REL2011 Final Review 2024 PDF

**Part I: The Study of Religion** **Chapter 1: What Is Religion?** Defining Religion: Explores the difficulties in defining religion, analyzing various attempts (Martineau, Schleiermacher, Otto, Kant, Dewey, Tillich, Hick, Marx, Freud). Highlights the importance of avoiding narrowness, vagueness,...

**Part I: The Study of Religion** **Chapter 1: What Is Religion?** Defining Religion: Explores the difficulties in defining religion, analyzing various attempts (Martineau, Schleiermacher, Otto, Kant, Dewey, Tillich, Hick, Marx, Freud). Highlights the importance of avoiding narrowness, vagueness, and reductionism. Proposes a working definition: \"Religion is that system of activities and beliefs directed toward and in response to that which is perceived to be of sacred value and transforming power.\" Discusses the \"family resemblance\" approach to defining religion. Why Are Humans Religious?: Links human religiosity to self-consciousness and self-transcendence, the ability to ask existential questions (meaning of life, suffering, death). Connects religion to responses to uncertainty, powerlessness, and scarcity. Why Study Religion?: Presents five reasons to study religion: 1) Understanding Homo religiosus; 2) Overcoming ignorance; 3) Comprehending culture; 4) Achieving a global perspective; 5) Formulating personal beliefs. **Chapter 2: Ways of Studying Religion** The Ways Religion is Studied: Introduces the various disciplines used in the study of religion and their limitations. Religion and Theology: Distinguishes between the academic study of religion and theology, emphasizing the need for critical analysis and accessible evidence in scholarly work. Literary Criticism: Explains textual and documentary criticism used to analyze sacred texts. Examples: the varying manuscripts of the Christian Bible and the composite authorship of the Book of Isaiah. Historiography: Discusses the methods used by historians of religion to reconstruct and interpret the past, emphasizing the importance of considering social, economic, and cultural factors. Anthropology: Focuses on functionalism and its application to understanding the social functions of religious beliefs and institutions within cultures. Example: Emile Durkheim\'s work. Sociology: Emphasizes the work of Max Weber, illustrating how religious beliefs influence social structures (e.g., The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism). Psychology: Examines the work of William James, Sigmund Freud, and Gordon Allport on the psychological dimensions of religious experience and their limitations. Discusses Allport's distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic religious orientations. Philosophy: Explores the philosophical scrutiny of religious claims, particularly the \"falsification principle\" of Anthony Flew and the limitations of this approach. Introduces hermeneutics. Phenomenology: Describes the phenomenological method, focusing on rigorous description of religious experience without explanation, using epoche (bracketing of judgment). Interpreting and Explaining Religion: Discusses the tension between interpretation (understanding from within) and explanation (causal accounts). Distinguishes between descriptive and explanatory reduction. The Perspective of the Student---Commitment and Objectivity: Explores the relationship between the student's personal beliefs and scholarly objectivity, presenting a spectrum from naive belief to detached neutrality. Part II: Universal Forms of Religious Experience and Expression **Chapter 3: The Sacred and the Holy** The Concept of Sacred Power: Defines the sacred as that which is set apart, possessing power. Explores the role of fetishes, totems, and other objects as bearers of sacred power. The Ambivalence of Sacred Power: Highlights the dual nature of the sacred: both awe-inspiring and dangerous, simultaneously attracting and repelling. Uses examples from Shinto and Catholicism. The Holy as Mysterium Tremendum and Fascinans: Discusses Rudolf Otto's concept of the numinous, explaining mysterium tremendum (awe and dread) and mysterium fascinans (attraction and fascination) illustrated by examples from the Bible and the Bhagavad Gita. Sacred Space and Sacred Time: Sacred Space: Explains Mircea Eliade's concept of hierophany, axis mundi, and imago mundi. Examples: Mount Sinai, Mount Zion, the Buddhist stupa and pagoda, the Ka'ba. Sacred Time: Discusses the cyclical nature of sacred time, its connection to origins and renewal, illustrated by examples from the New Year\'s rituals and Christian Eucharist. **Chapter 4: Sacred Symbol, Myth, and Doctrin**e Symbolic Communication: Distinguishes between signs and symbols, and between representational and presentational symbols. Illustrates with examples of religious symbols. Religious Symbols: Explains how religious symbols bridge between the profane and the sacred, uniting meanings and communities. Examples: the crucifix, the reclining Buddha, the Christian fish symbol. Metaphor, Parable, and Story: Discusses metaphor, parable (extended metaphor), and story as modes of religious communication, emphasizing their narrative structure and impact on the human psyche. Religious Myth: Defines myth, rejecting the notion of myth as mere falsehood. Explores three interpretations of myth: Functionalist Theory of Myth (Malinowski): Emphasizes the social functions of myths. Psychotherapeutic Theory of Myth (Jung): Focuses on the role of archetypes in the collective unconscious and their therapeutic function. Phenomenological Interpretation of Myth (Eliade): Views myths as narratives of sacred history and accounts of origins. Models and Doctrines: Discusses religious doctrines as conceptual elaborations of symbolic and mythic language, comparing them to scientific models. **Chapter 5: Sacred Ritual** Ritual Action: Defines religious ritual and its functions (social integration, anxiety reduction, legitimization of beliefs). Types of Sacred Ritual: Discusses various types of rituals: Life-Cycle Rites: Explains rites of passage (separation, transition, reincorporation) and Victor Turner's concept of liminality and communitas. Examples: puberty rites, initiation rites, marriage, funerals. Discusses the significance of liminality (transitional stage). Life-Crisis Rites: Focuses on healing rituals and the role of shamans. Examples: Iban manang, Sia Pueblo medicine societies, Christian exorcism. Calendar or Seasonal Rituals: Discusses seasonal rites, emphasizing the fourfold pattern (mortification, purification, invigoration, jubilation). Examples: Babylonian Akitu festival, Roman Catholic Mass. Ritual and Sacrifice: Explores the functions of sacrifice: propitiation, social bonding, expiation (atonement), the scapegoat. Uses the Jewish Yom Kippur as an example. Rituals as Sacraments: Defines sacraments, emphasizing their performative and repetitive nature. Discusses their psychological, sociological, and theological effects. **Chapter 6: Sacred Scripture** Using the Term Scripture: Discusses the challenges of using the term "scripture" in a comparative context, emphasizing the importance of oral traditions. Key Takeaway: The term \"scripture\" needs careful consideration in comparative studies due to its varied application across different religious traditions. The Pervasive Role of Sacred Scripture: Notes the variations in the nature and authority of sacred scriptures across different religions. Examples: Hindu Vedas, Qur'an, Hebrew Bible, Buddhist canons. Key Takeaway: Sacred scriptures vary widely in their form, content, and authority, reflecting diverse religious traditions. Some Distinctive Features of Sacred Scripture: Describes features of sacred scripture: sacred power, transformative effect, authority, and canonicity. Examples: the veneration of the Torah, Qur'an, and Guru Granth Sahib.\ \ Key Takeaway: Many sacred scriptures are considered to possess inherent sacred power and the ability to transform the believer. The Authority and Canonicity of Scripture: Explores the processes of canon formation in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Discusses the role of the Septuagint and Apocrypha in Christian scripture. Key Takeaway: The establishment of a canon involves complex historical and theological processes, resulting in variations in which texts are considered authoritative. The Uses of Scripture: Discusses the multiple uses of scripture: instruction, worship, meditation, devotion, and quasi-magical functions.\ \ Key Takeaway: Sacred scriptures serve diverse functions within religious communities. The Interpretation of Scripture: Discusses the need for interpretation, exploring interpretive methods in Buddhism (Four Reliances) and Christianity (literal, allegorical, moral, anagogical interpretations, and reader-response criticism). Includes a discussion of Liberation Theology as a contemporary approach to biblical interpretation.\ \ Key Takeaway: Interpreting scripture requires careful consideration of historical context, multiple levels of meaning, and the interpreter\'s own perspective Part III: Universal Components of a Religious Worldview (This section was only partially included in the text provided) **Chapter 7: Society and the Sacred: The Social Formations and Transformations of Religion** The Reciprocal Relationship Between Religion and Society: Discusses the complex interplay between religion and society, challenging simplistic social determinism. Mentions the work of Emile Durkheim and Max Weber. Types of Religious Communities: Analyzes different types of religious communities: Natural Religious Communities: Examines communities based on kinship, geography, or culture. Examples: Japanese State Shinto, Dahomey tribal communities. The Secret Society: Describes secret societies as subgroups within natural communities, often arising from dissatisfaction with the mainstream religion. Example: Winnebago Indian societies. Voluntary Religious Communities: Discusses communities based on shared beliefs and voluntary membership, distinguishing between \"founded\" religions and church-type organizations. Founded Religions: Explains the role of charismatic leaders (\"routinization of charisma\") in establishing and maintaining voluntary religions. Discusses challenges faced after the founder's death. Protest and Change in Voluntary Religious Communities: Explores forms of protest and reform: Reform from within the Church-Type Community: Describes the ecclesiola in ecclesia (small groups within the church seeking reform) and monasticism as examples. Separation from the Church-Type Community: Discusses secession from the mainstream, leading to the formation of sects. The Sect: Defines the characteristics of sects, distinguishing them from churches and denominations. Discusses Bryan Wilson's typology of sects (conversionist, revolutionist, gnostic/manipulationist, and utopian). The Cult and the New Age Religious Movements: Explores the emergence of new religious movements, discussing their characteristics, and illustrating with examples: Scientology and Wicca. Chapter 8: Deity: Concepts of the Divine and Ultimate Reality This chapter explores diverse conceptions of deity, progressing through a spectrum of beliefs: Polytheism: The worship of multiple gods, often associated with animism and nature worship. Examples include sky gods (Indra, Zeus), mother goddesses (Isis, Demeter, Kali), and the interplay between these deities. Dualism: Belief in two co-equal, often opposing, sacred powers. Examines the Chinese yin-yang concept as a harmonious dualism and Zoroastrianism as a dualism of cosmic struggle (Ahura Mazda vs. Angra Mainyu). Gnosticism and Manicheanism are explored as examples of radical dualism. Pantheism: The belief that all things are divine, with God immanent in the world. Stoicism and aspects of Hinduism (particularly the Upanishads) are offered as examples. Monism: The belief in a single, ultimate reality. Hindu Vedanta (Brahman-Atman identity) is examined. Sankara\'s Advaita Vedanta and the concept of maya (illusion) are discussed. Monotheism: Belief in a single, personal, transcendent God. Traces the development of monotheism in ancient Israel, contrasting it with henotheism. Explores attributes of the monotheistic God (personal, eternal, omniscient, omnipotent, creator), contrasting it with Deism. Panentheism: A synthesis of theism and pantheism, where God is both transcendent and immanent, but distinct from the world. This concept challenges the traditional attributes of omnipotence and omniscience. Chapter 9: Cosmogony: Origins of the Natural and Social Order This chapter focuses on cosmogonic myths -- stories explaining the origin of the cosmos and social order. Several types of cosmogonies are examined: Emergence from a Primal Substance: Examples from Egyptian mythology (Nun), Orphic religion, and Hindu Upanishads. Sexual Union of Primal Male and Female: Examples from Chinese mythology (yin-yang), Japanese mythology (Izanagi and Izanami), and its influence on Japanese society. Creation by Conflict: The Babylonian Enuma elish is used to illustrate creation through conflict and the ordering of chaos. Creation by a Divine Craftsman: Greek cosmology (Plato\'s Timaeus and the Demiurge) is examined. Creation by Decree/from Nothing (creatio ex nihilo): Compares the Mayan creation myth with the Genesis account, highlighting the concept of creatio ex nihilo in the latter and its implications. The Rejection of Cosmogonic Speculation: Jainism\'s rejection of cosmogonic speculation is discussed. Cosmogony Today: Explores the contemporary impact of scientific cosmology (Big Bang, continuous creation) and its interaction with religious views. Examines the Anthropic Principle and the Intelligent Design movement, including the Dover trial. Chapter 10: Views of the Human Problem This chapter analyzes different perspectives on the human condition, contrasting modern secular views (Marx, Freud) with religious ones: Modern Views: Marx\'s view of alienation and Freud\'s focus on the conflict between individual drives and societal demands are briefly summarized. Stoicism: Focuses on ignorance as the root problem, advocating for living in accordance with nature and cultivating apatheia (indifference to externals). Christianity: Views sin (pride, self-assertion) as originating from humanity's misuse of free will and God\'s image. Examines differing Roman Catholic and Protestant views on original sin and the imago Dei. Theravada Buddhism: Identifies suffering (dukkha) as arising from craving (tanha) and the illusion of self (an-atta). The Four Noble Truths are explained. Confucianism: Emphasizes the importance of social harmony and proper conduct (li), achieved through moral cultivation and adherence to the dao. Chapter 11: Theodicy: Encountering Evil This chapter examines religious explanations for the existence of evil and suffering: Theodicy of Mystical Participation: Justifies suffering through identification with a larger community or cosmic reality. Future, This-Worldly Theodicy: Offers hope for future earthly redemption (millenarianism). Examples include the Taborites and modern movements. Other-Worldly Theodicy: Proposes compensation for suffering in a future life (Heaven/Paradise). Shi'i Islam's emphasis on martyrdom and reward in Paradise is used as an example. Dualist Theodicy: Ascribes evil to an opposing power (e.g., Zoroastrianism, Gnosticism). Karma-Samsara Theodicy: Explains suffering as the result of past actions (karma) and the cycle of rebirth (samsara) in Hinduism and Buddhism. Monotheistic Theodicies: Explores various attempts to reconcile God's goodness and omnipotence with the existence of evil in the context of Western monotheism, drawing heavily on the Book of Job. This includes suffering as punishment, as a test of faith, and the mystery of God's sovereignty. Also covers the theodicy of protest. The Free Will Defense (Hick): Argues that a world allowing free will is necessary for moral development, even if it involves suffering. Process Theodicy: Challenges the traditional view of God's omnipotence, proposing a process theology where God persuades rather than dictates. Chapter 12: Ethics: Foundations of Moral Action This chapter explores ethical frameworks and sources of moral authority: Philosophical Ethics: Briefly outlines deontological (duty-based), teleological (consequentialist), and virtue ethics. Sources of Moral Authority: Explores cosmic/natural law (Confucianism, Roman Catholicism), charismatic leadership (Bodhisattva Kuan-yin, Gandhi), and ethics of divine command (Judaism, Islam). Jewish Law and Ethics: Discusses the interpretation of Jewish law (halakhah) and its application to contemporary ethical dilemmas (abortion). Islamic Law and Ethics: Analyzes the sources of Islamic law (Shari'a) and the concept of jihad. Chapter 13: Soteriology: Ways and Goals of Salvation and Liberation This chapter examines different paths to salvation and liberation: The Way of Grace Through Faith: Explores salvation through faith in God's grace, exemplified by Martin Luther and Amida Buddhism. The Way of Devotion (bhakti): Emphasizes emotional devotion and personal experience with the divine. Illustrates with St. Teresa of Avila and Hindu bhakti. The Way of Action and Obligation: Focuses on the importance of righteous conduct and fulfilling duties (dharma in Hinduism, Shari'a in Islam, halakhah in Judaism). The Way of Meditation and Philosophical Insight: Explores the paths of Yoga (Patanjali) and Theravada Buddhism's Eightfold Path. Goals of Salvation: Discusses various conceptions of salvation: psychic wholeness, a restored social order, a messianic age, resurrection, immortality, eternal life, and liberation from illusion (moksha, Nirvana, sunyata). Part IV: The Sacred and the Secular in Modernity Chapter 14: Secularization---New Religious Revitalization Movements---Contemporary Religious Fundamentalism This chapter addresses the impact of modernity on religion: Secularization: Explores the secularization thesis -- the decline of religion's influence in modern society -- and its critics. Religious Revitalization Movements: Highlights the resurgence of religious belief and practice in various parts of the world. Contemporary Religious Fundamentalism: Defines and characterizes fundamentalism, exploring its common features and its manifestations in American Protestantism (Falwell) and Islamic Fundamentalism (Khomeini, bin Laden, al-Zawahiri). Chapter 15: Contemporary Challenges to Traditional Religion: The Status and the Roles of Women---Relations Between Religion and the State This concluding chapter examines two major contemporary challenges: The Status and Roles of Women: Examines the changing roles of women in various religious traditions (Hinduism, Buddhism, Christianity, Islam). Discusses feminist critiques of patriarchal interpretations of religious texts and the efforts of women to achieve greater equality within their religious communities. Relations Between Religion and the State: Explores historical relationships between religion and the state (theocracy, State Church, \"Two Kingdoms\" doctrine). Analyzes the complexities of church-state relations in the United States, examining the \"culture wars,\" the \"Lemon Test,\" and the tension between separationism and a robust role for religion in public life.