QC KENTEI (Quality Management and Quality Control) Grade 4 Textbook PDF

Reviewer for Exam Level 1 to 5 Ver 3.0 QC KENTEI (The Quality Management and Quality Control Examination) Grade 4 Textbook...

Reviewer for Exam Level 1 to 5 Ver 3.0 QC KENTEI (The Quality Management and Quality Control Examination) Grade 4 Textbook 1  Contents Page Chapter 1: What is Quality Management? – Making products in an organization 4 1.1 What is Quality? 4 (1) Definition of Quality (2) Targeted Quality 1.2 What is Quality Management? 5 (1) Problems and Issues Concerning Quality (2) Fundamentals of Quality Management Activities (3) Fundamentals of Quality Management in the Work place (PDCA Cycle) (4) Quality in a broad sense (QCD + PSME) (5) Focal Points for Improvement (Muri/Mura/Muda) 1.3 The Quality-orientation Approach 8 (1) What is Quality Orientation? (2) The Market-in Approach 1.4 Management Activities (Maintenance Activities and Improvement Activities) 9 1.5 An approach to Work (PDCA) 9 (1) PDCA Cycle (2) SDCA Cycle 1.6 Kaizen and QC Story 11 (1) QC Story (2) Small Group Improvement Activities (Quality Circle Activities, QC Circle Activities) 1.7 The Priority Oriented Approach 13 1.8 What is Standardization? 13 1.9 What are Inspections? 14 Chapter 2 : Basic Knowledge related to Quality Management Activities 15 2.2 Decision based on facts and data 16 (1) Populations and Samples (2) Types of Data (3) How to take a sample (4) How to Summarize Data 2.3 QC Seven Tool 19 (1) Pareto Diagrams (2) Cause and Effect Diagrams (3) Histograms (4) Graphs (5) Control Charts (6) Check Sheets (7) Scatter Diagrams (8) Stratification (9) Utilizing the QC Seven Tools Chapter 3 : Preparation and Action for making better products 29 3.1 Ho-Ren-So (Reporting, Contacting and Consulting 29 (1) Key points concerning Reporting (2) Key points concerning Contacting (3) Key points concerning Consulting 3.2 5W1H 30 3.3 Sangen-Shugi 31 3.4 5-Gen-Shugi 31 3.5 Manners 32 (1) Be Responsible member of society (2) Be on time (3) Exchange Greetings 2  (4) Pay attention to the words you use (5) Wear the right clothes (6) Don’t mix business with personal matters (7) Be organized and Tidy (Seiri and Seiton) (8) Protect the Environment 3.6 5S 34 3.7 Health and Safety Activities 34 Chapter 4 : Explanation of Terminology 36 3  Chapter 1: What is Quality Management? -Making good products in an organization- 1.1 What is Quality? (1) Definition of Quality The quality*² of a product or service*¹ is normally defined as “fitness for use.” However, unless the customer*³ is satisfied as a result with quality, efforts to achieve good quality will be in vain. So in a broader sense, the quality is related to the “satisfaction delivered to the customer,” which is sometimes referred to as customer satisfaction (CS). For example, a customer who is thinking about buying a large screen 4K LCD television that the entire family can enjoy watching in his/her ample living room might want or expect the following features of the television and also of the services bundled with it:  Image and sound quality that makes you feel like you’re really there.  Clearly viewable from any angle in a bright room.  Color and design that matches the furniture.  Many useful functions, such as recording.  Connectable to PCs, game consoles, etc., via wireless LAN.  No need for cables or a power cord.  Can be operated even by elderly and children without a manual.  Doesn’t even break even if handed roughly.  Won’t fall over even in the event of a large earthquake.  Works even during a power outage.  Uses much less power.  Can be moved to any location with ease. And others.  Setup and connection are performed free of charge.  The television is inspected regularly.  Someone will come to help immediately whenever there’s a problem.  Service will be provided over the lifetime of a product, covering trade-ins, moving house, disposal. And others. If demands and expectations like these, which a customer has in advance, are actually met by the product or service provided, the customer will probably be extremely satisfied. Conversely, if such demands and expectations re no met, no matter how much the seller argues that it is a high-quality television, it cannot be so from the customer’s point of view. 4  Chapter 1: What is Quality Management? – Making good products in an organization- In other words, quality is the customer’s assessment of the product or service provided. So when we think about quality, the starting question is : who are our customers? After that, we need to look at whether the demands and expectations of customers are really being met by providing the product or service. (2) Targeted Quality If the seller is to deliver the quality demanded / expected by customers, it needs to listen carefully to what customers have to say about each product and service and perform a detailed investigation of how customers are receiving current products and services and how these products and services satisfy them. This is expressed as “listening to the Voice of Customer (VOC)*4.” By analyzing the VOC, the customer’s problems, the environment that surrounds the customer, and so on, we must clearly define the required state or the ideal state of the product or service from the standpoint of the customer. This is referred to as setting the targeted quality. 1.2 What is Quality Management? (1) Problems and Issues concerning Quality After determining the targeted quality as discussed in the previous section, the next step is Quality Management*5 Quality Management refers to the systematic activities conducted by the organization for the purpose of delivering the targeted quality. To deliver targeted quality, it is necessary to identify the situation concerning the product or service actually being provided as its current state, then to investigate whether there is a gap between that and the targeted quality. An obvious gap between the two indicates a problem*6or issue*6 with quality, and eliminating that gap is the foundation for quality-related problem solving*7 and task (issue) achieving*7. Normally, to solve a problem, you identify the characteristics of the problem based on the facts. Then, based on those characteristics, you identify their root causes and relationship with causes and effects that led to the problem. Then, by taking action to tackle the identified causes or processes, you endeavor to solve the problem. To achieve a task (issue), on the other hand, you make a list from various angles of ideas that could deliver the ideal state. You then narrow this list to the ideas that are the most effective means of achieving the objective. After that, you endeavor to achieve the task by increasing the degree to which the means cab ne executed while taking into account elements that could hinder execution. Activities for improving quality, like the problem solving and task achievement discussed here, play a vital role in ensuring that customers are continuously provided with products and services that truly delight them. (2) Fundamentals of Quality Management Activities The history of Quality Management began with efforts to provide “good things” to customer and to maintain the quality of these things at a certain level. “Good products / services” refer to product and services that satisfy customers with good quality. It is obviously necessary to reduce variation*8. This is because if products or services that very in terms of quality are sold for the same price, it would seem unfair to the customers who purchased them, and the initial objective of providing the same level of satisfaction to every customer would not be achieved. 5  Chapter 1: What is Quality Management? – Making good products in an organization- Some of you might think that all that needs to be done is to alter the price to reflect the variation of quality. Of course, in cases such as the sales of vegetables on an individual basis or the sale of drinks, where the price varies based on quantity rather than quality, it is not difficult to explain why the prices are different. But adjusting the price of each and every product or service based on differences in quality is not necessarily easy for the supplier to do. The reason is that it is incredibly difficult to explain the relationship between differences in price and quality to customers in such a way that is acceptable to them. And obviously, the customers that purchase the product or service will not be satisfied if they have to spend time and effort checking the price and quality differences of every single product or service before buying it. For example, if hamburgers were always sold in such a way that the same size of bun contained the same size of patty cooked to the same degree with the same amount of sauce of the same taste on it, every customer would have the peace of mind that they would eat the same hamburger whenever or wherever they liked. To ensure that the quality of products and services provided to customers is adequate and to maintain this quality at a certain level, it is necessary, before you start applying them to customers, to distinguish between good things and bad things, and to take action to ensure that only good things are provided to customers. However, this alone will not eliminate bad things and is not necessarily economical. Things won’t go well unless you can make good things to begin with by creating a mechanism for ensuring a fixed level of quality at every phase, from the procurement of materials to the production and sales of the products. Quality management has evolved as an activity for implementing initiatives like these. However, the following problems often arise on the frontlines of manufacturing:  Incessant complaints *9 from customers *3  Products keep being returned or needing to be repaired.  Nonconformities *10 occur even after mass production has begun.  Nonconforming items *10 with the same type of nonconformity keep being discovered during delivery inspections.  Machines and equipment’s are not being properly maintained, and nonconforming items frequently have to be discarded during the process.  Lots of parts received often fail inspections, and the line is halted frequently.  Workers often make careless mistakes.  Workers keep making the same mistakes.  Workplace leaders (foremen) and workers focus solely on work periods, delivery dates, and costs.  Procedures for performing new jobs are vague, and workers all do things in different ways. 6  Chapter 1: What is Quality Management? – Making good products in an organization- Quality management is an activity for solving quality problems like these. To ensure that this activity is conducted effectively and efficiently, it is not enough for each employee to be individually engaged. There needs to be cooperation within each workplace and among workplaces in order to solve problems. Recently, emphasis has been placed not just on solving current quality problems but on determining issues or tasks and taking action to ensure these tasks are achieved, with the aim of providing attractive and impressive products and services that actually surpass the demands and expectations of customers. (3) Fundamentals of quality management in the workplace (PDCA cycle) For quality management in the workplace, it is particularly important to plan, do and then make improvements. In other words, you must: i. Thoroughly understand the objectives and nature of your work, set goals, and plan the way you are going to work. (Plan) ii. Decide how you should do it make preparations, and implement it together. (Do) iii. Grasp the implementation status, find out whether activities are being conducted appropriately, confirm/analyze whether the results are as expected, and shed light on problems and their causes. (Check) iv. Based on the causes identified, determine what should be improved, then make improvements. (Act) The first principle is to execute the above four activities in order. This approach is fundamental for performing work and is normally referred to as following the PDCA *11 cycle. PDCA will be explained in detail in section 1.5. ⑷ Quality in broad sense (QCD + PSME)*12 When manufacturing products or providing services, you need to think about things in comprehensive fashion. In addition to ensuring quality, you need to keep costs as low as possible, and you need to ensure delivery of the quantity of the products promised to customer on the day (delivery date) promised. Quality, cost, and delivery terms (i.e., quantity and date/time) are referred to as QCD *12, and are sometimes also regarded as constituting quality in the broad sense. In addition, when making products productivity (P) is emphasized alongside quality. However, what’s more important than anything else is safety (S) and mental health (M: morale, morality). This approach make people the foundation of everything, with various activities performed within that scope. In other words, the organization as a whole works together to ensure safety. It is important that everyone involved in the activities of the organization remain free of injury, stay healthy, and feel respected as human beings. Activities designed to maintain health (including mental health) and safety are sometimes termed occupational health and safety *13 activities. Furthermore, activities that guarantee the safety of everyone who interacts with a product (including its users) over its lifecycle (the period from the purchase of the products to its subsequent use and eventual disposal) are also important. This is referred to as product safety *14 and is another important element in quality management. in addition, activities to protect the global environment*15 (E) have also come to be emphasized recently. 7  Chapter 1: What is Quality Management? – Making good products in an organization- (5) Focal points of improvement (Muri/Mura/Muda) In improvement activities, we are always considering the best working methods to ensure the level of quality demanded for products or services. When making improvements, our focus is on finding and endeavoring to eliminate the Muri/Mura/Muda which stands for the Japanese words Muri (unreasonableness), Mura (Inconsistency) and Muda (Waste). If there is too much unreasonableness in the way worked is performed or in scheduling, the workers will get tired, which will result in quality problems. Meanwhile work that has inconsistency leads to uneven quality. Finally, work that involves a lot of waste, as well as waste resulting from the repair or disposal of poor-quality products, cam lead to higher costs. 1.3 The quality-orientation approach (1) What is quality orientation? For an entire organization to engage in quality management, the approaches and goals of everyone involved must be aligned based on the view that quality takes priority. A quality orientation means that priority is placed not on the pursuit of short-term profits or sales expansion, but on supplying higher-quality products and services. Of course, activities such as reducing costs, trimming inventory, and delivering products on time are also important tasks for the organization, but unless quality, which is essential, is good, all that will happen is that costs will increase, inventory will accumulate, and deliveries will be made late. Normally, a set of principles for action called a quality policy*16 is formulated to ensure that the whole organization shares this quality-information view. Other terms, such as quality first or supremacy of quality, are also sometimes used to express this quality-orientation approach. (2) The market-in approach At the heart of quality orientation is the idea that you don’t prioritize the logic of the supplier, but That of the customer. The latter approach is called market in*17, while the former is referred to as product out*17. Standing in the customer’s shoes means that you are customer-oriented in everything you do, including the elements described in section 1.2 (4) that comprise quality in the broad sense (QCD+PSME). These are the Q: the level of product quality demanded by the customer, C: the cost paid by the customer, D: the delivery terms (i.e., quantity and date /time) P: productivity for the customer, S & M: the safety and mental health of everyone involved, including customer and E: the protection of the global environment. The market-in approach is based on achieving these objectives based not on the logic of the supplier, but that of the customer. We often hear the expression safety first, which is based on the notion that because safety relates to human life, it should take priority over everything else. As mentioned earlier, the phrase “quality first” has also been used for many years in discussions of quality. Both are important ideas, but to avoid necessary confusion, it has become common when talking about quality to replace the expression “quality first” with “quality orientation”. 8  Chapter 1: What is Quality Management? – Making good products in an organization- 1.4 Management activities (maintenance activities and improvement activities) When we think about what constitutes good work, one important thing is that the work is conducted in accordance with standards and therefore results in the stable and continuous supply of products and services that serve their purpose and exhibit no variation. This is referred to as maintenance activities. To ensure that these maintenance activities are properly performed, appropriate standards need to be set and education and training provided. However, because the environment us is always changing, unthinking adherence to the same method of working and the same standards to stably and continuously produce good products or services will not promote continuous maintenance in the true sense of the word. For this reason, the SDCA*11 cycle which will be described later, needs to be followed at all times. Other important considerations are reducing the number of mistakes made to improve current levels of quality and reducing costs and changing work methods in ways that make it easier for other departments (particularly those that perform next/downstream processes) to perform the job these are called improvement activities. Obviously, though it is also important to improve your techniques and skills to enable you to work more effectively and efficiently. So what we should be doing is engaging in activities that continuously maintain favorable circumstances. We also need to engage in activities to improve the quality of our products and services as well as the quality of our work, which generates these product and services. These activities are collectively referred to as management activities. If management activities such as these can be performed continuously by every organization and every individual, and the quality of work and the quality of people can be improved thereby the QCD of products and the services will improve, and as a result, a healthy organization that can efficiently and continuously achieve business objectives such as sales and profits will be established. 1.5 An approach to work (PDCA) (1) PDCA Cycle To ensure that the objectives that have been set for an organization are achieved, it is important to break down the work that constitutes the means to that end into the following four steps: P (Plan) Think hard about and define the purpose of the work, the output of the work, and what sort of things good work will result in. This is referred to as articulating goals. Objectives/targets are goals in more concrete form. An objective normally has three components: the objective item, the objective value, and the achievement date. Next, you are going to consider what kind of things you should do to bring about these good circumstances, the methods you will adopt, the actions you will take, the procedures to follow, how will you proceed, and what resources or criteria will be required. Specifically, you will be defining the what, who, where, when, and how. These along with original goal (i.e., the why) are referred to as 5W1H. (5W1H is discussed in detail in Chapter 3). This series of activities is called planning. D (Do) Carefully and in accordance with the plan (5W1H) you formulated, performed activities including the required preparatory activities to ensure that the methods and actions for bringing about good 9  Chapter 1: What is Quality Management? – Making good products in an organization- circumstances, as well as actions such as the provision of education and training, are properly implemented. Additionally, continuously monitor the situation as it is implemented. This is called doing. Note that if the Do period is fairly long, things not foreseen during the planning phase will frequently arise, making it necessary to follow small PDCA cycles several times during the DO period. C (Check) – i.e., confirm, inspect, assess, and reflect Find out whether the results were good and whether the approach was good by comparing them to the plan, thereby confirming differences between the plan and actual performance. If activities are being conducted in accordance with the plan and results are being achieved in accordance with the plan, then the plan and its implementation can be deemed to have been more or less appropriate. However, if the results differ from the initials aims or if activities could not be performed in accordance with the plan, you need to find out why. You will need to analyze the causes based on the facts to shed light in the causes of things that didn’t go well and reflect on their poor implementation. This series of activities is referred to as checking (i.e., confirming, inspecting, assessing, and reflecting). At the checking steps, it helps to prepare numerical scales (indicators) that enable you to objectively assess what was good and bad about your activities, are called monitoring items*18. these monitoring items include result-type items and factor-type items, and the cause-type items are sometimes specifically referred to as check items*18. A (Act) If there is no difference between the plan and the actual results achieved, you can conclude that the working method was appropriate and continue working in the same way as you implement the next plan. However, if a difference is discovered and its cause is clear, you will need to take some sort of action to eliminate that cause and its effect. The cause of a difference is often a problem in the working method or with a mechanism—for example, the way the plan was put together or how it was implemented. If you just leave things the way they are, when it comes to implementing the next plan, you will fall short of the goals of the plan for the same causes. You must do something to keep this from happening over and over again. Taking steps to address the process involved, including the cause of differences between the plan and the results and their impact, is called acting. Obviously, you must check the results of the action taken and incorporate them into your next plan (P). This system following the four steps of “P->D->C->A” in order is called following the PDCA Cycle or following the management cycle. Its forms a common foundation for approaching work in every field. 10  Chapter 1: What is Quality Management? – Making good products in an organization- (2) SDCA Cycle In cases where you have enough past experience or for which technology has been established, planning (P) can be replaced with the standardization*19 of methods proven to be successful, such that you follow a management cycle comprising “S->D->C->A.” If work is performed in the line with these standards, problems will hardly ever arise. Having said that on occasion problems will still occur. Such occasions would be cases in which a work method that differs from the standards is employed, cases in which work is performed in accordance with standards but the standards themselves are partly inappropriate, or cases in which the surrounding environment or other circumstances have changed. In case like these, you must improve the method of implementation or revise the standards themselves. As Figure 1.1 illustrates, the true objective of management activities is to raise the level of the work method by following the PDCA or SDCA cycle on a continuing basis. 1.6 Kaizen and QC Story (1) QC Story Improvement*20 in the context of QM/QC is defined as the “activity of continuously reviewing the management system as a whole, or part of it, in order to improve its capabilities.” The activities involving improvement are called as “improvement activities”. Improvement is an important part of activities in quality control and quality management that have evolved and developed in Japan. Kaizen is a well known Japanese word to express improvement activities outside Japan. Improvement activities can also be described whereby you identify problems with your current work, eliminate the causes of these problems, and create a situation in which better work is performed. The problems are identified as the gap between the required state and the current state. In organizations that engage in a lot of improvement activities, problem-solving procedures are utilized for making improvements. One typical set of procedures is the QC Story*21, as shown in Figure 1.2. A QC Story involves more than just a simply mastering a series of steps. For example, if at the “effect confirmation” phase. Effects are inadequate and objectives are not being met, you will return to the appropriate phase in the past and repeat the activities. Sometimes, you may even have to redo everything from the planning phase onwards, but it is important to persevere and keep taking action. In 11  Chapter 1: What is Quality Management? – Making good products in an organization- other words, it is important that the organization perform activities to improve quality, processes, work, etc., repeatedly and continuously. Such an approach to improvement is referred to as continual improvement*20. In a broad sense, as pointed out in section 1.2 (1), improvement is about more than problem solving. It is also an activity for achieving tasks-i.e., closing the gap between the current state and the ideal state. As means of doing this, task-achieving QC Stories have been proposed as a separate measure. Originally, QC stories were created as a procedure for solving problems, but later, various types of QC stories came to be recommended, so QC stories that specifically indicate a procedure for problem solving are now known as problem-solving Stories. First, you need to understand that the procedure for a QC Story is not necessarily set in stone. For example, the procedure shown in Figure 1.2 and the procedure shown on p.38 (*21), in the chapter explaining terminology, differ from each other somewhat in terms of content. So QC Stories are probably continuously evolving to ensure that improvements continue to be performed effectively and efficiently in the future. For example, depending on the target and scope of improvement, the steps of QC Stories are being modified and various new procedures for improvement are being created and devised. (2) Small Group Improvement Activities (Quality Circle Activities, QC Circle Activities) When performing improvement activities, colleagues in a workplace may form from a small groups to improve their workplaces. These are referred to as Small Group Improvement Activities. In Japan in particular, a fundamental principle is that activities are administered independently. Well-known are small group activities call Quality Circle Activities,*22. Which has goals beyond simply improving the workplace. They are designed to increase ability through studying, revitalizing workplaces, and making work seem more worthwhile. These Quality Circle Activities are also attracting attention from overseas and are currently being implemented in over 80 countries and territories. 12  Chapter 1: What is Quality Management? – Making good products in an organization- 1.7 The Priority Oriented Approach In the real world, there is generally a strong tendency to begin by improving things that are close at hand rather than making improvements that can produce big benefits. However, given the limited resources available to an organization, in terms of people, time and funding, it is more effective and efficient for an organization as a whole to focus on high-priority issues, which though hard to solve, can have a big impact on the organization or on results. This approach, whereby activities are narrowed to target the most important issues, is known as the Priority oriented approach. When analyzing factors behind non-conforming items, for example, it is common to identify a few factors that determine most of the results by plotting appearance frequencies and degrees of impact in the form of a Pareto diagram [see section 2.3(1), p.19], and then targeting these elements. This methos of analysis is called Pareto Analysis, and the rule of thim that a few factors determine most of the results is known as the Pareto Principle. By skilfully applying the Pareto principle to workplace problems, we can put the priority oriented approach into practice. 1.8 What is Standardization? When several people have to work together to perform a tsk, unless the method for carrying out the task is clear, each individual will go about things in their own way. This makes more likely that the task will not be performed as intended or that it will produce inefficient results. To ensure that an assigned task is performed efficiently, it is essential that the most rational method (rules) as perceived at the time is identifies and that everyone I the group follows this method. This is what the standardization*19 of work refers to. Rules that have benn prescribed in accordance with certain rational principles are called the standards*23. Some standards relate to work, while others relate to products. Organizatonal activities become more efficient when the technology and experience possessed by the organization is combined add, with the agreement of everyone involved, work methods and management rules are prescribed with the objectivesof harmonization and simplification. In other words, standardization can help stabilize quality, prevent work mistakes, enhance efficiency, make work more reliable and so on. In addition, standards (product-related standards) include components standards, design standards and drawing standards, all of which specify the basic structure of a product, and materials standards, which prescribe the materials required to ensure product quality. So various types of standards suit different purpose. Standardization is linked to the SDCA approach discussed in section 1.5 (2). Specifically , merely producing standards does not constitute standardization. It is essential to understand that the standardization is meaningful only if the SDCA Cycle, which encompasses education and training concerning the standards, compliance with standards, as well checking and acting is properly followed to ensure consistency in all activities performed. 13  Chapter 1: What is Quality Management? – Making good products in an organization- 1.9 What are Inspections? To provide products and services that are deeply satisfying to customers, not only must processes be carefully managed, the products and services themselves must be checked and unacceptable ones removed before they are sold. This activity is called an Inspection*24. Inspections involved aspects like the measurements*25 and tests of products and services to judge whether they are appropriate and whether they meet requirements such as product-related standards. Measurements and tests simply involve collecting data; tey differ from inspections in that in addition to measurements and tests, they also have a judgement function. During the judgement phase of an inspection, a product that meets prescribed requirements such as product-related standards is called a conforming item, while one that does not is called non-conforming item. In addition, some inspections target are not individual products and services, but groups of products and services (called a lot*26). Those that meet pre-prescribed “criteria for lots” are described as accepted, while those that do not are described as rejected. Inspections are normally performed in three main phases. There are the receiving inspections or purchasing inspections carried out when raw materials, partially processed products, etc., are received; the in-process inspections or intermediate inspections carried out in the middle of a series of processes; and the final inspections or delivery inspections carried out on finished products. In addition, methods of inspection include 100% inspections, where all items are inspected; smpling inspections, where a sample is taken from the lot to determine whether to accept or reject the lot as a whole; and inspection without measurement or tests, where the decision to accept or reject the lot is based solely on materilas provided, with no measurements performed. Furthermore, besides inspections performed using measurement equipment to assess quality characteristics such as length, weight, performance, quantity of active ingredients,etc.. there are also sensory evaluations, where measurements and judgements are performed bsed on a person’s five senses, which include touch, taste, hearing and sight. There are also various other types of inspection, such as destructive tests, where measurement leads to the loss of the functonality of the item inspected. The basic purpose of inspections is to ensure that the only good quality items are passed on to the next process, based on a judgement oh whether they are good or bad. The results of the good / bad judgements also serve as an alternative characteristics*27 of activities performed in upstream processes. Thus, we nus forget the importance of providing quality information obtained from inspections as feedback to upstream processes for determining the good and bad elements of a process and for making subsequent improvements. 14  Chapter 2: Basic knowledge related to Quality Management activities 2.1 Process Products do not start out as products. They become products only after passing through various phases. In the quality management field, these phases are called processes*28. Processes include not only the production processes such as machining and assembly, but various other activities, including the planning and design of products and services. The procurement of raw materials and essential equipment, the standardization of manufacturing and other activities, and the supply, inspection, and improvement of products and services. For an organization to provide products and services, it is essential that the activities required to meet the demands and expectations of customers are properly connected and function as a whole. When we consider individual processes, we think about inputs and outputs. In the case of a machining process, raw materials constitute the inputs, while the machine products constitutes the outputs. In terms of staff function, aspect like the specific information required to perform a function constitutes inputs, while the materials prepared or information analyzed constitute outputs. A process is regarded as an activity that adds value to an input to produce an output. Work and products are not completed through one process alone. All departments within a company or organization perform their respective work, which is then passed on to the next process, before eventually reaching the customer. Such process linkages and interfaces are also important. The processes immediately before and after the process in question are particularly important because they are directly connected to that process. These processes are called the upstream processes and downstream processes (the immediate downstream process is called the next process). In the field of quality management, the right attitude toward processes can be summed up in expressions like “Build in quality during processes” or “The next processes are our customers”. Although confirming the quality of work or products by performing inspections*24 is important, it is far more important to perform proper work during the processing phase to keep nonconformities from arising. This is the meaning of the statement “Build in quality during processes”. In addition, the statement “ The next processes are our customers” reflects the attitude of trying to satisfy all those who work on downstream processes. Breaking down each process into its constituent elements generally results in four elements, shown in Figure 2.1. These are man, machine, material, and method. Since all these words begin with M, they are called the “5M” of production. To perform good work, you must manage these “4M” properly. Note that sometimes people add another M, measurement *25, and talk about the 5M. 15  Chapter 2: Basic knowledge related to Quality Management activities 2.2 Decisions based on facts and data (1) Populations and samples In the field of quality management, it is important to make decisions based on facts and data. In other words, we must not rely on past technology, experiences, or gut feelings, but instead correctly identify facts using data*30 such as observed values*29 and measured values*29 to make objective decisions. Even if you believe you performed an experiment or a work task under the same conditions or circumstances, various factors that are beyond your control inevitably result in variation in the characteristics*31 of the results. In other words, the data you gather always contain variation*8. Deciding whether something is good or bad taking action such as changing manufacturing conditions or reviewing the materials used based on just a few items of data will lead to wrong action. It is essential not just to accept the results appearing in the data unquestioningly, but to consider whether those results, due to variation in the data, have occurred by chance and whether they are true. Because variation is a natural characteristic of data, we need to make some sort of judgment about a population*33 based on the data gathered by performing measurements on a sample*32. The relationship between a population and a sample is shown in Figure 2.2. For example, suppose a teacher at a Tokyo high school wants to identify trends in the height of the school’s students to find out how they are growing. She selects 30 students at random and measures their heights. She determines trends in the heights of all the students based on the 30 selected students while also looking at the degree of variation in the data. In other words, she uses data from a sample of people that is smaller than the total number of people. For this example, in the relationship between population and sample, the group of all high school students constitutes the population, while the 30 students selected constitute the sample. (2) Types of data Numerical data used in the field of quality management can be broadly classified as continuous data (i.e., measurable as a continuous quantity) such as weight, length, time, and temperature, and attribute data (i.e., enumerated data that can be counted in the form 1, 2, 3), such as the number of nonconforming items, number of accidents or number of scratches (nonconformities). Table 2.1 gives some concrete examples. 16  Chapter 2: Basic knowledge related to Quality Management activities Besides these, there is also non-numerical data. Examples include product quality grades such as grade 1 and grade 2, the gender and experience level of workers, and the types of machines used. Note that numerical data is sometimes called quantitative data and that non-numerical data is sometimes called qualitative data. (3) How to take a sample If you extract a sample from a population and measure its contents, you can obtain data. Extracting a sample from a population is called the sampling*32. The purpose of sampling is to get an idea of the characteristics of the population from the data obtained from the sample. This means the sample must be as similar to the population as possible. It is therefore necessary to take unbiased, random sample. This method of sampling is known as random sampling, and it refers to a method whereby all the elements comprising the population have an equal probability of being included in the sample. In reality, it is extremely difficult to take a perfectly random sample. Even so, it is important, when gathering data, to always ask yourself whether the sampling method you’re using might be biased. Consider a case that involves identifying trends in the heights of high school students, first considered in (1). We assumed that a sample of 30 was taken from the population, i.e., the entire student body. But if we took 25 first graders, with the remaining five from the second and third grades, would the results obtained from the sample allow us to make accurate inferences about the entire population (Figure 2.3)? In this case the inferences concerning height would clearly be biased toward the first graders. We need to select random sample that is not biased toward any particular grade. One way to do this is to regard each grade as a separate stratum [see section 2.3 (8), p.24] and to take a sample from each. 17  Chapter 2: Basic knowledge related to Quality Management activities (4) How to summarize data Even if you believed you performed an experiment or a work task under the same conditions or circumstances, the data will contain variation. To grasp the situation and trends in the population from the data obtained by performing measurements on the sample, you need to look not just at the location of the data,but also the dispersion of the data. Let’s consider, for example, the time it takes for boy A to commute to school. Boy A does not use a train, a bus or a bicycle. Instead, he walks to school every day. Even so, he has noticed that even if he leaves home at the same time, he does not necessarily get to school at the same time every day. Sometimes he arrives well ahead of time for class, whereas at other times he’s just in time, and at other times he’s actually late. In other words, there is variation in his commuting time. To confirm is actual commuting times, Boy A obtained data by measuring his commuting time for five days under the same conditions. For example, he made sure that he left home at the same time every day and was carrying the same things. The results are shown in Table 2.2 Note that he actually measured time in seconds, but to simplify things, we present them in minutes. When using data obtained to investigate commuting time, we normally use the mean Ẋ (x-bar) or the median Ẍ as location scales (i.e., indicators of the nature of the population) and the range as a scale of dispersion. Ẋ, Ẍ, and R calculated from the data obtained by measuring a sampled called statistics. Location scales i. The mean x is the center of the data and is calculated as follows: 18  Chapter 2: Basic knowledge related to Quality Management activities Boy A's mean commuting time is therefore 16.2 minutes. ii. When the data items are lined up in order of size, the median x is the middle value if the number of data items is odd and the mean of the two middle values if the number of data items is even. Lining up the data from Table 2.2 in order gives: 13, 15, 16,17 and 20 Because the number of data items (five) is odd, the median X is 16 minutes. If the number of data items had been four (e.g., 13, 15, 16 and 20), median would have been: Dispersion scales The following formula is used to calculate range R: R = maximum value - minimum value Here, the maximum value and the minimum value are respectively written as The data from Table 2.2 is: R = 20 – 13 = 7 (minutes) So, even though he believed he commuted under unchanging conditions, the data for five days shows that there was as much seven minutes in range in Boy A's commuting times. To make effective use of the results obtained, it is important to consider why the dispersion might exist. Dispersion has causes. In the case of Boy A, the dispersion might be caused by him meeting friends along the way or waiting a long time at traffic lights. Besides range R, the sum of squares S*34, the variance V*34, and the standard deviation s*35 are also used as dispersion scales 2.3 QC seven tools When performing quality management, it is important to gather data, process the data in accordance with the purpose of analysis, and carefully extract information from it. Although the methods of processing data include some that require advanced knowledge, other useful techniques are straightforward. Of these, ones that are highly effective when applied to quality management have been selected and named the QC seven tools which are also called seven basic quality tools. To use the QC seven tools to make improvements in workplaces or circles, we must first study them to grasp the purpose of using them. While most of the QC seven tools deal with figures, the New QC seven tools (N7 or New Quality Management tools), techniques for handling linguistic data*³º, cannot be expressed numerically. The techniques selected for the QC seven tools are Pareto diagrams, cause and effect diagrams, Histograms, graphs/control charts, check sheets, scatter diagrams, and stratification. Below in 19  Chapter 2: Basic knowledge related to Quality Management activities this Section, we will provide simple explanations and graphic examples of these techniques using the definitions contained in documents such as the Japanese Industrial Standards (JIS)*23. (1) Pareto diagrams A Pareto diagram is a "diagram that stratifies items, arranges them in order of frequency of appearance, and shows the cumulative sum.” Pareto diagrams are used to confirm the impact on the whole of matters that need to be addressed (i.e., problems),the effectiveness of the improvements made, and so on. The field of quality management includes an approach called the priority oriented approach (see section 1.7, p.13), which is used when selecting targets for problem-solving. When doing this, we must know what is important and what proportion of the whole this accounts for. A Pareto diagram is a tool that clearly shows important phenomena and the causes of such phenomena. For example, let's classify nonconforming items by the nature of their nonconformity and arrange them in order of number of nonconforming items to produce a Pareto diagram. Types of nonconformity for which there is little data and that have little impact are bundled together as “Other" and are drawn last, after the other types. Next, types for which we have lots of data (i.e., types frequently observed) are gradually added together to calculate cumulative sums. Calculating the cumulative percentages of all the data gives us the proportions of the whole for specific nonconformity types and clarify what nonconformity types we should focus on tackling. The Pareto diagram in Figure 2.4 shows that the total number of nonconforming items for which the nonconformity is caused by "deformation" or "scratch" accounts for approximately 70% of the total. If we focus on eliminating these types of nonconformities, we should be able to achieve significant reductions in the number of nonconforming items. (2) Cause and effect diagrams A cause and effect diagram is a "diagram that shows the relationship between a specific result (characteristic) and the factors behind it in a structured fashion." A cause and effect diagram, also known as a "fishbone diagram or Ishikawa diagram," is useful for organizing the*36 cause-and-effect relationship of a problem to investigate the (root) causes of the problem. Moreover, by illustrating the connections between results such as quality characteristics*31 and nonconforming parts and factors, they show which processes led to such results, thereby 20  Chapter 2: Basic knowledge related to Quality Management activities allowing us to organize the cause-and-effect relationships underlying a problem, to discover the factors likely to be important, and to take action to address them. Characteristics (showing results) are placed at the tip of the arrowhead (right end) in a cause and effect diagram (Figure 2.5), while factors that have an impact on the results are placed at the bone part. Sometimes factors corresponding to the 4M's (man, machine, material, and method) are placed on a large bone.¹) When we prepare cause and effect diagrams, it is important to bring together everyone connected to the problem being investigated and to use methods like brainstorming*37 to encourage the free sharing of opinions and promote the identification of all possible factors. Another good idea is to circle those factors shown in the cause and effect diagram that are likely to have a significant impact on the results. An example of this is shown in Figure 2.6. (2) Histograms A histogram is a "diagram in which the range of measured values is divided into a number of classes, with each class serving as the base of a rectangle whose area represents the frequency of measured values belonging to the class."9) A histogram is a type of bar graph, but as Figure 2.7 sho ws, it is also a way of displaying a 21  Chapter 2: Basic knowledge related to Quality Management activities frequency distribution, with characteristic of continuous data plotted on the horizontal axis. Thus, a distinctive feature of a histogram is that it illustrates the location, dispersion, and distribution pattern of the measured values (how the measured values are dispersed). Histograms are useful when you want to know, for example, whether the quality of a product is meeting the specification. Furthermore, by calculating other variables such as the number of data items n, the mean X, the specification deviations, the maximum value X-max, the minimum value Xmin, and the range R, you can observe patterns in the distribution of the measured values. When you draw a histogram, you might see one of a variety of distributions, which are shown in Figure 2.8, depending, for example, on the quality of the product. Although the histogram shown in Figure 2.7 has a normal-shaped (bell-shaped) distribution, you can see that the mean is some distance from the center of the specification range and that some measured values exceed the lower limit of the specification. (4) Graphs A graph is “a diagram that shows sizes of data graphically or shows changes in size of data in a visually appealing way to make the data easy to understand.">7) 22  Chapter 2 Basic knowledge related to Quality Management activities There are various types of graphs. Some of the most common are bar graphs, which compare quantities; line graphs, which illustrate changes over time (Figure 2.9); and pie charts, which break down data into categories (Figure 2.10). Organizing data in the form of a graph makes it easier to grasp information in ways that might not be apparent from viewing the data table alone. It is therefore important to consider what your argument is and what you want people to focus on and to choose a graph that fits your goals. (5) Control charts A control chart is "a diagram that contains an upper control limit line and/or lower control limit line and shows continuously observed values or statistics of a subgroup *38, which are normally plotted in order of time or in the order of sample number." In addition, a control chart also “contains a center line for investigating the tendency of,,10)the plotted values to move toward one of the control limits. “Control charts are used to detect process abnormalities by making visible changes or trends in processes over time. Data from the process is collected and plotted in the form of a line graph. A control chart contains three control lines: a center line (CL), an upper control limit (UCL) line, and a lower control limit (LCL) line. If out of control signal*39 is present-e.g., if one or more dots lie outside the control limit lines or a series of dots is successively plotted above or below the Centre line—it is deemed that "the process is out of control." A situation like this indicates that the variation in the results has occurred due to an assignable cause*40. Although there are various types of control charts, the most common one is the X-R control chart, an example of which is shown in Figure 2.11. An X-R control chart shows the mean and range of the characteristic values. In the control chart in Figure 2.11, the point for subgroup number 22 in the X control chart exceeds the UCL, based on which it is deemed that "the process is out of control." 23  Chapter 2: Basic knowledge related to Quality Management activities (6) Check sheets A check sheet is "a table or diagram that makes it easy to see into what categories data is concentrated after attribute data is gathered."") In the case of a check sheet, to make it easier to collect and organize the data, we print the categories and diagrams we will need when collecting data on a form in advance. We can then record the data in a simple way. For example, data, results, inspection results, etc., can be recorded as figures or symbols such as circles, crosses, or checks. As you prepare a check sheet, it is important to think hard about what kind of data you want, what kind of data you should collect, what format will make the data easy to collect, and so on. A check sheet lets you gather data in an organized fashion and without omissions. Processing the data after collection is also easy. Check sheets come in various formats, depending on the purpose of the investigation, but they can be broadly classified into recording/surveying check sheets (Figure 2.12, Figure 2.13), which are used to collect data to achieve a particular goal, and inspection/confirmation check sheets (Figure 2.14, Figure 2.15), which are used to investigate whether inspection criteria determined in advance have been met. 24  Chapter 2: Basic knowledge related to Quality Management activities (7) Scatter diagrams A scatter diagram is “a diagram in which two characteristics constitute the horizontal (x) and vertical (y) axes and the observed values are plotted as a graph.””) Scatter diagrams are used to investigate the interrelationship between two contrasting (paired) characteristics (i.e., variables). When looking at a scatter diagram, you need to answer questions like the following:  Does the way the dots are arranged indicate a trend?  Is the trend linear or curved?  How much deviation is there from the trend? You must also carefully check the following:  Are there any outliers"4¹?  Are there clusters of dots? If so, should they be stratified [see section 2.3 (8), p.24]? Figure 2.17 shows scatter diagrams with typical data distributions. In (a), the correlation between two characteristics x and y is that y increases as x increases; there is a "positive correlation" between x and y. In (c), y decreases as x increases; there is a "negative correlation “between x and y. In (b), an increase in x does not appear to have any effect on y, so there is "no correlation “between x and y. In the scatter diagram shown in Figure 2.16, when the amount of additive (x) increases, the viscosity (y) also rises, so there is a positive correlation between the amount of additive and viscosity. (8) Stratification Stratification is the process of slicing the population into a number of strata. The strata are a type of subpopulation". They do not share any components, and when all strata are assembled, the result is equivalent to the population.10) It is therefore important to define strata such that each stratum is uniform in relation to the characteristics being studied. 25  Chapter 2: Basic knowledge related to Quality Management activities Stratification is useful for investigating differences in distribution among different strata, distributions within a stratum, and the causes of variation. It is particularly effective when used in conjunction with Pareto diagrams, histograms, scatter diagrams, control charts, etc. However, collecting vast quantities of data is not of itself sufficient to identify causes and to determine appropriate actions for addressing causes. When investigating a problem, you can obtain clues about causes by asking yourself whether there are any differences in characteristics depending on the machine used for manufacturing, the materials used, the worker performing the job, and so on, then dividing the data, and processing it by turning it into a graph, etc. for comparison. The word "classification" is also used with a meaning similar to stratification. Classification is "the process and method of sorting a sample into categories that have been prepared beforehand ;">14) be careful to avoid using the terms interchangeably. In Figure 2.18, the histogram for all data is double peaked, and the upper limit of the specification (Su) is exceeded. Histograms stratified for each worker were prepared. Stratification shows that while Worker A meets the specification, the mean is skewed toward the lower limit of specification (S). In the case of worker meanwhile, we see that the mean is close to the upper limit of the specification and that in some cases the upper limit is exceeded. The total scatter diagram in Figure 2.19 shows the results of manufacturing using two machines. From the total scatter diagram alone, we cannot tell whether there is a correlation between the amount of additive and production volumes; but when we produce a scatter diagram for each machine, we see a positive correlation between the amount of additive and production volumes for both machines. 26  Chapter 2: Basic knowledge related to Quality Management activities Figure 2.19 Example of Stratification (Scatter Diagrams) (9) Utilizing the QC Seven Tools In quality management, it is important to identify problems based on facts, to determine what is good and bad about a process, and to make improvements while following the PDCA cycle. To that end, it is 27  Chapter 2: Basic knowledge related to Quality Management activities essential to choose the QC tools best suited to the objectives of an analysis and to gather information on the processes that constitute the population. For example, based on the data obtained from a sample, you will want to identify the mean, the extent of the variation, and so on. The QC seven tools are essential and fundamental weapons for objectively grasping facts and phenomena. It is comparatively easy to use each technique to present data graphically, but the most important thing is to read and comprehend the information shown. Presenting the data obtained in the form of a diagram or table is not the be-all and end-all. You must look at the diagram or table and ask yourself: "What could I say about this?" You need to formulate your own opinions. This is especially true in the case of data collected for a specific purpose. It is important to consider that purpose and ask: "What have I learned?" Then, you should ask yourself: "What should I do next?" Finally, you need to translate the answers to those questions into future action. The QC seven tools are just that: tools. Each is nothing more than a single technique. Your goal is to use these tools to collect and analyze data and to solve problems or achieve tasks. To that end, you need to use the QC seven tools to obtain accurate information about a process and carefully answer this question: "What should I do about this process?" Then you need to make the specific answer to that question your next action. 28  Chapter 3: Preparation and Action for Making Better Products 3.1 Ho-Ren-So (Reporting, Contacting and Consulting) An organzation normally comprises a large number of employees who perform tasks based on instructions and orders issued by their superior. The Ho-Ren-So serves as a kind of lubricant to make the workflow smoother. The Horenso is shortland for the Japanese words Hokoku (reporting), renraku (contacting), and sodan (consulting). Once instruction and orders have been issued, it is important for the performance of work that superiors or customers are swiftly informed about how things are going and what the results are. In other words, an instruction is issued or a request is made, and then a report is made is response. Unforseeable accidents may occur on the fronliners. Contacting the necessary departments to inform them of such day-to-day changes in the situation on the frontliners is important for minimizing the harm caused by unexpected incidents. The function of independently providing the necessary people with the necessaery information, even when no instruction to do so have been issued by one’s superior. In known as contacting. Each organization inevitably has responsibilities and authority that have been delegated to it, while each individual belonging to the organization is also assigned responsibilities authority. The organization and each individual comprising it perform their work on a day-tp-day basis within the scope of the responsibilities and authority assigned. However, events in the real world do not occur conviniently with such predetermineds scopes of responsibilities and authority. It is often the case that you can’t make a judgement on your own or that you do not know how to respond within the scope of your own authority. In such situations, it’s crucial that you do not make a judgement call and take action independently, but instead go to the person who can make the judgement calll or the person who can make the decision in order to consult with them. If Ho-Ren-So is properly applied, it leads to effective communication with superiors and seniors, which in turn results in better work efficiency. To that end, it is necessary to grasp the key points using the 5W1H framework (see section 3.2, p.28) and to ensure that the reporting, contacting, and consulting are accurate, concise, clear, and specific. It is also better to express things numerically wherever possible rather than using vague expressions such as "usually" or "about." (1) Key points concerning reporting When you have completed the work you have been assigned, report the results to the person who issued the instruction or order without delay. If the work takes a long time to complete, make interim reports on your progress, your future actions, and so on. If it does not look as though you will be able to keep the predetermined deadline for delivery or if you have made mistakes or a problem has emerged in the course of performing the work, it is important that you swiftly report this to your superior or supervisor and follow their instructions. When making a report, try to convey the key points accurately and in an easy-to-understand fashion. You can do so orally or in writing, but you are going to start by briefly stating your conclusion. Depending on the situation, it is often helpful to use actual articles, materials, diagrams, etc. 29  Chapter 3: Preparation and Action for Making Better Products The attitude of the person receiving the report is also important. If we grow angry and begin, complaining that so and so hasn't arrived with their report or that they are late in submitting the report, this is basically our problem. It is also unhelpful to lose one's temper and to scream and shout after receiving a bad report. To receive accurate reports in a timely fashion, the most important thing is to establish an atmosphere in which people feel comfortable making reports. We must remain acutely aware that a key factor in enhancing the quality of reports is the readiness and attitude of the recipient. Everything hinges on this. (2) Key points concerning contacting Contacting means sharing information that should be shared with the relevant people. When doing this, try to leave you’re your own opinions or conjecture. When you are contacting, choose a method that reflects the situation at the time e.g., the person you are contacting, the information you are going to convey, the importance, the urgency, etc. In addition, by maintaining close contact, you can prevent problems or accidents; if a problem or accident should occur, you can minimize the damage that results. If possible, it is a good idea for the organization to determine what kinds of information should be conveyed and to establish rules for the workplace that prescribe which departments and people should be contacted if such information is obtained and within what time frame and using what contact methods. This is the same as the emergency telephone trees most organizations prepare for use in the event of an emergency. (3) Key points concerning consulting As you perform your work, problems that you had not foreseen may arise, and events may arise for which you cannot determine countermeasures yourself. At times like this, it is important not just sit to there and think about what to do on your own, but to first consult your superiors or seniors (although sometimes a superior may consult his or her subordinates). When consulting, it is important to be clear about the nature of the advice you want, and if necessary, to prepare materials, data, etc. Furthermore, if you come up with your own ideas or measures for solving the problem, you will be able to receive more appropriate advice. 3.2 5W1H We should take the view that our actions comprise the six 5W1H elements. However, when a person observes or focuses on a certain action, he or she can overthink things and notice only the elements that make a particularly strong impression or seem very important. For this reason, when you investigate a situation, it is easy to overlook problematic behavior and to plan and take unnecessary actions as a result. Before we take action, it is important to always take a fresh look at the action we are thinking of taking and ensure that it incorporates the six 5W1H elements, without omissions. 30  Chapter 3: Preparation and Action for Making Better Products What: the object When: the date/time, the time period Who: the person/people Where: the place, the organization Why: the goal, the reason, the background How: the method, the degree Sometimes "how much" (cost) is added to this list to give 5W2H. 3.3 Sangen-shugi Sangen-shugi is a Japanese term for the three "gens," which are genba (actual place), genbutsu (actual article), and genjitsu (reality). When a problem occurs, or when efforts are being made to make improvements in a workplace, it’s important to visit the work site, to look at actual articles, and to think in realistic terms. Sangen-shugi reflects this approach to action. Specifically, the meanings of the three gens are as follows: i. Genba means the place where the phenomenon is happening. It can also refer to the act of going to that place. ii. Genbutsu means the product (article) that is the subject of the phenomenon. iii. Genjitsu means the actual situation (i.e., what is actually happening). By making these three gens core principles for your behavior, you will be able to solve problems and make various improvements in a steadier fashion. 3.4 5-Gen-shugi Sometimes another two gens (genri and gensoku) are added to sangen-shugi to give 5-gen-shugi. On the frontlines, it's impossible to discover and recognize problems exactly by only looking at them. But as you implement sangen-shugi, if you make comparisons with principles and look at things based on certain criteria, problems will come into focus, and you will be able to observe the facts clearly. This is why 5-gen-shugi has been advocated. i. Genri means "basic principles through which phenomena and"18) recognition thereof occur." ii. Gensoku means “basic rules and laws that apply to most situations." 18) Genri, which includes things like the "principle of leverage” and “Archimedes' principle," is universal rules that apply to things and go beyond human wisdom. As a result, while it can be used, it cannot be changed intentionally. Gensoku, on the other hand, includes formulations like "the three rules for preventing food poisoning," "corporate accounting rules," and so on. These are rules created by 31  Chapter 3: Preparation and Action for Making Better Products people based on past experience and values. For this reason, it can be changed in response to the conditions applied and can also be altered intentionally. Consider the example of welding process. The genri is “amalgamation by using the heat generated by passing a strong electric current through iron to melt the iron, applying pressure, cooling, and causing crystallization." The gensoku, meanwhile, is to "pass an electric current of XX ampere for YY seconds so that the iron reaches melting temperature." In addition, basic rules or approaches that people engaged in various activities within organizations and society should follow are also sometimes described as gensoku. Take the example of garbage disposal. The idea that “garbage should be disposed of as close as possible to the place where it was generated-i.e., that it should not be transported to a distant location"—can also be described as gensoku. 3.5 Manners In workplaces in which many people work, rules are prescribed to ensure that the organization is administered smoothly or to make the time spent at work more comfortable. When codified in writing, these rules take the form of rules of employment, health and safety rules, and so on. The specifics of these rules differ from workplace to workplace. The people who work in the organization obviously have to comply with these rules, but other rules, while not codified in writing, are regarded as commonsense for those in their professional lives. These rules, which we refer to as "manners," facilitate smooth human relationships and are tacitly understood. In Japan, basic manners that absolutely must be followed are described below: (1) Be a responsible member of society The most fundamental business manner of all is being aware that you are a member of society. You must regard yourself as a professional who is paid for your work and must therefore perform it responsibly. Rather than waiting for someone around you to tell you what to do, you must learn, think, and take action on your own. This is the quickest route to becoming a professional. Beyond this, you must remain aware at all times that you are a member of an organization. Refrain from acting selfishly. Report in a timely and proper fashion on how you are progressing. It is also important to understand that not only are you a member of your organization, you are also a member of society. By adhering to rules as a member of society, you will gain trust from various quarters. A related word is compliance. Compliance is defined as "adhering to demands and orders and, in particular, adherence by companies to laws, social norms, and corporate ethics."¹ Compliance, sometimes called “legal compliance,” is essential to ensuring that organizations pursue sound business activities. (2) Be on time If one person is late, the whole job can get delayed, resulting insignificant repercussions to the organization. Don't think that it’s enough just to be on time. Rather, you should always behave with the example, you could arrive your workplace at least five minutes before work begins so that you are ready to get to work right away. It is also important to make a clear distinction between break times and working time. 32  Chapter 3: Preparation and Action for Making Better Products (3) Exchange greetings Greeting others is about approaching people openheartedly. To maintain smooth relations with others in your workplace, it is important to be proactive in greeting them. Get into the habit of looking people in the eye and greeting them confidently. Greetings are the starting point for establishing good communications. (4) Pay attention to the words you use Respecting other people and using words with care is fundamental to forging good human relations. If you approach an interaction with the intent to respect and value the other person, you will choose the right words as a matter of course. It's assumed that you will speak to your superiors and seniors politely; but the same should hold true, even if you are talking to someone younger than you. Being careful with the words you use should be common sense for all members of society. (5) Wear the right clothes Appearance matters. So important, in fact, that an individual's appearance affects the way their organization is perceived. Regarding appearance, the most important thing is to be clean and not make other people feel uncomfortable. It's not about being stylish. Furthermore, if you are performing dangerous work, proper outfit(overalls, a hat, boots, etc.) must be prescribed and worn in accordance with these hazards. (5) Don't mix business with personal matters Do not use property belonging to the organization for personal ends. Don't use workplace equipment for personal matters or order junior employees to do things for you in a personal capacity. Avoid activities involving your personal life, like emailing or calling friends, during work hours. Engaging in activities like this can damage the atmosphere in the workplace and interfere with discipline. (7) Be organized and tidy (seiri and seiton) Desks and lockers in the workplace are not personal possessions. You are borrowing them from the company. Keeping them organized and tidy at all times lets both you and those around you happily focus on your work (see section 3.6). (8) Protect the environment This might seem obvious, but be sure to properly sort the garbage before disposal. Be proactive in activities related to environmental awareness, like minimizing garbage volumes. Creating a pleasant environment in this way is also an example of good manners. 33  Chapter 3: Preparation and Action for Making Better Products 3.6 5S The 5S stand for the Japanese words seiri (organized), seiton (tidy), seisou (clean), seiketsu (hygienic), and shitsuke (disciplined). They denote desirable characteristics for workplaces and can be said to the form the foundations for every type of work. The 5S are actually the 4S with "shitsuke" added. The fifth S was added to help people fully internalize the 4S and to implement them without actively thinking of them. Furthermore, since “discipline" conjures up feelings of being told to do something from those above, “shukan” (habitual) is sometimes used instead of shitsuke. Depending on the workplace, "safety" or "speed" may also be used as an alternative S. The 5S are normally used with the following meanings: i. Seiri (organized) is about deciding on things you need and throwing away the things you don't. ii. Seiton (tidy) is about putting things in their designated places to ensure they are always available for use. iii. Seisou (clean) is about cleaning all the time to keep the workplace clean. iv. Seiketsu (hygienic) is about keeping things seiri, seiton, and seisou. v. Shitsuke (disciplined) is about acquiring the habit of properly following rules. The concept of the 5S is known worldwide and their meanings are sometimes described by the following expressions: i. Seiri: Sorting ii. Seiton: Setting in Order iii. Seisou: Shining iv. Seiketsu: Standardizing v. Shitsuke: Sustaining the Discipline 3.7 Health and safety activities In workplaces, various steps are taken to ensure that time spent in the workplace is spent safely. For example, problems in the working environment must be eliminated to ensure safety, particularly in factories. In addition, action must be taken to prevent employees from having traffic accidents while commuting, health examinations are conducted periodically, and special health examinations are conducted on workers engaged in specific types of jobs. Moreover, during events called "safety weeks," everyone helps perform different safety inspections each day and takes action to address areas with hazard risks. Events are also held to educate employees about safety. Of course, safety isn't just something to work on during safety events. It's important to ensure safety on a day-to-day basis. At factories and construction sites, you often see flags and posters carrying a green cross. This is a safety campaign symbol intended to raise awareness among employees of health and safety. The green cross is also often used alongside the slogan "safety first." In workplaces, many activities are conducted to ensure proper health and safety management. They include activities for preventing industrial accidents and achieving zero disasters. Specific activities include near-miss activities, KY activities, and pointing and calling method. 34  Chapter 3: Preparation and Action for Making Better Products A near miss (incident) is a term used to describe dangerous situations or actions that arose but ultimately did not result in harm or damage. When a near miss occurs, you report it by completing a form based on 5W1H. You also describe the action you are going to take to prevent a recurrence. It is important to share this information on near misses in the workplace and to think of how to eradicate the causes. KY activities, meanwhile, refer to kiken (hazard) yochi (prediction) katsudo (activities); the abbreviation KYK* 42 is sometimes used instead. These activities involve predicting/forecasting dangerous places or actions and taking action to prevent incidents before starting work. Kiken yochi training (KYT*42) is a training activity in which workers use illustrations or photographs of their workplace to visually identify dangerous places or actions. After that, they consider measures to tackle these dangers. Pointing and calling method is a type of KY activity intended to confirm safety. You point at objects and callout the name of the action you should take in a loud voice. Calling out specific names is important; the technique is useful for preventing accidents resulting from human error. One approach to preventive management and industrial accident prevention is Heinrich's Law. Heinrich, a safety engineer in the United States, investigated many accidents and concluded that “for every accident that causes a major injury, there are 29 accidents that cause minor injuries and 300 accidents that cause no injuries (near misses or incidents).” It can therefore be said that activities designed to eliminate the causes of the near misses that occur on a daily basis on the frontlines will be effective in preventing accidents that cause actual injuries. These activities are sometimes called 300 campaigns. At any rate, it is important to identify dangerous places and actions and eliminate them before they cause problems. 35  Chapter 4: Explanation of Terminology This chapter introduces the definitions and meanings of some of the terms used in Chapter 1 through Chapter 3and provides simple explanations of these terms. The terms selected are not obvious specialist terminology used the standards for quality management, specialist terms specified by the Japanese Society for Quality Control(JSQC), and so on. Read this chapter to learn more about terms such as product*¹ with attached superscript figures in the form*1,*2,etc., that appeared in Chapter 1 through Chapter 3. Definitions and meanings from the JSQC are provided, along with explanations that will give a deeper understanding of the content of the main part of the textbook. Superscript figures displayed next to each definition [ ] in the form of ¹) are included in the Appendix under “Citations and Reference Literature." *1 Product (products and services, products/services) [Something that is the result of a process, is supplied to customers, and generates value]¹) Products come in various forms, including hardware, materials, software, services, energy, and information. Few of the products we handle day to day come in just one of these forms. Most are a mixture of one or more forms. Services, a type of product, are activities that occur between customers and organizations (suppliers) that provide benefits to the customer. In this textbook, when we want to refer to services explicitly, we add the word "services (e.g., "products and services" or "products/services"). *2 Quality [The degree to which the object concerned (e.g., product/service, process, system, management, corporate climate, etc.) satisfies explicit or implicit needs]¹) In a diverse and mature market, it is important not only to satisfy needs clearly stated by customers, but to proactively identify and satisfy latent customer needs. In other words, it is important to deliver customer satisfaction by engaging customer emotions. Needs are sometimes limited to customer needs, but the needs of society. etc.. are sometimes also included. Be careful when using this term. Sometimes elements of quality such as functionality, performance, usability, availability, economy, reliability, safety, and eco-friendliness are simply referred to as “quality.” Quality in Japanese, hinshitsu, is sometimes reworded to “shitsu" when speaking of the quality of intangible objects rather than tangible products (e.g., quality of work, quality of medical care, and quality of service) especially in the service sector. *3 Customer [The organization or person that receives a product/service]¹) In the field of quality management, a great deal of attention is paid to the recipients of products and services. The term "customers" is not used in the narrow sense of only the direct purchasers who pay for products and services supplied by organizations. It encompasses a wide range of people, including 36  Chapter 4: Explanation of Terminology consumers, end users, clients, retailers, beneficiaries, and potential customers. Furthermore, it is regarded to include not only customers external to the organization, but customers inside the organization, such as other departments and people who perform downstream processes (i.e., the next process) of the process done by your own department. This view is summed up in the expression, "The next processes are our customers." Based on this approach, the entire organization performs quality management activities, allowing it to effectively and efficiently produce and provide products/services that meet the needs of customers *4 Voice of Customer (VOC) [What customers require from products]8) This term refers to the raw opinions of customers (e.g., something should be easy to use, clean, etc.), gathered with the goal of identifying the diverse needs customers have with regard to products/services, including quality. These opinions are analyzed and translated into quality requirements (portability, high resolution, etc.) to shed light on the products/services that should be offered and to identify problems and issues from a quality assurance perspective. The Voice of Customer, abbreviated VOC, is alternatively referred to as source information, source data, or linguistic information. *5 Quality management, quality control [Activities for effectively and efficiently delivering product/service quality to meet the needs of customers/society]¹) The goal of quality management is to meet diverse needs, like needs for product/service safety, operability, reliability, economy, and eco-friendliness. To that end, it is important to articulate the quality targeted and to steadily implement management of the processes to deliver this quality. When articulating quality, take into account the users, potential customers, target market, society, and so on. Management(control), meanwhile, is about following the PDCA*¹¹ cycle—in other words, it refers to all activities related to planning and implementing the optimal use of operational resources like people, things, money, and information in accordance with management objectives to meet these objectives continuously and efficiently. *6 Problem, issue Problem: [a gap between a predetermined objective and reality that needs to tackled and overcome]7) Issue: [a gap between a to-be-determined objective and reality that needs to be addressed]7) In everyday life, we often don't distinguish between problems and issues, regarding them all as problems. But in the field of quality management, these two terms are sometimes used with different meanings. In such cases, a problem is a gap between an objective and the reality that has occurred as a result of determining an objective, deciding on the process for achieving that objective, and then performing that process. An issue, however, is a gap between a new objective that is going to be set and reality, or between a future “ideal state” and reality. For example, you can regard the gap between a current 37  Chapter 4: Explanation of Terminology product and the current standards for that product as a problem, and the gap between a new standard slated to be set to deliver customer satisfaction and the current standard as an issue. *7 Problem solving, task (issue) achieving Problem-solving: [A series of activities for addressing a problem; involves specifying the cause, taking action, and confirming the effectiveness of that action]¹) Task (issue) achieving: [A series of activities for achieving an objective; involves defining a new objective and designing processes and/or systems for achieving that objective]¹) Sometimes people don't distinguish between problems and issues and use the phrase "problem-solving" to include the achievement of tasks (i.e., the resolution of issues). A typical procedure for problem-solving is a problem-solving QC story; one for task-achieving is a task-achieving QC story (see section 1.6 (1), p.13). *8 Variation [The observed values or measurement results are uneven; also used to refer to the degree of unevenness]10) Even if you perform the same tasks using the same work procedure, the data*30 obtained will not be uniform. There will inevitably be variation. This is because the numerous factors that affect the outcome are never constant. The degree of variation can be expressed using statistics such as standard deviation*35, but, in this textbook, we use "range" (R), which is the difference between the maximum and minimum values in the data obtained. Please refer to section 2.2 (4) (pp.17-19) for more details. *9 Complaint [An expression of dissatisfaction from a customer or other interested party to a supplier (or to a third-party who can influence the supplier) due to a product/service or organizational activity that does not meet the needs of the customer or other interested party]²) A complaint refers to an expression of dissatisfaction about a supplier or third party (consumer organization, regulatory body, etc.). "Dissatisfaction" refers to the feeling that something doesn't meet one's needs. For example, the unpleasant sensation caused by a loud noise from a construction site is a form of dissatisfaction; when complaint is about it is made to the authorities, the issue becomes a complaint. Among complaints directed at suppliers, those that include a demand for compensation or restitution are referred to as claims (for damages). In fact, the term "complaint" is sometimes used to describe a simple gripe. You may need to distinguish between the two terms on occasion. "Needs" refer to expectations concerning functions and performance specifications, which are clearly stated in catalogs, instruction manuals, etc., as well as tacit expectations such as safety as a matter of course. They also refer to the provision of products/services (e.g., finished buildings) themselves and the process of achieving that provision (e.g., noise generated during construction). 38  Chapter 4: Explanation of Terminology *10 Nonconformity, nonconforming item Nonconformity: [Non-fullfillment of a requirement]¹º) Nonconforming item: [An item with one or more nonconformities]10) If a component, etc., is processed and inspected and the results of that inspection*24 reveal that the component does not meet criteria or standards, the situation is called a nonconformity. The term "nonconforming item" issued for nonconforming articles like components. In the past, futekigohin (nonconforming item) was referred to as furyohin (nonconforming or defective item), but nowadays a distinction is made between the two terms. Futekigo (nonconformity) refers to a failure to meet prescribed requirements, while furyo (defect) refers to a failure to meet requirements for use. *11 PDCA, SDCA [An approach for improving processes by continuously following a cycle comprising planning, doing, checking, and acting]¹) PDCA is also referred to as the "PDCA cycle,” the “management cycle," or the "management circle.” It is a version of the cycle of product processes described by the statistician W.E. Deming (design-manufacture-inspection/sale-service/survey) expanded for general use. A similar approach to PDCA called “plan-do-see” existed in the past, but the “see” element was misunderstood as meaning that all one needed to do was look at results. Therefore, “see" was broken down into "check" and "act" to emphasize the importance of remedying problems and preventing recurrences. (In the past, "action" was used in place of "act" in Japan.) The P in PDCA includes the notions of “planning to break free of the current situation" and "planning to maintain the current situation." Because PDCA is implemented with the latter as the basis for defining standards that prescribe work methods or standard procedures essential for performing day-to-day tasks in the workplace, the approach is sometimes called "SDCA," in which the S stands for "standardize." *12 QCD, QCD + PSME QCD, which stands for Quality, Costs, and Delivery (production volume, delivery date, work period, etc.), is a term used to refer to quality in the broad sense. In the workplace, it is customary to add P (productivity), S (safety), M (morale/morality), and E (environment) to give QCD + PSME, which provides an even broader notion of quality and for monitoring items to be established and controlled for each element. 39  Chapter 4: Explanation of Terminology The following table shows some examples of monitoring items: *13 Occupational Health and Ssafety [Conditions and factors that affect or could affect the health and safety of employees, other workers (including temporary workers and subcontractors), visitors, and all other people in the workplace]¹º) Occupational health and safety covers everything concerned with maintaining the health and safety of all those involved in the business activities of the organization, including physical and mental safety in the workplace, safety while commuting to and from work, and health examinations. The Industrial Safety and Health Law stipulates that organizations must safeguard the health and safety of workers in the workplace and promote formation of a pleasant working environment. To achieve these objectives, business operators have a duty to establish hazard-prevention standards for preventing occupational accidents, to clarify responsibility systems, to promote voluntary activities, to implement comprehensive and strategic measures, and so on. It is not enough simply to abide by standards for preventing occupational accidents. The Act requires workplaces to offer peace of mind, comfort, and a pleasing atmosphere to strengthen health and safety. It must also not be forgotten that business operators have occupational health and safety responsibilities for those not directly involved in their operations. For example, they must take action to prevent the pollution of the atmosphere, water, etc. Events promoting these activities, such as National Safety Week in July and National Industrial Health Week in October, are held nationwide each year. *14 Product Safety [Measures taken to ensure the safety of products from a PLP (product liability prevention) perspective. Refers to measures taken to prevent the occurrence of accidents that lead to product liability claims, i.e., corporate activities for the creation of safer products.]³) The term "product safety" is sometimes abbreviated PS. In addition, PLP stands for "product liability prevention"; PL alone stands for "product liability."