Humanitarian Crises: Refugees & The Sovereign State Quiz

**Lecture V: Humanitarian Crises: Refugees & The Sovereign State** **Defining "Humanitarian Crisis"** "Generally, a humanitarian crisis is defined as an event or series of events that represents a critical threat to the health, safety, security or wellbeing of a community or other large group of p...

**Lecture V: Humanitarian Crises: Refugees & The Sovereign State** **Defining "Humanitarian Crisis"** "Generally, a humanitarian crisis is defined as an event or series of events that represents a critical threat to the health, safety, security or wellbeing of a community or other large group of people, usually over a wide area. There is no universal definition of a humanitarian crisis, and the terms 'humanitarian crises' and 'humanitarian emergency' are often used interchangeably." **Types of Humanitarian Crisis** - Natural disasters - Man made emergencies - Complex emergencies **Common Natural disasters** Earthquakes Floods & Tsunamis Droughts Cyclones Volcanic Eruptions Avalanches Landslides Epidemics (e.g. plagues & infestations Hurricanes Blizzards Tornadoes Sink Holes Wildfire **Natural Disasters** Resulting from natural hazards 60,000: Average number of dead a year 0.1% of annual global deaths Impact must include: a\. Injury b\. Homelessness c\. Displacement **Man made emergencies** Conflict Environmental degradation Pollution Fires Plane and train crashes, and shipwrecks Industrial accidents Weapons of mass destruction Structural collapse **Man made emergencies** Extremely dangerous events caused by humans August 2020: Beirut blast Non-nuclear explosions of tonnes of ammonium nitrate 218 people killed Over 300,000 people displaced **Complex emergencies** Large-scale humanitarian assistance Political & military prevention of humanitarian assistance Security risks for humanitarian relief workers Human suffering on a major scale Mass violence & civilian victims Displaced & Besieged Populations Social & economic damage **Complex emergencies definition** "a humanitarian crisis in a country, region, or society where there is total or considerable breakdown of authority resulting from internal or external conflict and which requires an international response that goes beyond the mandate or capacity of any single and/or ongoing UN country programme" **Asylum Seeker** "An asylum-seeker is someone who intends to seek or is awaiting a decision on their request for international protection. In some countries, it is used as a legal term for a person who has applied for refugee status and has not yet received a final decision on their claim - 6.9 million asylum-seekers globally, at the end of 2023 - A right to asylum is a human right for every person forced to flee conflict or persecution **Interwar Period: Classifying Refugees** Refugees defined by nationality or country of origin And also by being outside of the country of origin and not enjoying protection from that country A prevalent state-centric logic NGO names reflect this trend (e.g. the Office of the High Commissioner for Refugees from Germany) **The 1951 UN Convention** More general in scope Aligned with the spirit of the Western liberal universalism of the post-war period Refugees defined as human beings with rights The principle of 'Humanity' is favoured over nationality or citizenship Promotes "the inherent dignity" and "the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family." (Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948) Including the "right to seek and enjoy in other countries asylum from persecution." **Definition of 'Refugee'** "owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality and is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country; or who, not having a nationality but being outside the country of his former habitual residence as a result of such events, is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to return to it" ***"Persecution"*** "A deliberate act of the government against individuals." **Criticism** These criteria exclude "victims of general insecurity and oppression or systemic economic deprivation, and people who have not crossed national frontiers to seek refuge." Gendered implications of international refugee law. This is rooted in the liberal political tradition of rights-based individualism and so reproduces core liberal distinctions, such as the public--private divide Gender blindness: Focus on persecution taking place within the "typically male-dominated 'public' sphere", de-emphasizes and delegitimizes persecution resulting from activities considered as pertaining to the private sphere. (Bhabha) *"A well-founded fear..."* - *Well founded (Ability to reason)* - *Fear (Experience of emotion)* Courage-Fear Binary Refugee status as a reward for heroism and bravery Refugee's fear as a product of a prior bravery or courage **Contextualizing 'Fear'** Fear: An emotional experience as the core essence of refugeeness Convention drafted in the early years of the cold war (East--West tensions) Western states seek to stigmatize the Soviet Union and Communism Flight motivated by pro-Western values Promotion of respect for liberal civil and political rights No mention of socioeconomic rights (Liberal separation of the 'political' from the 'economic') Displacement resulting from market forces doesn't qualify for refugee status 'Economic refugee' as a misnomer, a category error Economic migrant is natural and non-political **Understanding 'Fear'** Not just an individual reaction to danger ***[Etymology]***: The experience of being in transit ***[Association]***: Moving from spaces of safety and protection (the premise of the state) to spaces of exposure (outside the State) Fear as spatially outside and temporally before the political Fear and state = Opposing concepts Fear as an emotion (from the Latin root 'to move') ≠ State as permanency (from the Latin root 'to stand') **Hobbes on 'State Sovereignty' & 'Fear'** Sovereign power as an important object to fear Reason generates apprehension of future harm or insecurity Fear works to legitimate, produce and sustain sovereign power Ambiguity feeds fear: "No one can be sure who is who". Sovereign states create the conditions where everyone "can be sure who is who" Moving from state of fear to state of laws = Moving from war to peace, and from human being to citizen-subject ***[Issue]***: ***[Individuals or groups defined by fear (e.g. refugees)]*** **The Ambivalence of Refugee Movements** "The subject of refugees and displaced people is high on the list of international concerns today not only because of its humanitarian significance, but also because of its impact on peace, security and stability. The world cannot reach a new order without effectively addressing the problem of human displacement." **Human Identity Vs Political Identity** **Political Sovereignty: Inclusion and Exclusion** **['Political Sovereignty' in Liberal Political Theory ]** Societies bound by a contract with sovereign power whereby people are empowered to decide how they'll be ruled **Carl Schmitt's View of Sovereign Power** - Exclusion: Dividing and Differentiating - Marking the beginning of the exception - Inclusion: Unifying and Integrating - Establishing the limit of the normal - **Conclusion** 'Refugee' as a limit-concept that exists between the binary citizenry--humanity ***The UNHCR's Handbook on Procedures and Criteria for Determining Refugee Status under the 1951 Convention and the 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees*** Refugees' fear is subjective Competent authorities 'objectively' must determine if fear is 'well-founded' **[Non-authentic Refugee Equation]**: Passport = state identity = state protection = no fear = citizen = no international protection/asylum **[Authentic Refugee Equation]**: No Passport = no state identity = no state protection = fear = refugee = international protection/asylum **Lecture VI Gender in Humanitarian Action** **United Nations Inter-Agency Standing Committee**\ **(IASC) for Humanitarian Coordination** "the need to understand the specific needs, capacities and priorities of women, girls, boys and men, and integrate this understanding throughout the programme cycle...facilitate the active participation and leadership of women and girls in humanitarian action and beyond; and promote transformative change for more inclusive and equitable societies" **Defining Gender** "Gender is a social construct built through cultural, political and social practices that defines the roles of women, girls,men and boys, as well as the social definitions of what it means to be masculine and feminine." **Gender Equality** "Gender equality, or equality between women and men, refers to the equal enjoyment by women, girls, men and boys --- of all ages, sexual orientations and gender identities --- of rights,goods, opportunities, resources, rewards and quality of life." **Gender Equity Vs Gender Equality** **Gender Equity:** "women, girls, menand boys having access to the rights, resources, servicesand opportunities, etc. defined by their specific needs". **Gender Equality:** Women and men's "enjoyment of rights,opportunities and life chances are equal and not governed or limited by their gender and the systems that maintain it" **Humanitarian Programming** Gender Based Violence (GBV) Sexual and Reproductive Health and Rights (SRHR) Women's and girls' empowerment programming Gender Equality **Gender Based Violence (GBV)** "any harmful act that is perpetrated against a person's will and that is based on power imbalances and socially ascribed (i.e., gender) differences between women, girls, men and boys. It includes acts that inflict physical, sexual or mental harm or suffering, threats of such acts, coercion and other deprivations of liberty. These acts can occur in public or in private." **Sexual and Reproductive Health and Rights (SRHR)** "refers to the right of every person to make their own choices regarding partners, family planning and the right to access information needed to support these choices." **Women's and Girls' Empowerment Programming** "seeks to change power relations that assign women and girls a low social status in an effort to redress debilitating inequality. Such programmes regard women and girls as agents of change and focus on reinforcing their own abilities to address their own needs, thus enabling a transformative change which disrupts gender stereotypes, bridges the humanitarian/development divide and allows for long-term sustainable change." **Gender** **Equality Programming** "uses robust analysis of the different needs, roles, relationships and experiences of women, girls, men and boys in the assessment, planning, implementation and review of the assistance (including protection)". **Strategies** - Gender Mainstreaming - Targeted Actions **Gender Mainstreaming** "the impact of all policies and programmes on women and men should be considered at every stage of the programme cycle, from planning to implementation and evaluation." **In Crisis Contexts** More accurate understanding of the situation Needs and priorities of the population are met in a more targeted manner All needs and vulnerabilities are taken into account More appropriate and effective responses **Targeted Actions** "Through evidence-based assessment and gender analysis, implementing humanitarian agencies can identify the specific protection and assistance needs of individuals or groups within an affected population. Addressing the specific needs of women and girls may best be done in some circumstances by taking targeted action." **AIMS** Providing different treatment in order to produce equality in outcomes Compensating for the consequences of gender-based inequality (Not stigmatization or isolation) Empowering women and building their capacities to be equal partners with men Promoting gender equality and Strengthening women's capacities to enjoy their human rights **Why Does 'Gender' Matter in Humanitarian Action?** Crises can exacerbate pre-existing gender inequalities Women, girls, men and boys have specific needs during a crisis Women, girls, men and boys have specific viewpoints and capacities **Benefits of Gender Mainstreaming** Facilitating the right to participation Affording protection Increasing access to assistance Promoting transformative change **Mainstreaming Gender Through The Humanitarian Programme Cycle** Needs Assessment & Analysis Strategic Planning Resource Mobilization Implementation & Monitoring Operational Peer Review & Evaluation **Phase 1: Needs Assessment & Analysis** **Needs Assessment (i)** **[Background Research]** \- Demographic profile: sex and age disaggregated data (SADD) before and after the crisis \- Legal framework defining rights pre-crisis. Is still existing? \- Changes in gender expectations, roles, responsibilities \- Opportunities available (e.g. education, employment, livelihoods, health) \- Decision-making structures within the community \- Risks faced by different groups \- Sources: Census data, reports produced by UN-Women, Oxfam, FAO, etc. **Needs Assessment (ii)** **[Data Collection]** \- Review of the data collected through background research \- Identify knowledge gaps about the impact of the crisis \- Conduct data collection (Tip: engage mixed groups to reach less visible communities) **Analysis** **[Data Analysis]** \- Changes in capacities, needs and preferences \- Roles and responsibilities \- Workload distribution \- Impact on opportunities \- Access to resources \- Violence **Common Problems = Simple Solutions** **[Recommendations]** \- Distinguishing between 'universal assistance' (for all) and 'targeted assistance' (for specific groups) \- Gender overview to be circulated with sector & decision-makers \- Time-sensitiveness of action planning = Target key informants \- Community-mapping tool as an alternative to separate focus groups \- Reaching women at risk by engaging female community leaders \- Engaging with local gender specialists + displaced people from the area **Phase 2: Strategic Planning** Needed for Humanitarian Crises involving two or more agencies Prepared by Humanitarian Country Teams (HCTs) Based on Humanitarian Needs Overview Set strategic objectives for humanitarian response + explain how to achieve them Developing Indicators for monitoring programme objectives **Phase 3: Resource Mobilization** "Humanitarian actors need to engage in advocacy and partnership with donors to mobilize funds for addressing gaps in the particular needs, priorities and capacities of women, girls, men and boys." **Tips for Funding Proposals** Avoid generic sentences Avoid assumptions or pre-identified vulnerabilities Use gender-inclusive language Include gender issues throughout the programme logframes/results-based framework **Phase 4: Implementation & Monitoring** **Implementation plans contain the actions to address specific needs and priorities** [Collecting + Analysing quantitative and qualitative data] **[Aim]:** To effectively address the distinct needs, capacities and priorities of women, girls, men and boys [Conducting midterm evaluations in extended humanitarian responses] **[Aim]:** Ensuring that interventions are on track to achieve the expected results [Monitoring the extent to which set targets have been achieved] **[Aim]:** Checking what works, what does not work and needs to be revised. **Phase 5: Operational Peer Review & Evaluation** Internal, inter-agency management tool Identifying areas for immediate corrective action: a\. leadership b\. implementation c\. coordination d\. accountability **[AIM]:** To improve current and future programming and maximize outcomes and impacts **Is Gender Mainstreaming Effective** **Gupta et al.'s Key findings** - Gender Mainstreaming: A Flawed Approach - Humanitarian Culture and Behaviour: A Barrier to Change **Gender Mainstreaming: A Flawed Approach (i)** 1)[Intention Vs Implementation] a\. *Inconsistent quality of Sex and Age Disaggregated Data (SADD) and reporting on gender differences and inequalities* *b. Lack of linkage between documents across the humanitarian program cycle (**Humanitarian Needs Overviews (HNO)** + **Humanitarian Response Plans (HRP)** + **Humanitarian Annual Reports (HAR)**)* 2\) [Focus on process, not results] Gender Mainstreaming: A Flawed Approach (ii) 3) Conceptual Confusion + Inadequate Technical Resources 4\) Basic needs, protection and participation prioritized over GBV, economic opportunities and agency 5\) Inadequate technical and financial resources Humanitarian Culture and Behaviour: A Barrier to Change 1)**[Saviour mentality and a macho culture]** \- Protectionism + Paternalistic attitudes harm women \- Establishment of control in conflict settings \- Lack of female leadership **2) [A humanitarian culture that tolerates abuse]** \- Sexual exploitation + abuse by humanitarian workers \- Nourishing a culture of impunity 3)**[Short-termism]** \- Focus on producing immediate impact \- Investment in gender equality and development projects is affected **The Way Forward (i)** **Replace gender mainstreaming with a results‑focused approach** Not using jargon Diagnostic & tailored to priorities gender analysis Investment in GBV prevention & response More funding to increase women's decision-making opportunities Breaking --out of gender stereotypical opportunities Change in the mind-set and behaviours of humanitarian professionals **The Way Forward (ii)** **Adopt behavioural strategies to support a results‑based approach for gender equality** "providing clear priority actions as the default minimum that must be addressed and that require an explanation for opting out of doing so" "a "learning by doing" approach, such as through before- and after-action reviews" **The Way Forward (iii)** **Build a new humanitarian culture that promotes gender equality and the empowerment of women** Hiring more women Retaining women Ensuring promotion and advancement of women into leadership Changing culture and leadership model **Is Military Intervention The Answer?** [Military intervention can save lives ] (e.g. Tanzania's intervention against Ugandan dictator Idi Amin and Vietnam's intervention against Pol Pot in Cambodia) [Failure to intervene militarily can cause a high number of casualties] (the Rwandan genocide and the wars in former Yugoslavia) "it is the obligation of humanity to protect human rights and human lives, irrespective of borders" **Military Intervention in Iraq** "the resort to military intervention, rather than freeing the people of Iraq from tyranny, has led to the emergence of new forms of tyranny, with devastating consequences for the everyday security of women and men as well as their human rights. Meanwhile, we have seen how U.S. military and security interests have trumped the security of ordinary men and women." **Can Humanitarian Intervention Liberate Women?** **No** **[Reasons:]** Legitimizing armed violence in resolving political problems Reproducing gender and social Inequalities in target countries Reinforcing gender identities Generating gendered division of labour as a result of the military ideology **Lecture 7: The Syrian Humanitarian Crisis** **Pre-War Syria: Country Profile** **Capital:** Damascus **Population:** 24 million **Demographics by religious affiliation:** - 74%: Sunni Muslims - 10-12%: Alawites (The sect of ruling Assad family) - 10%: Christians (with Greek Orthodox + Greek Catholics being the largest denominations) - 4-6%: Other Muslims (i.e Ismailis, Shiites, and Druze) - Small Jewish communities in Damascus, Al Qamishli and Aleppo **The Syrian Uprising: Immediate Causes** **The Arab Spring** - Tunisia (December 2010) - Egypt (January 2011) - Libya (February 2011) - March 2011: Detention and torture of three youths in Deraa - Grassroots mobilization and demonstrations quickly expanding on a national scale - Demanding reforms and justice - The Regime's Hard line: from revolution to armed conflict - The Syrian Humanitarian Crisis **The Syrian Conflict: Key Actors** **Main opposition groups:** - The Free Syrian Army (supported by Turkey, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and Western Countries) - Islamist groups (e.g Al-Nusra Front + ISIS) - Kurds **The Assad regime:** - Iran and Hezbollah's military backing - Russia's decisive military support since 2015 **Key Events** - Rebel forces take control of some towns - Front lines keep shifting = Civilians in need are difficult to reach - Russia + China veto UN Security Council resolutions to impose sanctions on the regime - ISIS takes over Raqqa and fights Syrian Kurdish in Kobane in 2014 **Joint UN-Arab League Special Representatives for Syria** **February 2012:** Kofi Annan **Outcome:** Quitting 6 months later due to disunity of the international community "finger pointing and name calling " in UN Security Councial **August 2012:** Lakhdar Brahimi **Outcome:** Quitting in 2014 after failure of two rounds of peace talks **July 2014:** Steffan de Mistura **Outcome:** Quitting in 2018 -- Assad has won the territorial civil war, he could not shake hands with Assad **October 2018:** Geir O. Pedersen **Outcome:** Still serving **Consequences of Conflicts** **Internally Displaced Persons (IDS)** "displaced within the borders of their own countries by armed conflict, generalized violence and human rights violations " **Asylum seekers** "An asylum seeker is someone whose request for sanctuary has yet to be processed" **Refugees** Who is a Refugee? The 1951 Refugee convention (and its 1967 Protocol) defines refuges as: "Any person who owning to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion, is outside the country of his/her nationality and is unable , or owing to such fear is unwilling to avail himself/herself of the protection of that country; or who having a nationality and being outside the country of jis former habitual residence as a result of such events, is unable or owning to such fear is unwilling to return it" **What is Displacement?** Both Interanl and Cross Border Displacement refer to: "The movement of persons who have been forced or obliged to flee or to leave their homes or places of habitual residenece, in particular as a result of or in order to avoid the effects of armed conflict situations of generalized violence, violations of human rights or natural or human made disasters" **Forced Displacement in the Law** "In international humanitarian law, the forced displacement of civilians is prohibited and constitutes a war crime both in times of international and non-international armed conflicts except when required for their security or imperative military reasons" **Refugees Vs IDPs** **Refugees crossing international borders** Responsibility of host countries with UNHCR support **Internally Displaced Persons IDPs** Responsibility of their national governments **Causes of Displacement in/from Syria** - Governments indiscriminate attacks against civilians - Aerial bombardments led by th Assad regime - Fear of sectarian turn - 2014: ISIS violence and military gains - 2015: Russia intervention - Human rights violations - Lack of infrastructure, basic services, healthcare, job **Socio-Economic Impact of the War on Syria** - Destruction of services and infrastructures - Dismantlement of public services - Poverty: Affecting 80% of the populations - Life expectancy: Plunged by 20 years - Economic loss: \$200 billion - Unemployment rates: soaring from 14.9% in 2011 to 57.7% in 2014 **Syria: Internal Displacement** - IDP in Syria 7.2 million - Significant recent movements due to: - Earthquake in 2023 - Escalation of hostilities along frontline areas particularly in the north and west - Refugee returns especially following the onset of the Israeli war on Lebanon - **Needs:** protection, camp coordination and camp management, early recovery livelihoods, education, food security and agriculture, health, nutrition, shelter and non-food items, water, sanitation and hygiene - Dwindling funding - Hostile policy of Syrian government (bureaucratic obstacles and restrictions due to suspicion that international organizations may be allied with the West) - Many armed actors + Besieged areas - Shifting battling lines (less to since Assad regained control of most of the territory) - Limited availability of fuel + damaged infrastructure + no transportation companies operating in some areas **Paradox in Humanitarian Assistance** "Those most in need of aid tend to be found in the areas most difficult for international organizations to access" **Host Countries Approach to Syrian Displacement** - Early 2012 - Optimism of the Arab Spring - Assumption: fall of the regime = Temporary nature of displacement - 26,000 displaced in neighboring countries - Open Door policy for first waves of refugees **2014** - Competition with and hostility towards refugees - Entry restrictions - Tightened border controls **Syrian Registered Refugees** - Turkey 3.2 million - Lebanon 1.5 million - Jordan 621,000 - Iraq 270,000 - Egypt 158,000 - Syria 7 million **Refugee Status** Turkey - Signatory of the 1951 Geneva Convention on the status of refugees - Geographical limitation to refugees from Europe - Temporary protection for Syrians - Right to work - Resettlement and voluntary repatriation only solutions Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq - Not signatory of the 1951 Geneva Convention on the status of refugees - Syrians are considered guests - No legal protection - No right to work **Economic Impact of Refugee: Negative Outcome** **Causes** - Higher demand - Refugees\' willingness to work for lower wages than locals - Refugees\' vulnerability to exploitation and exposure to resentment - Children less subject to legal procedures than adults arranged marriages due to security concerns and poverty boat journeys to Europe **Outcome** - Inflation - Increase in prices, particularly in the real estate market - Informal employment - Negative coping mechanisms e.g. child labor + underage marriage + perilous journeys **Economic Impact of Refugees: Positive Outcome** **Causes** - Proliferation of small and large businesses - Higher presence of NGOs in the host countries - Pre-existing commercial relationships **Outcome** - Rise in economic activity - More opportunities for skilled laborers - Stable or increased exportations to Syria **Syrian Conflict: Perspectives from Turkey** - Diverse ethnic and religious background (Arab Sunni Muslims, Turcoman, Alawites, Kurds from northern Syria, Yazidis and Christians from Iraq) - Camps set up and run by the Disaster and emergency management agency - Call for greater international support + the establishment of a safe haven for refugees inside Syria - Actively supporting the oppositionsn efforts to overthrow the Syrian regime - Rupture of relations with Syria **Syrian Conflict: Perspectives from Jordan** - Camps established and managed by the UNHCR - International organizations coordinate with governmental bodies to support the needs of refugees - Refugees\' made up of \>105 OF THE Jordanian POPULATION - Strain on financial and natural resources - Health subsides for refugee are cut off + refugees not allowed to access the local labor market - Outcome: less support from the World Food Program = higher number of refugees left in vulnerable situations = many refugees return to Syria **Zaatari Refugee camp Jordan** - Set up in the southern border with Syria - Jordans third largest city 150,000 people in March 2013 - Additional camps followed - Concern about political implications of permanent camps **Lebanon: Case Study** - 10,452 km2 surface area - 4647 million estimated population - 365km length of the Lebanese Syrian boarder - 6 governorates - 26 districts **UNHCR Official Population Distribution** Location Population \% of Total Population --------------------- ------------ ------------------------ Bekaa 292348 37.75 North Lebanon 291556 28.3% Beirut 175815 22.7% South Lebanon 86978 11.2% **Lebanon: Socio-Political Overview** **The Social Fabric** - A complex maze - Inter-sectarian and Intra-sectarian tensions Consociationalism A political system based on power sharing among the main religious groups living in Lebanon according to the headcount of each group **Syrian Conflict: Perspectives from Lebanon** - No refugee camps - Access to school for Syrian children allowed - Healthcare not provided - Food Cash Programmed - Legal access to the job market denied **Types of Accommodations for Syrian Refugees in Lebanon** **Camps -- Informal Tented Settlements (ITS) & Shatila** - Lack of basic services - Exposure to various hazards e.g. physical, natural, human **Rented Flats (Shared flats)** - Lack of privacy - Tolerance **Garages** - Inappropriate to human habitation - Survival **Collective centers** - Better than camps - Coexistence **Syrian Refugee Crisis: Effects on Lebanon** **Mounting social & sectarian tensions** (Competition; Hezbollah's support for Syrian regime) **Limited mobility of refugee** (prohibition to leave the home between 8pm and 6am in some areas) **Violence** (anger, racism, setting camps ablaze) **Illegal Revenues** (Smuggling weapons, people, drugs. Thriving on the misfortunes of other) **Lebanon's Legal Approach to Refugees** - Principle of non-refoulement enshrined in Lebanon's Constitution and in international human rights treaties ratified by Lebanon - No refoulement = expulsion & repatriation of people fearing persecution in their country of origin are not permitted **Syrian Refugees in Lebanon: Status until 2014** - Six-month residency permit issued to Syrians at official border crossings (one time possibility of renewal, after which extension required a \$200 renewal fee) - Large section of Syrian refugees accessed Lebanon illegally through unofficial border crossings = exposure to risk of deportation + not registered with UNHCR - Many Syrian refugees became illegal due to their inability to afford cost of visa renewal - Lack of legal stay documentation limited access to basic services (i.e. work permits, UNHCR registration, births and marriages registration, healthcare, education) **Lebanon's Shifting Policy Towards Refugees** - August 2014: Palestinians from Syria are barred from entering Lebanon - April -- May 2023: Lebanese Armed Forces summarily deport thousands of Syrians, including unaccompanied children (HRW) - EU approves a 1-billion-euro aid package to Lebanon (seen as a bribe to keep hosting refugees - Lebanon claims that parts of Syria are safe for refugee to return **Lecture 8: UNRWA and the Palestinian Nakba** **Context:** First World War Dissolution of Ottoman Empire Creation of new states under British and French mandate Balfour Declaration (November 2, 1917) State-Building precedes nation-building in most Arab countries In Palestine nation-building happened first Refugees played a key-role **What is the Nakba?** Historic Palestine Zionist project: securing a land for Jewish people Ethnic cleansing of Palestine 'Nakba': Arabic for 'Catastrophe' 15^th^ May 1948: Foundation of the State of Israel Creation of the Palestinian refugee 'problem' Humanitarian response **The United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees (UNRWA)** Established by the United Nations General Assembly Resolution 302 (IV) of 8 December 1949 **[Aims]:** Direct relief + Works programmes for Palestine refugees' economic reintegration Operations began on 1 May 1950, supporting 750,000 Palestinians Yet no solution to the Palestine refugee problem found UNRWA's mandate repeatedly renewed by The General Assembly Recent extension: until 30 June 2026 5.9 million: Palestine refugees eligible for UNRWA services **UNRWA's Role** 1948 "Space and means to reconstitute in exile the fabric of Palestinian society, its networks of solidarity, and, in part, its traditional local authorities". 1950s "Many Palestinian political activists were teachers who directly and indirectly used UNRWA schools to mould a new generation of young refugees". 1964: Creation of Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO): UNRWA's action contributes to the development of "an explicit national project", aimed to implement the right of return, liberate Palestine, institutionalize a national identity, and create an independent state. Mid-1960s: "Symbol of refusal of refugee resettlement and space for the reproduction of a specific Palestinian identity". **UNRWA: Key Characteristics** ***[Uniqueness]***: the sole international organization established to deal with one specific group of refugees ***[Geographical focus]***: Gaza, West Bank, Jordan, Syria, and Lebanon ***[Longevity]***: long-lasting commitment, supporting four generations of Palestinian refugees ***[Services]***: education, health care, relief and social services, camp infrastructure and improvement, microfinance and emergency assistance ***[Funding bodies]***: UN Member States (voluntary contributions) + Regular Budget of the United Nations (covering international staffing costs) ***[Registration Eligibility]***: Descendants of Palestine refugee males, including legally adopted children **Palestinian Refugees** "persons whose normal place of residence was Palestine during the period 1 June 1946 to 15 May 1948, and who lost both home and means of livelihood as a result of the 1948 War" **Definition's Particularities** ***Administrative definition*** (***Non-Juridical definition*** = Not recognized by international law) "not in need" refugees or those "who fled outside the UNRWA areas of operation were ***not registered"*** ***"Descendants*** of original registered refugees inherited UNRWA's administrative title" (even if they "obtained a nationality and/or left the Agency's fields of operation") ***Gender discrimination***: "Registered refugee woman marrying a non-refugee would lose her status (although she could reclaim it in the event of divorce or widowhood) whereas a refugee man marrying a non-refugee would retain his status". **Palestinian refugees and displaced Palestinians** Administrative definition ≠ Political definition Different definitions = Different figures UNRWA Definition: less than 50 per cent of an estimated 10.5 million Palestinians worldwide are refugees Political definition: 2/3 of 10.5 million Palestinians are refugees Definition is central to peace negotiations due to its political consequences (e.g. demography and UNGA Resolution 194) **UNRWA's Paradox** Separation of politics from humanitarian relief Resettlement programmes with a humanitarian scope but political consequences Non-Political organization operating in a highly politicized context ***Solution-oriented*** organization but ***[Not]*** responsible for contributing to a ***durable solution*** (United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine's main duty) **UNRWA: "Microcosm of Palestinian Society"** \>99% of staff are Palestinian refugees or recruited among host country nationals UNRWA's efficiency & efficacy resulting from intimate relationships between staff and beneficiaries Agency's archives included in Palestinian national heritage History of UNRWA and Palestinian refugees are inseparable Shaping Palestinian's sense of identity as refugees and claim for justice **UNRWA: "The Blue State"** Blue State (Colour of the UN flag) Quasi-state function: Parallel public service provider (to alleviate the financial burden on host countries) A "non-territorial administration" without coercive power Achieving objectives through mediation Managerial posts occupied by internationals with experience in the diplomatic, development, humanitarian, or human rights fields International management allowed the preservation of UNRWA's independence from different Palestinian political factions Late 1960s - Mid-1990s: high level of bureaucratic centralization End of 1980s: Palestinian staff increasingly promoted to higher ranks **UNRWA's Areas of Action** Education Development Camps, Demography, and Urban Planning **Education (i)** **Young population** (50% of registered population under 25) Western, secular, liberal **ethos** **Aim**: To produce well-socialized, compliant future subject-citizens for a modern state **Refugee teachers**: Sharing same experiences of pupils and parents **Educational content** set up with UNESCO and structured around curricula in host countries **Deteriorating** quality of education **Education (ii)** **Challenges**: UNRWA's financial crisis compounded with fading nationalist fervour **1960s-1980s**: UNRWA's contribution to formation of a professional middle class in Palestine and in the region **Today** education no longer helps social & economic development **Development (i)** **"W" of UNRWA:** "works" = large- and small-scale development projects (mainly in agriculture) in the 1950s **Modernist ideology:** economic progress leading to peace process, social and political stability **Late 1950s:** Work programmes no longer run **1960s-1980s:** Focus on relief and social welfare **Development (ii)** **'Routinization'** of UNRWA's welfare programmes feeding into **resettlement, rehabilitation, reintegration** process in some contexts UNRWA's **vocational training** matching demand in the Gulf **labour market** until mid-1980s **Late 1980s**: Development planning is reintroduced Distinction between **socio-economic rehabilitation** (ta'hıˆl) and **resettlement** (tawtıˆn) **Camps, Demography, and Urban Planning (i)** **High population density** Camps host 25-30% of the registered Palestinian refugee population, except Gaza and Lebanon Non-registered refugees among camp dwellers Camps' **changing location** and **topography** Small towns developed from rural villages **Camps, Demography, and Urban Planning (ii)** **Mobility** between inside and outside camps **Camps** as symbols of **plight** and **rights** of Palestinians **Refugees don't own land** in camps but **own houses** built on camp land **Host countries give land** to host refugees who can build upon it after receiving **authorization** from UNRWA **Ambiguities** - Objectives of donors - Impact of refugees' resettlement outside historic Palestine - Is the international community really willing to implement UNGA Resolution 194 related to the right of return and/or compensation of Palestinian refugees? **Reasons for UNRWA's Success?** - UNRWA's ability to manage and navigate internal ambiguities - Mandate - Duration - Finances **UNRWA's Ambiguous Mandate** **UNRWA's Ambiguous Finances** Voluntary contributions of donor countries Lack of a self-generated financial base or UN contribution system Fragility and dependency Limits to UNRWA's initiatives, activities and autonomy Subject to donor countries' political interests Communication skills necessary to market UNRWA's mission + secure funding Post-Cold War period: Increased humanitarian needs in other contexts + triumph of neoliberal policies Limited public expenditures of donor countries **Weaponization of Funding** - "UNRWA donors and Israelis have also criticized the agency for politicizing the Palestinian cause, interfering in the construction of the Palestinian identity, and upholding the right of return" - **** - Trump stopped \$60 million, pressurizing Palestinians to accept 'Deal of the Century' - **** - EU withholds €20 million, forcing Palestinians to clear anti-Israel materials and reference to two-state solution from textbooks **UNRWA's Ambiguous Duration** Considered temporary Mandate renewal: Every three years Agency existence: \>70 years ***[Hopeful sign]*** re: just settlement of the refugee issue based on international law ***[Symbol of failure]*** of international community to resolve the Palestinian question **Palestinian Refugees** **A Problem for** - Israel - Palestinian Leaderships **Palestinian Leadership & Refugees** Requirement for Oslo's peace talk in September 1993: exclusion of the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) Resolution 194 of 1948 from the Declaration of Principles Fatah leadership accepts the condition Palestinian refugees' right to return and compensation betrayed Palestinian leadership's consciousness of impossibility of return for millions of refugees Seeking 'principled' solutions (e.g. Israel's partial acknowledgment of responsibility) **Israel & Palestinian Refugees** Israel's 'original sin': Displacement of 700,000 Palestinian civilians to found the state of Israel (1948 Zionist myth: the right to "a land without people for a people without a land" Contradiction: How can the settlement of newcomers in a land without people cause displacement? Return of Palestinian refugees perceived as a threat to Israel's Jewish character Unthinkable of for the Israeli population Israeli government's attitude: Denial and dismissal **76 Years of Occupation, 16 Years of Siege and Blockade: The Deep Roots of the Ongoing Israeli War on Gaza** **Israel's War on UNRWA (i)** **[Physical destruction ]** Destroying essential facilities (e.g. hospitals, schools, water, electricity, housing, etc.) Cost of damage to infrastructure estimated at around \$18.5 billion = 97% of the combined GDP of the West Bank and Gaza in 2022 (Source World Bank: ) Stopping aid Killing UNRWA's employees and displaced people seeking refuge in its shelters **Israel's War on UNRWA (ii)** **[Securitization]** UNRWA as an **existential threat** Urging **political action** Legitimising **exceptional measures** UNRWA's mandatory **neutrality breached**: **Israel's War on UNRWA (iii)** **[Weaponization of Humanitarian Aid]** Collective Punishment Dehumanizing rhetoric (Palestinians as "human animals") Operating according to logic of genocide and displacement Starvation **Banning UNRWA** October 2024: Israeli parliament approves two bills to ban UNRWA from operating on Israeli territory and areas under Israel's control