Quiz 4 Study Guide - BIOL 431 Hybrid PDF

Quiz 4 Study Guide Respiratory System - ML&M Ch 22, TopHat Unit 22, 23 Respiration ○ Pulmonary ventilation ○ External respiration ○ Transport of respiratory gasses ○ Internal respiration Upper respiratory tract vs lower respiratory tract Respirato...

Quiz 4 Study Guide Respiratory System - ML&M Ch 22, TopHat Unit 22, 23 Respiration ○ Pulmonary ventilation ○ External respiration ○ Transport of respiratory gasses ○ Internal respiration Upper respiratory tract vs lower respiratory tract Respiratory anatomy ○ Nose Bridge Nasal bone Nasal cartilage Apex Naris (pl. Nares “nare-eez”) Ala ○ Paranasal sinuses ○ Nasal cavity Conchae & meatuses (superior, middle, inferior) Nasal vestibule ○ Nasopharynx ○ Oropharynx ○ Laryngopharynx ○ Larynx Hyoid bone Epiglottis Thyroid cartilage Tracheal cartilage Cricoid cartilage Glottis Vocal folds Vestibular folds ○ Trachea Tracheal cartilage Trachealis Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium (w/ goblet cells) Carina ○ primary/main bronchus ○ secondary /lobar bronchus ○ segmental/tertiary bronchus ○ Bronchioles ○ Terminal bronchiole ○ Respiratory bronchiole ○ Alveolar duct ○ Alveolar sac  Quiz 4 Study Guide ○ Alveolus Type I cells Type II cells surfactant Macrophages Pulmonary capillaries (respiratory membrane) Alveolar pore ○ Lung gross anatomy Apex Lobes of each lung Fissures of each lung Diaphragm R and L pleura (pleural membranes) Parietal layer Pleural cavity Visceral layer Be able to trace the pathway of: ○ Oxygen from the atmosphere to the alveolus from the alveolus to tissues ○ Carbon dioxide From the tissues to the alveolus From the alveolus to the atmosphere Respiratory Physiology ○ Ventilation Atmospheric pressure Negative, positive, and zero respiratory pressures Thoracic cavity pressures Intrapulmonary pressure Intrapleural pressure Transpulmonary pressure ○ Pneumothorax ○ Atelectasis (lung collapse) Boyle’s law Sequence of inspiration & expiration Inspiration: Increasing volume of thoracic cage via contraction of diaphragm & external intercostal muscles ○ Forced inspiration: accessory muscles of inspiration (what are they?) Expiration: decreasing volume of thoracic cage via relaxation of diaphragm & external intercostals ○ Forced expiration: contraction of accessory muscles of expiration What affects pulmonary ventilation?  Quiz 4 Study Guide ○ Airway resistance ○ Surface tension within alveoli ○ Lung compliance Elasticity Surface tension within alveoli Assessing ventilation Tidal volume Inspiratory reserve volume Expiratory reserve volume Residual volume **reminder: no math on the quiz - if you need any mathematical information or calculations done, I will provide it to you ** Respiratory capacity Total lung capacity Vital capacity Pulmonary function tests (spirometry) Alveolar ventilation Minute ventilation Alveolar ventilation rate ○ Gas exchange Dalton’s law of partial pressures Gas diffuses from high to low partial pressure. This is why O2 and CO2 move between: ○ Atmosphere & lungs ○ Lungs & blood ○ Blood & tissue cells Henry’s law Depends on: solubility in H2O & temp (hotter = less gas entering) Partial pressure gradients promoting gas movements in the body (fig 22.20 in ML&M text & drawings in lecture video) Rate of external respiration depends on Surface area of respiratory membrane Thickness of respiratory membrane Ventilation-perfusion coupling Homeostatic imbalance affecting external respiration: emphysema Oxygen transport Hemoglobin affinity for O2 Hemoglobin saturation ○ High partial pressure of O2 = hemoglobin becomes more saturated ○ Low partial pressure of O2 = hemoglobin becomes less saturated (O2 offloading) ○ ** O2 offloading = O2 can be used in the tissues Other factors affecting O2 transport:  Quiz 4 Study Guide ○ Temp ○ Blood pH ○ Partial pressure of CO2 ○ BPG CO2 transport In plasma (10%) On hemoglobin (20%) ○ CO2 binds a different binding site than O2 so CO2 does not interfere with O2 transport As bicarbonate ions (70%) ○ CO2 + H2O → H2CO3 → H+ + HCO3- Reaction can occur in plasma (slow) or in RBCs (fast, due to presence of carbonic anhydrase enzyme) Chloride shift occurs to maintain charge balance of RBC Blood buffering system (more on this in urinary system) Homeostatic imbalance: hypoxia = poor O2 delivery. Various types: Anemic hypoxia Ischemic hypoxia Hypoxemic hypoxia Carbon monoxide poisioning ○ CO has a higher affinity for hemoglobin than O2 AND binds the same site on hemoglobin as O2. ○ Control of CO2 and O2 in the body: Respiratory control center = regulate rate and depth of breathing Cerebral cortex Central chemoreceptors ○ Medulla ○ Detect small changes in blood CO2 Peripheral chemoreceptors ○ Aortic arch/carotid sinuses ○ Changes in H+, CO2, major (extreme) drops in O2 Breath hold lab Urinary System - ML&M Ch 25, TopHat Unit 25, 26 Urinary system consists of: kidneys (2), ureters (2), bladder (1), urethra (1) Most functions of urinary system are carried out by kidneys ○ Regulate volume of water ○ Regulate concentration of solutes (osmolality) ○ Regulation concentration of ions ○ Acid base balance ○ Get rid of metabolic wastes, toxins, drugs, etc. ○ Make hormones: erythropoietin, renin  Quiz 4 Study Guide ○ Activate vit D ○ Overall: regulate chemical composition, volume, and pressure of blood Kidneys ○ Location: retroperitoneal ○ Fibrous capsule ○ Renal cortex ○ Renal medulla w/ renal pyramids Apex of renal pyramids: renal papilla ○ Minor calyx ○ Major calyx ○ Renal pelvis ○ Hilum ○ Functional unit of kidneys: nephron Renal capsule Glomerulus ○ Fenestrated capillaries Glomerular capsule ○ Parietal layer ○ Visceral layer: contains podocytes with foot processes that form filtration slits Filtration membrane Proximal convoluted tubule Nephron loop descending/ascending limbs thin/thick segments Distal convoluted tubule Collecting duct Juxtaglomerular (JG) complex/apparatus Macula densa cells Granular cells Types of nephrons Cortical nephrons with peritubular capillaries Juxtamedullary nephrons with vasa recta ○ Blood supply to the kidneys Renal artery Segmental a. Interlobar a. Arcuate a. Cortical radiate a. Afferent arteriole Glomerulus Efferent arteriole (smaller in diameter than efferent arteriole - why is this?) Ureters move urine to bladder via peristalsis Bladder  Quiz 4 Study Guide ○ Ureteric orifices ○ Bladder neck ○ Trigone ○ Mucosa = transitional epithelium; rugae ○ Detrusor muscle ○ Adventitia (CT covering) ○ Internal (SmM) / external (SkM) urethral sphincters ○ External urethral orifice ○ Male vs female urethra Male: prostatic, intermediate part, spongy urethra Be able to trace the flow of filtrate from the glomerular capsule to the external urethral orifice Urinary system physiology ○ Urine formation Filtration Net filtration pressure Glomerular filtration ○ Factors affecting glomerular filtration rate Intrinsic vs extrinsic controls Tubular reabsorption Transcellular vs paracellular routes Transport can be passive or active Sodium reabsorption Tubular secretion Role of hormones in tubular reabsorption and secretion Aldosterone ADH PTH What is the outcome of urine formation? —> urine with regulated contents! ○ Osmotic gradients Established mostly by the physiology of the nephron loop (in juxtamedullary nephrons) & allows for dilute or concentrated urine depending on needs of the body Maintained by vasa recta (countercurrent exchangers) Collecting ducts use the osmotic gradient to modify urine’s osmolality (level of concentration) based on body’s needs ○ Acid base balance Homeostatic pH Acidosis vs alkalosis Volatile acids Fixed acids Respiratory pH disturbances (acidosis or alkalosis)  Quiz 4 Study Guide Cause of disturbance is respiratory system (know at least one example- can be found in Ch 26) Compensation Metabolic pH disturbances (acidosis or alkalosis) Cause of disturbance is metabolic (know at least one example - can be found in ch 26) Compensation Understanding acid-base measurements (examples in Ch 26 and lab doodles) ○ Urinalysis lab