Legal Studies HSC Notes - Crime PDF

Part I Core - Crime =================== 1. The Nature of Crime ---------------------- ### The meaning of Crime - - - - - - - **Criminal law** - Area of the law that deals with crime. - - - - - ### The Elements of Crime: Actus Reus, Mens Rea - **Actus Reus**: -...

Part I Core - Crime =================== 1. The Nature of Crime ---------------------- ### The meaning of Crime - - - - - - - **Criminal law** - Area of the law that deals with crime. - - - - - ### The Elements of Crime: Actus Reus, Mens Rea - **Actus Reus**: - - - **Mens Rea**: - - - - - - ### Strict Liability Offences - - - - - ### Causation - **Case Study - R V Burns:** - - - - ### Categories of Crime - Crimes are categorised by: - - - - #### Offences Against the Person - **Homicide:** - - - 1\. Murder: - - - - - 2\. Manslaughter: - - - - 3\. Infanticide: - - 4\. Dangerous driving causing death: - - **Assault:** - - - - - **Sexual Offences:** - - - - - - - - #### Offences Against the Sovereign - - - 1\. Treason: - - - 2\. Sedition: - - - - - - - #### Economic Offences (Property/White Collar/Computer), - ##### Crimes Against Property (3 main types): - - - ##### White-Collar Crime: - - - - ##### Computer Offences: - - - ##### Fraud (outside the syllabus but important to know): - - - - - - #### Drug Offences - - - - - **Main drug offences:** - - - - - - - - #### Driving Offences - - - - - #### Public Order Offences - - **Common public order offences** that usually incur a fine/lesser penalty - - - - - - #### Preliminary Crimes - ##### Attempt - - - - ##### Conspiracy - - - #### Regulatory Offences (outside the syllabus but important to know) - - - **Examples of regulatory offences:** - - - - - - ### Summary and Indictable Offences **Summary Offence:** - - - - **Indictable offence:** - - - - - - - ### Parties to a Crime - #### Principal in the first degree - - #### Principal in the second degree - - #### Accessory before the fact - - #### Accessory after the fact - - ### Factors Affecting Criminal Behaviour - - **Psychological Factors:** - - - **Social Factors:** - - - **Economic Factors:** - - - - - **Political Factors:** - - - **Genetics:** - - **Self-interest:** - - - ### Crime Prevention - #### Situational Crime Prevention - - #### Social Crime Prevention - - - - 2. The Criminal Investigation Process ------------------------------------- ### Police powers - - - - - - 1\. **Arrest and interrogate** 2**. Recommend whether bail should be granted** ----------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------ 3\. Use **reasonable force** if necessary to carry out duties. 4\. Use **technology to assist investigation**, e.g. phone taps, surveillance etc. 5\. Search property and seize evidence (**Search and Seizure)** - - - - - - ### Reporting Crime - - - - - ### Investigating Crime - - #### Gathering Evidence - - - - - - - - - #### Used of Technology - - - - - #### Search and Seizure - - - - - - - - #### Use of Warrants - - - - - - - - - ### Arrest and Charge, Summons, Warrants **Arrest and Warrants:** - - - - - **Release or Charge:** - - **Summons** - - - ### Bail or Remand **Bail:** - - - - - - - - - - **Remand:** - - - - ### Detention & Interrogation, rights of suspects - - - - - - - - - - 3. Criminal Trial Process ------------------------- ### Court Jurisdiction - - - - - **[State & Territory Courts]** **Lower courts:** - - - - **Intermediate Courts:** - **Superior Courts:** - - - - - ### The Adversary System - - - - ### Legal Personnel #### Magistrate - - - #### Judges - - - - #### Police Prosecutor - - - #### Director of Public Prosecution - - - - - #### Public Defenders - - - ### Pleas, Charge Negotiations - - - - - - - - - ### Legal Representation, Including Legal Aid - - - - - - - - - - - - ### Burden and Standard of Proof - - - ### Use of Evidence, Including Witnesses - - - - - - - - ### Defence to Criminal Charges - - - #### Complete Defences - 1. a. b. c. 2. d. e. 3. f. g. 4. h. i. j. k. l. 5. m. n. 6. o. p. q. #### Partial Defences to Murder - 1. a. b. c. d. e. f. 2. g. h. i. j. ### The Role of Juries, Including Verdicts **Role of jury:** - - - - - - - **Verdicts:** - - - - - - - - - - - - - **Challenging Jurors:** - - - **Eligibility for jury duty:** - - - - - - - 4. Sentencing and Punishment ---------------------------- - - - - - - - ### Statutory and Judicial Guidelines - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ### The Purposes of Punishment #### Deterrence (Specific and General) - - - - - - - - - - #### Retribution - - - - - - - - #### Rehabilitation - - - - - - - #### Incapacitation - - - - ### Factors Affecting a Sentencing Decision - - - - - - - - - - #### Aggravating Factors - - - - - - #### Mitigating Factors - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ### The Role of the Victim in Sentencing - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ### Appeals - - - **2 types of appeals in criminal cases:** 1. a. b. 2. c. d. e. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ### Types of Penalties #### No Conviction Recorded - - - - - #### Caution - - - - - - - #### Fine - - - - - - - - - #### Bond - - **Conditional Release Orders:** - - - - - - - #### Suspended Sentence - - #### Probation - - - - #### Criminal Infringement Notice - - - - #### Penalty Units - - - - #### Community Service Order (Now Community Correction Orders) - - - - - - - - #### Home Detention - - #### Periodic Detention/Intensive Correction Order - - - - - - - Curfew and association restrictions Electronic monitoring 24/7. ------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------- Random breath and urine tests Mandatory community service (32 hrs per month Travel & behaviour restrictions Mandatory participation in rehabilitation & education programs #### Forfeiture of Assets - - - - - - #### Imprisonment - - - - - - - - - #### Diversionary Programs - - - - - - - - - - - ### Alternative Methods of Sentencing - - #### Circle Sentencing - - - - - - #### Restorative Justice - - - - - - - ### Post-Sentencing Considerations - - - - #### Security Classifications - - - - - - #### Protective Custody - - - - - #### Parole - - - - - - - - - - - #### Preventative Detention - - **Types of Preventative Detention:** 1. 2. a. b. i. ii. #### Continued Detention **Continued Detention** - serious offenders who have served their full sentence continue to be detained. - - - - - - - - - - #### Sexual Offenders Registration - - - - - - #### Deportation - - - - - - - - - 5. Young Offenders ------------------ - - - - - - - ### Age of Criminal Responsibility - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ### The Rights of Children when Questioned or Arrested - - - - - **Questioning of young people:** - [Identification, name and address:] - - - - [Questions and right to silence:] - - [Right to support of a responsible adult:] - [Searches:] - - - - *Limitations/hook:* - - - - - - - **Arrest and Interrogation of Young People:** - - - - - - - [Support Person and Legal Advice:] - - - - - [Caution of Rights:] - - - - - [Detention and Identification:] - - - [Forensic Procedures, Photos and Searches:] - - - - - - [Additional comments:] - - - - - - ### Children's Court - Procedures and Operation - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ### Penalties for Children - - - - - - - - - Dismissal The court can dismiss the charge without punishment or conviction, but may decide to issue a caution to the offender. ------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Conviction For young offenders, the court can decide whether to record a conviction, but for children under 16 years old no conviction can be recorded. Adjournment The sentencing can be adjourned or deferred for up to 12 months to assess the child's prospects of rehabilitation, and reconsidered at that later date. Bond The child can be released on a good behaviour bond for up to a maximum of two years. Youth justice The child can be released subject to the child complying with a youth justice conference outcome plan. Fine A fine of up to 10 penalty units (\$1100) can be imposed, but the court must take into account the child's age and ability to repay it. Probation A bond with a probation order of up to two years can be imposed, overseen by an officer of Youth Justice. Community service order A community service order is a severe penalty, and can be made for up to 100 hours if the child is under 16, and up to 250 hours if they are 16 or over; an assessment (as mentioned earlier) is required to confirm if the child is suitable for a community service order. Suspended control order Similar to a suspended sentence, a court can suspend a control order (see below) for up to two years, subject to good behaviour. Control order A control order is the most severe penalty, and is similar to an adult sentence of imprisonment except it involves detention in a Youth Justice Centre; the maximum time a child can be sentenced to a control order is two years. Last resort penalty. Courts must also give a non-parole period for sentences that are over 6 months. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ### Alternatives to Court - - - - - #### Warnings - - - #### Cautions - - - - #### Youth Justice Conferences - - - - - - **Effectiveness of the Young Offenders Act 1997 (NSW):** - - - - ### The Effectiveness of the Criminal Justice System when Dealing with Young Offenders (Right-hand side of the Syllabus) **Positives:** - - - **Negatives:** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - **Recommendation for Improvement:** - - - 6. International Crime ---------------------- ### Categories of International Crime, including: - - - - - #### Crimes Against the International Community - - - 1. a. i. ii. iii. iv. v. b. c. d. e. 2. f. vi. vii. g. viii. h. 3. i. ix. x. xi. xii. xiii. xiv. xv. j. k. l. 4. m. n. o. #### Transnational Crimes - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ### Dealing with International Crime: #### Domestic and International Measures - - - - - - - - - - - - **Domestic Measures:** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - **International Measures:** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - #### Limitations - - - - - - - - - - - - - - **Effectiveness:** - - **Case Study - International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY):** - - - - - - - Part 2 Core - Human Rights ========================== 1. The Nature and Development of Human Rights --------------------------------------------- ### The Definition of Human Rights - - - - 1. 2. 3. - - - - ### Developing Recognition of Human Rights #### The Abolition of Slavery - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - #### Trade Unionism and Labour Rights - - - - - - - - - - - - #### Universal Suffrage - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - #### Universal Education - - - - - - - - #### Self-determination - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - #### Environmental Rights - - - - - - - - - - - - #### Peace Rights - - - - - - - - - ### Formal Statement of Human Rights #### Universal Declaration of Human Rights - - - - - - - - - #### International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights - - - - - - - - - - - - - - #### International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - - - - - - - **Extra (Outside Syllabus but in the textbook and useful to know):** **[Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (1948):]** - - - - - **[Geneva Conventions (1949)]** - - - - - - 2. Promoting and Enforcing Human Rights --------------------------------------- - - - ### In the International Community: #### State Sovereignty - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - #### The Roles of: ##### The United Nations - - - 1. - - - - - - - - 2. - - - - - - 3. - 4. - - - - - - - - 5. - ##### Intergovernmental Organisations - - - - - 1. a. 2. b. c. 3. d. ##### Courts, Tribunals and Independent Statutory Authorities **International Court of Justice (ICJ):** - - - - - - - - - **International Criminal Court (ICC) and Ad Hoc Tribunals:** - - - - **European Court of Human Rights (ECHR):** - - - **UN Human Rights Committee (UNHRC):** - - - - - - - - - - - ##### Non-Government Organisations - - - - - - - - ##### The Media - - - - - - - ### In Australia: #### The Incorporation of Human Rights into Domestic Law - - - - - - - #### The Roles of: ##### The Constitution, Including Division of Powers and Separation of Powers - 1. 2. - - - - - - **Separation of powers:** - - - - - - - - **Division of Powers:** - - - - - - - ##### Statute Law - - - Racial Discrimination Act 1975 (Cth) Anti-Discrimination Act 1977 (NSW) ----------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------- Sex Discrimination Act 1984 (Cth) Australian Human Rights Commission Act 1986 (Cth) Disability Discrimination Act 1992 (Cth) Age Discrimination Act 2004 (Cth) Marriage Amendment (Definition and Religious Freedoms) Act 2017 (Cth) ##### Common Law - - - - **Examples of Common Law that Protect Human Rights\ **[Right to Privacy:] - - - - [Right to Silence:] - ##### Courts and Tribunals - **Australian Human Rights Commission (AHRC):** - - - - - - - - - - **Royal Commissions** - - - - - - **High Court of Australia:** - - - - - - ##### Non-Government Organisations - - - ##### The Media - - - - - - - - ##### A Charter of Rights (Arguments For and Against) - **Arguments for a Charter of Rights** **Arguments against a Charter of Rights** -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Extremely high community support Current human rights protections are adequate Remedying the shortcomings of existing human rights protections Undermining a tradition of parliamentary sovereignty, including transferring legislative power to unelected judges Reflecting basic Australian values Better human rights protection is not guaranteed Protects the marginalised and disadvantaged Potentially negative outcomes for human rights Improving the quality and accountability of government Excessive and costly litigation Supporting a culture of regard for human rights Democratic processes and institutions offer better protection of rights Improving how the international community views Australia in regards to human rights A major economic cost Bringing Australia into line with other democracies Unnecessarily legalised human rights Generating economic benefits - - - - - 3. Investigate a Contemporary Issue which Illustrates the Promotion and/or Enforcement of Human Rights ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ### Human Trafficking and Slavery [[Ravi Mavila - Legal Studies Assessment Task 4]](https://docs.google.com/document/d/1_CN37wH0zXqWKhdHTMLFa3z6-kszPBxpUhn_gexPWqQ/edit#heading=h.3zi7sxphr653) **Contemporary Slavery:** - - - - - - 1. a. b. c. 2. d. e. f. 3. g. h. i. 4. j. 5. **Defining Human Trafficking:** - - - - - - - - - - **Extent of the Issue:** - - - - - - **Trafficking in Human Persons Report:** - - 1. 2. 3. 4. - **International Legal Responses to Human Trafficking and Slavery:** - - - - *Sexual servitude and human trafficking:* - *International Instruments - these require parties to create offences in relation to human trafficking (as defined above):* - - - **International Non-Legal Responses:** *UN Instruments:* - - - *Other NGOs:* - - - - - **Domestic Legal Responses:** *Developing Recognition of the Issue of Human Trafficking and Slavery in Australia:* - - - - - - - - **Domestic Non-Legal Responses:** *Non-Government Responses:* - - - - - - - *Role of the Media:* - - - Option 3 - Family ================= 1. The Nature of Family Law --------------------------- ### The Concept of Family Law - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ### Legal Requirements of Marriage - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ### Alternative Family Relationships - - - - +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | ATSI | \- ATSI people's customary law | | | marriages are not recognised by | | | Aus law. Generally regarded as de | | | facto relationships. | +===================================+===================================+ | Single parent families | \- Increase in divorce rates, | | | changing social attitudes, | | | greater financial independence of | | | women, increased government | | | assistance → increased single | | | parent families.\ | | | - Single parents often face | | | difficulties in accessing legal | | | advice, pursuing their rights in | | | court, and obtaining sound legal | | | protection. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Blended families | \- Formed when 2 single parent | | | families unite. | | | | | | \- Step parent is not legally | | | responsible for the children of | | | their partner. | | | | | | \- Also don't have the same | | | rights of discipline over the | | | child as the natural/legal | | | parents. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Same-sex | \- Recognised initially in NSW in | | | 1999 when 'de facto' | | | relationships were included, | | | **currently 47,000 same-sex | | | couples in Aus.**\ | | | - The 2008 amendment to the FLA | | | led to same-sex couples being | | | treated the same way in financial | | | matters as other couples. | | | | | | \- Permitted to marry since 2017. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Polygamous | \- Cannot have more than one | | | spouse at the same time. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | De facto | \- Man and woman living in a bona | | | fide (real) domestic | | | relationship. | | | | | | \- Several different state and | | | federal laws apply. | | | | | | \- **Section 4AA FLA (1975)** - | | | defines de facto relationship as | | | a relationship between a couple | | | who are not married, not related, | | | living together on a genuine | | | domestic basis, and have lived | | | together for at least 2 years | | | unless they have a child | | | together. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ ### Legal Rights and Obligations of Parents and Children **Children's Legal Rights:** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - **Legal Obligations of Parents:** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ### Adoption - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2. Responses to Problems in Family Relationships ------------------------------------------------ ### Divorce - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - **Trends & Stats:** - - - - - - ### Legal Consequences of Separation - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - #### Children - - +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Two Primary Considerations** | **Additional Considerations** | +===================================+===================================+ | 1. 2. | Factors which modify the ability | | | of parents to share the parenting | | | of the child equally (e.g. views | | | of the child, nature of the | | | child's relationship with | | | parents, where parents live). | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Parental Responsibility:** - - - - **Parenting Arrangements and Plans:** - - - - **Parenting Order:** - - - **The Shared Parenting Amendments introduced via the Family Law Amendment (Shared Parental Responsibility) Act 2006 (Cth) - criticised for:** - - - - **Supporting Families at risk of domestic violence:** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - **Child Support:** - - - - - - #### Property - - - **Post-separation Process:** - - - 1. 2. 3. 4. **Factors considered by the Court when determining a property allocation post separation** - overall, court considers the parent's differing needs & contributions**:** - - - - - - **Binding Financial Agreements:** - - - - - **Previous Laws Relating to Property Settlement:** - - - - - - ### Dealing with Domestic Violence - - - - - - - - - - - - - **Stats & Trends:** - - - - - - - - **Legal Responses to DV:** - - - - - - - - - - **State Laws:** - - - - - - - - - - - **Violence Involving Children:** - - - - - - **Suspected Child Abuse:** - - - - - - **Federal Laws:** - - - - - - - - - - - **Non-legal Responses to Domestic Violence:** - - - - - **National Plan to Reduce Violence Against Women and their Children 2010-2022:** - - - - - **Cases:** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ### The Roles of: #### Courts and Dispute Resolution Methods **Methods of Resolving Disputes** [Family Dispute Resolution:] - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - [Adjudication:] - - - - - [Family & Federal Circuit Courts of Australia:] - - - - - - - - - - - [The Children's Court:] - - - - - #### Non-Government Organisations **The Role of Non-Government Organisations:** - - - - - - - - #### The Media - - - - - - - - - - 3. Contemporary Issues Concerning Family Law -------------------------------------------- ### Recognition of Same-Sex Relationships - - - - - - - - - - **Legal Responses:** - - - - - - - - - - - **Non-Legal Responses:** - - - - **Responsiveness of the Legal System:** - - - ### The Changing Nature of Parental Responsibility - - - - - - - - - **Legal Responses:** - - - - - - - - - - - - **Non-Legal Responses:** - - - - - **Responsiveness of the Legal System:** - - - - - ### Surrogacy and Birth Technologies - - - - - - - - - - - - **State Laws:** - - - - **Federal Laws:** - - - - **Key Court Decisions:** [Re Patrick 2002 (Family Court)] - homosexual man donated sperm to lesbian couple believing he would have contact with the child twice a week. - - [Masson V Parson 2019 (HCA)] - child's mother and her same-sex partner tried to take a child conceived using a sperm donor to live in NZ. The sperm donor had been involved in parenting the child (listed on girl's birth certificate, paid child support, sharing in her care from birth). - - **Surrogacy:** - - - - - - **Legal Responses to Surrogacy:** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - **Non-Legal Responses:** - - - - - ### Care and Protection of Children - - - - - - - **State Laws:** - - - - - - - - - - - **Legal Responses:** - - - - - - - - **Non-Legal Responses:** - - - - - - - - - - - **Responsiveness of the Legal System:** - - - 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. - - - - - - - - - - Option 7 - World Order ====================== 1. The Nature of World Order ---------------------------- ### The Meaning Of World Order **World Order:** - - - - ### The Need for World Order - - - - - - - 1. 2. 3. ### The Development of World Order Over Time - - - - - - - - - - - - - **WWI and the League of Nations:** - - - - - - **WWII and the United Nations:** - - - - - - - 1. 2. - - +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **USE IN WORLD ORDER ESSAY AS A QUOTE/QUOTES - COULD WORK FOR HUMAN | | RIGHTS TOO** | +=======================================================================+ | WE THE PEOPLES OF THE UNITED NATIONS DETERMINED | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, which twice | | in our | | | | lifetime has brought untold sorrow to mankind, and | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | to reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and | | worth of the | | | | human person, in the equal rights of men and women and of nations | | large | | | | and small, and | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | to establish conditions under which justice and respect for the | | obligations | | | | arising from treaties and other sources of international law can be | | | | maintained, and | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger | | freedom, | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ ### The Nature of Conflict: Inter-State and Intra-State - - **Interstate War:** [Conventional War:] - - - - - - [Nuclear War:] - - - - - - - - - - - - [Cyber-Warfare:] - - - - - - - [Cold War:] - - - - - - **Intra-state war:** - - - [Civil War:] - - - - [Guerilla War:] - - - - - [War Waged by Governments Against their Own People:] - - - - - - [Terrorism:] - - - [Communal Violence:] - - - - - ### Access to Resources as a Source of Conflict - - - 1. 2. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - **Examples of conflict stemming from access to resources:** - - 2. Responses to World Order --------------------------- ### The Roles of: #### The Nation State and State Sovereignty - - - - - - - - 1. a. 2. 3. 4. b. - - #### The United Nations **\*\*\* See human rights section of notes for more on each UN organ \*\*\*** - - - - - - - **Structure of the United Nations** - - 1. 2. a. i. 1. b. c. d. e. f. 3. 4. 5. **Peacekeeping** - - - - **Future Possibilities for the UN** [Peace Building Commission (PBC):] - - [Proposals for a United Nations Emergency Peace Service (UNEPS):] - - - [Proposals for a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly:] - - - - - - #### International Instruments - - - - - 1. 2. - - - Charter of the United Nations 1945 ---------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------- Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide 1948 The Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948 Geneva Conventions 1949 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees 1951 Protocol to the Convention relating to the status of refugees 1967 Treaty on the Nonproliferation of Nuclear Weapons 1968 Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court 2002 (in force) Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons 2017 - - #### Courts and Tribunals **International Court of Justice (ICJ) - EST. 1945 (began work in 1946):** - - - - - - **International Criminal Court (ICC):** - - - - - - - - - - **Other International Tribunals:** [The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY):] - - [The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR):] - - [The Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (ECCC):] - - - - - [The European Court of Human Rights (ECHR):] - - - - - [International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea:] - - #### Intergovernmental Organisations - - [European Union:] - - - - - - - - - [North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO):] - - - - - - - [African Union:] - - [Commonwealth:] - - [Association of Southeast Asian Nations:] - #### Non-Government Organisations - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - #### Australia's Federal Government **The Australian Constitution:** - - - **The States and International Law:** - - - - **Australia's Role in Global Affairs:** - - - - **Australia's Involvement in the United Nations:** - - - - - - - **Australia's Contribution to Peacekeeping:** - - - - **Australia and International Agreements:** - - - - - - #### The Media - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - #### Political Negotiation, Persuasion and the Use of Force **Political Negotiation** - - - - - - **Persuasion** - - - - - - - - - - **Force** - - - - - **Multilateral Action** - - - - - - - - - 3. Contemporary Issues Concerning World Order --------------------------------------------- ### The Principle of 'Responsibility to Protect' - - - - **UN Charter and State Sovereignty:** - - - - - - - - - - **Legal Responses:** - - - - Examples of R2P Effectiveness ----------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Libyan Civil War 2011 **Moderate effectiveness**. R2P was invoked to remove Libya's dictator Muammar Gadaffi. Successful operation, yet no help was given to Libya by the UN to establish a strong democratic nation, causing its descent into anarchy. Kosovo 1999 **Ineffective**. Before R2P was established, NATO intervened in Kosovo without the legal authority of the UNSC, helping to advance the principle of R2P. UNSC itself failed to prevent genocide occuring in the Balkans and in Rwanda. Syria **Ineffective**. Govt authorised use of chemical weapons against non-state actors and civilians. Clear legal case for use of R2P. Both Russia and China blocked resolutions. Darfur (in Sudan) **Limited effectiveness**. Took 4 years for the UNSC to send peacekeepers (in 2011) due to vested interests by Russia (arms dealer to Sudan), China (its investment in oil) and USA (relying on Sudan for counter-terrorism). Genocide occurred and tens of thousands died. **Non-legal Responses** - - Examples Effectiveness ----------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Human Rights Watch (HRW) **Predominantly effective**. Helped to raise issues and awareness through the media about armed conflict and the actions of state and non-state actors. Effective as for example, ICG receives 14,000 average annual mentions in the media. Only lack of enforceability as their actions are non-binding. International Crisis Group (ICG) The Global Centre for the Responsibility to Protect **Predominantly effective**. Est. 2008. Promotes effective implementation of the R2P principle and provides support for governments, IGOs and NGOs that work to prevent mass-atrocity crimes. Gives accurate info on relevance of the R2P to the world today, and how the R2P principle is being invoked to support those seeking to apply this principle. Yet, not binding. Media **Moderate effectiveness**. Media helps to inform people and create diplomatic pressure to act. However issues arise, such as if the govt gains control of the media, and censorship occurs. ### Regional and Global Situations that Threaten Peace and Security **Contemporary Regional Disputes:** [Russia and Ukraine:] - - - - - [China and the Eastern Sea (a.k.a South China Sea):] - - - - - - - - [India and Pakistan (Kashmir dispute):] - - - - [Saudi Arabia and Yemen:] - - - **Potential Global Disputes:** - - [Russia-Ukraine:] - - [China's Actions:] - - - - - - **Effectiveness of Legal Responses:** - - - - - - - - - - - **Effectiveness of Non-Legal Responses** - - - - - - - - - - ### The Success of Global Cooperation - - - - - - - - - - - - - **Effectiveness of Legal Responses:** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - **Effectiveness of Non-Legal Responses:** - - - - ### Rules Regarding the Conduct of Hostilities - - - - - - - - - - - 1. 2. 3. **Effectiveness of Legal Responses:** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - **Effectiveness of non-legal responses:** - - **Effective** **Ineffective** ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Organisations such as doctors without borders can assist in bringing medical care and also bear witness to war crimes as a result. However, these organisations can be easily blocked from entering nations (e.g. Libya). The ICG publishes documents & reports on hostilities and can assist in diplomacy (managing international relations). However, these documents published by the ICG are non-binding. The media can raise awareness. However, embedded journalists may not be able to report freely, and state-owned media is not free from bias. - - - - - -