Qualitative Research Methods PDF

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH  Qualitative research The goal of qualitative research is not to identify cause- and-effect relationships but rather to describe the meanings attributed to events by the research participants themselves. Qualitative research projects are normally guided by one or more...

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH  Qualitative research The goal of qualitative research is not to identify cause- and-effect relationships but rather to describe the meanings attributed to events by the research participants themselves. Qualitative research projects are normally guided by one or more research questions (inductive approach).  CREDIBILITY IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH Credibility (or Trustworthiness) is an equivalent of internal validity in the experimental method. „To what extent do the findings reflect the reality?“  CREDIBILITY IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH TRIANGULATION INTERATIVE RAPPORT method QUESTIONING data researcher REFLEKSIVITY theory personal CREDIBILITY epistemological CHECKS Several measures can be taken to THICK DESCRIPTIONS increase credibility:  Triangulation A combination of different approaches to collecting and interpreting data. Types of triangulation: Method triangulation – can compensate for their individual limitations and reinforce their strenghts. Data triangulation – data from a variety of accessible sources. Researcher triangulation – combining observations/interpretations of different researchers. Theory triangulation – multiple perspectives or theories to interpret the data.  Establishing a rapport Building a relationship of trust with the participant. Ensuring that participants are being honest. Remind them about voluntary participation and the right to withdraw. Make it clear that there are no wrong or right answers.  Iterative questioning A risk that participants will distort data either intentionally (lying) or unintentionally. Spotting ambiguous answers and returning to the topic later (rephrasing the question).  Reflexivity Researchers should be able to reflect that their own biases might have interfered with their observations and interpretations. A certain degree of bias is unavoidable. 2 types: Epistemological reflexivity: knowledge of the strengths and limitations of the method used to collect data. Personal reflexivity: personal beliefs and expectations of the researcher  Credibility checks Checking accuracy of data by asking participants themselves to read transcripts of the interview (or notes from observation) and confirm that it is an accurate representation of what they said, meant or did.  Thick (or rich) descriptions Explaining not only the behaviour itself, but also the context in which it occured – so it becomes meaningful to an outsider.  CREDIBILITY IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH TRIANGULATION INTERATIVE RAPPORT method QUESTIONING data researcher REFLEKSIVITY theory personal CREDIBILITY epistemological CHECKS Several measures can be taken to THICK DESCRIPTIONS increase credibility: How do students perceive and evaluate school lunches?  BIAS IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH In quanitative research we deal with potential bias by trying to eliminate it completely or keeping the confunding variables constant in all comparison groups. In qualitative research this is impossible. Bias can actually be an integral part of the research process. Sources of bias: Participant bias Researcher bias  Participant bias Acquiescence bias: a tendency to give positive answers whatever the question. Social desirability bias: participants‘ tendency to respond or behave in a way they think will make them liked or accepted.  Participant bias Dominant respondent bias: in a group interview setting when one of the participants influences the behaviour and responses of the others. Sensitivity bias: a tendency of participants to answer regular questions honestly, but distort their responses to questions on sensitive subjects.  Researcher bias Confirmation bias: the researcher has prior belief and uses the research in an unintentional attempt to confirm that belief. Leading questions bias: when respondents in an interview are inclined to answer in a certain way because the wording of the question encourages them to do so.  Researcher bias Question order bias: when responses to one question influence the participant‘s responses to the following question. (Human tendency to be consistent in beliefs and actions.) Sampling bias: the sample is not adequate for the aims of the research. (There are „professional participants“). Biased reporting: some findings are not equally represented in the research report. PARTICIPANTS  SAMPLING TECHNIQUES 01 QUOTA 02 PURPOSIVE 03 CONVENIENCE 04 THEORETICAL (OPPORTUNITY) 05 SNOWBALL  Quota sampling It is decided prior to the start of the research how many people to include in the sample and which characteristics they should have.  Purposive sampling The main characteristics of participants are defined and then researchers recruit participants who have this characteristics. The proporotions and sample size are not defined.  Theoretical sampling Special type of purposive sampling that stops when the point of data saturation is reached. Data saturation = no new information is obtained from new participants added to the sample.  Convenience (opportunity) sampling Those who are more easily available. Reasons to believe that people are not so different in terms of the phenomenom. Financial resources / Limited time Generalization is not the primary goal.  Snowball sampling When participants recruit other participants from among their friends and acquaintances. This is often used when it may be difficult to access research participants. Using snowball sampling not only may save time, but it also helps to establish trust with the researcher. Not highly representative of the larger population.  TYPES OF GENERALIZABILITY Sample-to-population - applying the results of the study to a wider population. Theoretical - generalizing results of particular observation to a broader theory (data saturation) Case-to-case - transferability - applying the findings of a study to a different group of people or a different setting or context. Transferability is the resposability of both the researcher and the reader.  RESEARCH METHODS QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE observation experiemental studies interview correlational studies focus group descriptive studies case study content analysis  4 types of qualitative research Observation Interview Focus group Case study OBSERVATION  OBSERVATION Observation is a data collection method that aims to describe behaviour without trying to establish cause- and-effect relationships.  OBSERVATION Laboratory versus naturalistic observation Overt versus covert observation Participant versus non-participant observation Structured versus unstructured observation  LABORATORY VS. NATURALISTIC Naturalistic observation is carried out in real-life settings that have not been arranged for the purposes of the study. However, researchers also perform observations in laboratories - for example, observing mother- and-child interaction through a one-way mirror.  OVERT VS. COVERT Overt observation occurs when participants are aware of the fact they are being observed. In covert observation the researcher does not inform the members of the group about the reasons for their presence. PARTICIPANT VS. NON-PARTICIPANT In the participant observation the observer becomes part of the observed group.  STRUCTURED VS. UNSTRUCTURED Structured: information is recorded systematically and in a standardized way. (cheklist of behaviours) Unstructured: do not have a pre-defined structure – observers simply register whatever behaviours they find noteworthy.  GROUP WORK Scenario 1: A researcher wants to study how students use their phones during breaks (in the school courtyard). Scenario 2: A psychologist wants to study the interaction between teachers and students when providing feedback on tests. Scenario 3: A scientist wants to observe how people react to social stress in a controlled environment. Scenario 4: A researcher wants to study how people interact with their pets in a park.  PROS CONS Sometimes it is the only option, for example when it is unethical to encourage a particular behaviour in It may be time-consuming because NATURALISTIC a laboartory (violence). the behaviour of interest only OBSERVATION Participants’ behaviour is not occurs at certain times. influenced by the artificiality of the research procedure. It is possible to recreate situations that do not frequently emerge in Artificiality of the procedure may LABORATORY real life. influence the behaviour of OBSERVATION It is possible to isolate the participants. behaviour of interest more efficiently.  PROS CONS Participants give informed consent, Participants’ expectations may OVERT so ethical guidelines are followed. influence their behaviour. Participants do not suspect that Often participants do not consent COVER they are being observed, so they to being observed, which raises behave naturally. ethical issues.  PROS CONS Allows the researcher to experience There is a risk that the observer will PARTICIPANTS the phenomenon “from within” and become too involved with the gain important insights. group and lose objectivity. Some details about the observed NON- group can only be understood from More impartial. PARTICIPANT the perspective of a group member.  PROS CONS The procedure is standardized so May be inflexible: certain aspects STRUCTURED one can use miltiple observers in of behaviour that were not included the same research study. in the checklist will be missed. More flexible: the researcher is not Less structured means less UNSTRUCTURED limited by prior theoretical comparable across researchers expectations. and across participants. INTERVIEW  INTERVIEW Interviews are a very personal form of research because there is a direct contact between the interviewer and the interviewee. Interview data comes in the form of an audio or video recording that is subsequently converted to an interview transcript + interview notes.  INTERVIEW Structured interview Semi-structured interview Unstructured interview  STRUCTURED INTERVIEW Include a fixed list of questions that need to be asked in a fixed order.  UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEW Such interviews are participant-driven. Every next question is determined by the interviewee’s answer to the previous one.  SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEW Such interviews do not specify an order or a particular list of questions. The interview guide is somewhat like a checklist: the researcher knows that certain questions must be asked, but there is also flexibility to ask additional follow-up questions.  TYPE PROS CONS Especially usefull when the research project Some participants may have unique STRUCTURED involves several interviewers and it is circumstances or opinions that cannot INTERVIEWS essential to ensure that they all conduct the be accommodated in a structured interview in a standardized way. interview. It fits the natural flow of conversation SEMI- better. Less comparability across researchers STRUCTURED Better suited for smaller research projects. INTERVIEWS and participants. More effective in studying the unique experience of each participant. Very effective for investigating unique The most “qualitative” of all three types. UNSTRUCTURED cases or cases where no theoretical INTERVIEWS More time-consuming and results are expectations exist that would inform the more difficult to analyse and interpret. working of the questions. FOCUS GROUP  FOCUS GROUP a special type of semi-structured interview that is conducted simultaneously with a small group of people (usually 6 to 10). the key factor is that participants are encouraged to interact with each other and the interviewer serves as facilitator.  FOCUS GROUP - ADVANTAGES it is a quick way to get information from several participants at the same time. it creates more natural and comfortable environment than face-to-face interview, ensuring less participant bias. It is easier to respond to sensitive questions when you are in a group. multiple perspectives are discussed so a more holistic understanding of the topic is achieved.  FOCUS GROUP - LIMITATIONS More participants – one or more can steer the conversation (bias?) Anonymity and confidentiality Sampling Demanding transcripts  CASE STUDY an in-depth investigation of an individual or a group. Case studies often involve a variety of other methods (such as interviews, observations, questionnaires) to deepen the understanding of an individual or group of interest. However there are several reasons why case studies are referred to as a separete research method, even though they use a combination of other methods. The individual or group is the object of a case study is unique in some way. The purpose is to gain a deep understanding of this particular individual or group. Sampling is not an issue. There is less focus on generalizability. The case is studied thorougly.  REASONS TO CHOOSE? They can investigate phenomena that could not be studied othervise (a group that is hard to get access). They can contradict established theories and help develop theories. (The principle of falsification in science – find one case that contradicts it).  LIMITATIONS Generalization Researcher bias Participant bias Ethical considirations