes a man Spirits: Jinn Part of the Muslim creation myth (created after angels but before humans) Shaytan (he who went astray) was the first Jinn created by God; named iblis Made of a smokeless fire and have free-will like humans (angels do not) Invisible but can become visible Live lives like humans (have personalities, can be good or bad, have own religions, etc) Can develop relationships with Jinn to have powers Cautioned to stay clear of Jinn because they can be troublemakers Jinn are attracted to certain events and behaviours: blood, childbirth, marriage and “sinful behaviours” such as casual sex, drugs, and, drinking Illness and bad luck can be associated with Jinn Downloaded by Darcy Niyomukiza ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|18189970 Jinn: Hafriyat, N. Sudan White Jinn Little effect on humans Black Jinn Dangerous; can process, cause, Illness and death Red Jinn; zar(s), Zairon (pl) Most common; can. Cause illness Their red colour is associated with blood and fertility World of Zairon parallels human world and have lives similar to humans Red Jinn possess women of childbearing age (happens to 50% of Hofriyat women) Women are restricted because of this; remain in walls of family compound and segregated from men Her worth and happiness is dependent on ability to have healthy sons If a woman cannot have children, have only daughters, or miscarries, she is given a low status in society and her husband. Can divorce her. Or marry a co-wife This causes depression and anxiety for most women; vulnerable to possession by a zar Cannot reverse possession; must live with it; women attend drum ceremonies where wellbeing is enhanced temporarily as the spirits are pacified Gods God: an individual supernatural being with a distinctive name, personality/attributes, and control or. influence over a major aspect of nature (such as. Rain or fertility) Encompasses the life of an entire community. Ir a major segment of. The community Gods are often. anthropomorphic: nonhuman entities that have human characteristics. Maybe resemble human in physical appearance or personalities Maybe they are born, marry, or die Gods: Types Pantheon: all gods and goddesses in a polytheistic system The. Pantheon mirrors a particular human society Division of labour; priorities (war, health, prosperity, wealth, etc) Downloaded by Darcy Niyomukiza ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|18189970 Supreme god: resides at the top of a pantheon Attribute gods: a god that rules over a narrowly defined domain Fertility, economics, war, protection, etc Depending on the dynamics of society, some gods are preferred over others Creator gods: responsible for the creation of the physical earth, nature, humans, animals, or supernatural entities (spirits) One or more gods maybe responsible for aspects of creation Might fall under the category of Otiose gods: a god that is too remote and too uninterested in human activities to participate in the activities and fate of humans Gods and Society: Durkheim Emile Durkheim Functionalist: religion serves to maintain society Powers commonly attributed to gods are similar to those of society Creating sacred times and spaces. Designating moral rules and punishing offenders Existing above all individuals Requiring sacrifice Gods and Society: Horton Robin Horton Supernatural beings function to extend the realm of social relations Behaviour of gods = model for human behaviour In Hortons study of African religion: Otiose god Variable 1: if no outsider contact (less need for a higher active god) Variable 2: Ascribed Status (limited control), based on existing attributes (gender, family lineage) Needs can be fulfilled by lesser gods Active god Variable 1: if outsider contact (more need for a higher active god) Downloaded by Darcy Niyomukiza ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|18189970 Variable 2: achieved status (more control), based on personal achievements which are associated with a higher god Needs can only be fulfilled by a greater god Gods and Society: Guy Swanson Guy Swanson More likely to have high gods in societies that have decision making hierarchies (at least three levels) Family -> lineage -> clan A supreme god was found in 78% of. Societies. With three levels and 91% with four or more levels (only 11% with one or two levels) Also found a positive correlation between societies that have attribute gods and degrees of specialization in society Number of specialists correlated with number of gods Spirits, God(s), and Nature For over 700 years the Whanganui River in New Zealand has been a central part of Maori religion It is their aaa tupua, the river of sacred power According to myth there once stood multiple mountains (named Ruapehu, Ngauruhoe, Tongariro and Taranaki) and they all loved the beautiful maiden mountain, Pihanga. Pihanga, however married Tongariro and this obviously caused jealousy among other mountains Pihanga and Tongariro spend hundreds of years together but. She was tempted by the love of Taranaki Tongariro caught Pihanga and Taranaki together and exploded with anger and Lava spilled everywhere, forcing Taranaki to. Flee As Taranaki plunged west, this caused a furrow to form in his steps A stream of water filled Taranaki’s tracks - this formed the Whanganui. River In the mid-1800s European settlers degraded and appropriated the river and surrounding area However in march 2017, this river was granted personhood - granting it certain rights and protections Week 10 Witchcraft Downloaded by Darcy Niyomukiza ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|18189970 Witchcraft is the ability for a person to cause harm by means of a personal power that resides within the witch They simply have no will misfortune and it will occur Not the same magic Depending on culture, witchcraft can also be unconscious and unintentional witchcraft can be used for good and bad Witchcraft accusations reflect social tensions Individuals who exhibit antisocial behaviour Tensions between the sexes Witchcraft is found around the world but common in small-scale, rural societies In larger-scale societies, witchcraft constructed in relation to christianity Only god can heal Other healing arts including midwifery considered witchcraft Witchcraft associated with Satan — Witch executions in Europe and colonial America Witchcraft in Small-Scale Societies E.E. Evans-Pritchard Ethnography: witchcraft, Oracles and Magic among the Azande Fieldwork conducted between 1926-1930 For the Azande, witchcraft is an everyday reality They call the innate ability to conduct witchcraft, mangu Azande: Witchcraft Mangu is considered the soul of witchcraft - the Psychic element It can leave the body during sleep and enter the body of the victim Seen as a bright light at night but only see during the day by religious specialists Mangu exists within the body of a witch Blackish-oval type mall only found it autopsies (conducted while alive before the British Invasion) Witchcraft accusations are based on social tension Downloaded by Darcy Niyomukiza ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|18189970 Can grow out of negative emotions or behaviour Greed, envy, hatred Important to know that society breeds an environment for such accusations Azande society supports polygymy Tensions can grow between co-wives if one is favoured over another Determine the cause of illness through divination Dakpa - the termite oracle (determine if illness is caused by witchcraft) Iwa — the rubbing board oracle (determine course of action to treat the illness) Benge — the poison oracle (last course of action, will determine the witch) Poisons a chicken for yes/no answer (lives or dies) Azande: Case Study Once the Benge determines the witch… The husband elicits the assistance of the chief/deputy Confronts the accused (who will likely claim innocence) Accused will likely agree to a ritual to remove the mangu that they didn’t realize they had “cools” her mangu by drinking water and spitting it out The wife gets better The “witch” doesn’t suffer any stigma Witchcraft in Euro-American Societies Now that we have explored witchcraft In small-scale societies we will take a look at how witchcraft differs in Euro-American societies In Euro-American societies, witches are also considered evil; however, witchcraft in Europe in entirely influenced by Christian ideas about evil How do Christians explain the existence of evil if God is supposed to be the all-powerful, the all-knowing and the all-good? The answer to this question is the existence of an evil spirit with great power, Satan (the devil) and his demon followers According to Christian belief, witches are individuals who have made a pact with the devil this gives them their powers Downloaded by Darcy Niyomukiza ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|18189970 Witches come to represent everything un-Christian and are considered the opposite of a moral person In small-scale societies witchcraft and sorcery are two very different things; however in Europe the idea emerged that they are one in the same In Europe, witches make potions, recited spells, and invoke spirits This is due to the context in which these ideas were shaped Pagan religion was common place snd their worldview greatly differed from Christian worldview Christians used their own worldview to understand the pagan ‘Other’ thus, when “christians were arguing that Jesus was the Son of God, and a large part of their argument was based on the miracles that her performed” Pagans would have counterargued that Jesus was simply another sorcerer - a concept that didn’t fit into Christian worldview So In order for this idea of Jesus as a sorcerer tower, his magic would need to come from God and any other magic would need to come from the Devil As a result, magic and witchcraft were not only considered crimes against society, but crimes against God, heresy, and how Christian societies traditionally responded to heresy, greatly shaped the punishment for witchcraft Week 11 What are the origins of modern Islamists Movements? Islamism is the idea that Islam should guide social and political affairs. Many Islamist movements formed in response to Western imperialism; however, others formed in the context of Muslim diversity. In order to understand religious political movements, one must first examine the role context plays in shaping movement motivations. Salafism Salafism grew out of Egypt in the 19th century in response to Western Imperialism. Salafism, simply put, can be observed as an ideology that aims to purify Islam by emulating the early Muslim community (salafs). Salafism is appealing because it claims religious certainty and promises paradise exclusively to those who follow the Salafi path. Some important thinkers in the Salafi movement include the following: Ahmad Ibn Hanbal (780-855), Ibn Taymiyya (1263-1328), Ibn Wahhab (1703-1792), Sayyid Qutb (1906-1966), Hasan al-Banna (19061949), and Mowlana Maududi (1903-1979). Salafism has inspired Revivalist Movements, which are movements that aim to revive or return to an imagined golden age. It is important to note that revivalist movements, such as the ‘Make America Great Again’ movement, all have this nostalgic longing to return to an imagined way of life, which may or may not be historically accurate. Thus, what these movements are trying to return to is really a modern-day construction of a reductionist idea of history. It is important to note that there is diversity within Salafism. The term Salafi has been used to describe different Sunni Movements that fit the following characteristics: Rely solely on the authority of the Qur’an and Hadith (they do not recognize the madhhabs) Downloaded by Darcy Niyomukiza ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|18189970 Scripturalist: the practice of justifying beliefs, practices, and motivations using scripture Literalist: Interpret the scripture in the literal sense Shariah: want to manifest their construction of Islamic Law based on their own beliefs and interpretations (this is achieved differently depending on internal diversity) Some traditions invoke the Lesser Jihad (Holy War) to achieve their goals Salafism can be divided into three types: 1. Quietist: These Salafis focus on da’wa (missionary activity), are non-violent, and are grassroots in nature They are not engaged in politics, instead they aim to achieve their goals by slowly changing the collective consciousness through proselytizing efforts directed at other Muslims Ex. Tablighi Jamaat 2. Political: These Salafis focus on making a Muslim society by engaging in politics They actively attempt to achieve a Muslim state so that they can implement their version of Sharia They will use violence if necessary, but only against certain groups (sanctioned violence depends on internal diversity) Ex. Jamaat-e-Islami in India/Pakistan Ex. Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt and elsewhere o The Muslim Brotherhood will use violence against the US but will not kill other Muslims 3. Jihadi: These Salafi groups focus on achieving an Islamic society through aggressive force They aspire to forcefully implement their version of Shariah They are considered militant and will kill anyone who does not share their ideology, including Muslims Ex. ISIS, Boko Haram Wahhabism Wahhabi Islam originated in 18th century Saudi Arabia, in the rural area of Najd. This reform movement was founded by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (1703–1792) and aimed to correct, as he understood it, misguided Islamic belief and practice; in particular saint worship and shrine visitation – something practiced by various Shi’i and Sufi traditions. Ibn Abd al-Wahhab and his teachings are known for their intolerance of other Muslim traditions such as the Shi’i, Sufi, and even Sunni Muslims who do not conform to their exclusivist ideology. Wahhabis claim that these Muslim traditions have diverged from the true path, and are, thus, innovations and shirk (idolatry and improper venerations of God). This absolutist understanding has legitimized the intolerance, discrimination, oppression, and persecution of Muslims by Wahhabi extremists. Ibn Abd al-Wahhab’s Islamic reform movement aimed to (1) to revive the Islam of the Prophet Muhammad and his successors (salaf) by emphasizing (2) the oneness and unity of God, tawhid, and (3) eliminating polytheism and idol worship, shirk, using both the (4) Qur’an and Hadith as the sole authorities of Islam. However, unlike Salafism, which rejects the precedence of all madhhabs (Islamic jurisprudence traditions), Wahhabi Islam is greatly informed by the Hanbali-Sunni madhhab and is inspired by the writings of conservative jurist, Ibn Taymiyya (1263-1328) – who was not only opposed to liberal theology, but also resurrected the Lesser Jihad (Holy War) under the contexts of the Christian crusades and the Mongol invasions. Downloaded by Darcy Niyomukiza ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|18189970 Like Salafis, Wahhabis are both Scripturalist and Literalist, meaning that they believe that the Qur’an and hadith can be applied to the current day and age and must be interpreted literally. The traditional science of the hadith examined the chain of transmitters (isnad) to either disqualify or authenticate a Hadith. If one person in that chain had a reputation of dishonesty, then it weakened the validity of the hadith. However, Ibn Abd al-Wahhab was unique in his way of deciphering an authentic hadith from an invalid one. He examined at the matn, or content of the hadith and if its content could not be found in the Qur’an, it was considered inauthentic, regardless of how reliable the isnad (chain of transmission) was. This method has been criticized by Islamic scholars for various reasons, one being that the entire content could be labeled valid as long as a part of it appears in the Qur’an, even if it came from an unreliable source. Thus, there is no actual method to prove validity unlike in traditional methods. This allowed for a very specific and narrow interpretation of the hadith and the Qur’an and, consequently, a unique manifestation of Islam. Wahhabi Islam was largely successful due to Ibn Abd al-Wahhab’s alliance with Muhammad bin Saud, who promised religious privileges and protection in exchange for political legitimacy. Today, the Saud family remains ruling family of Saudi Arabia and Wahhabi Islam continues to inspire domestic and foreign policy It is important to note that there is internal diversity within Wahhabi Islam; however, more moderate positions and understandings are often overshadowed by radical ones. Today, Wahhabi authorities continue to delegitimize Muslim diversity, which has fueled sectarian violence and extremism across the Muslim world. Religion and Conflict No religion is inherently violent or peaceful. However, when violence is used, it is often justified using religious narratives and precedent. Religious traditions also provide a moral blueprint when it comes to violence; delineating when and what type of violence is permissible and when and what is forbidden. Thus, religion is used to sanction violence by removing the moral wrongdoing from the act and often offering honour and rewards in exchange. When studying religion and conflict, we must remember that religion is embedded in complex socio-cultural matrixes; religion is symbiotically linked with other cultural systems. Thus, in our exploration of religion and violence we must also examine the surrounding sociocultural systems to better understand the manifestation of violence; what else is happening in society that may be contributing to a hostile climate? Downloaded by Darcy Niyomukiza ([email protected])