Industrial/Organizational Psychology Introduction & History - PDF

6/4/2024 Gerald B. Peñaranda, MSc., RPsy. Registered Psychologist HR & OD Consultant [email protected] 1 Objective: 1. DEFINE industrial/organizational psychology and...

6/4/2024 Gerald B. Peñaranda, MSc., RPsy. Registered Psychologist HR & OD Consultant [email protected] 1 Objective: 1. DEFINE industrial/organizational psychology and DISCUSS the importance of this field of inquiry. 2 1  6/4/2024 PRB of Psychology Table of Specification (TOS) for Industrial/Organizational Psychology (2023) Outcome Weight No. of Items 1. Organizational Theories: Classical organization 20% 20 theory, neo-classical organization theory, modern organizational theory, contingency theory, motivation theory, and open systems theory. Description, differentiation, and applications of these theories in improving organizational structure and design, leadership, managerial styles, group behavior, motivation, communication, operational efficiency, and organizational structure. 3 PRB of Psychology Table of Specification (TOS) for Industrial/Organizational Psychology (2023) Outcome Weight No. of Items 2. Organizational Structures and Systems: 20% 20 Functional, multi-divisional, flat, matrix, team, network, and hierarchical structures. ❑ Knowledge of the pros and cons of these structures. ❑ Definition of the elements that create organizational structure and their distinct relationships: job design, departmentalization, delegation, span of control, and chain of command. ❑ Application of organizational design with roles and performance accountability. ❑ Alignment of organizational structure with the business strategy. ❑ Application of the four business elements in ensuring profitable performance and business success. 4 2  6/4/2024 PRB of Psychology Table of Specification (TOS) for Industrial/Organizational Psychology (2023) Outcome Weight No. of Items 3. Team Dynamics: 20% 20 ❑ Importance and impact of team dynamics. ❑ Stages of team development. ❑ Group processes that affect team effectiveness. ❑ Common problems that occur in teams. ❑ Addressing team problems and improving team performance. 5 PRB of Psychology Table of Specification (TOS) for Industrial/Organizational Psychology (2023) Outcome Weight No. of Items 4. Organizational Change and Development: 20% 20 ❑ Differentiating organizational change and organizational development, and differentiating organizational development and transformation. ❑ Analysis of the different factors driving organizational change. ❑ Identification of the different types of large-scale organizational changes. ❑ Evaluating the different organizational interventions used to enhance organizational effectiveness, employee well-being, and productivity. 6 3  6/4/2024 Adulthood Commitments “One can live magnificently in this world if one knows how to work and to love.” – Leo Tolstoy, 1856 LOVE: Adult bonds of WORK: Work can love are more satisfying provide us with a sense when marked by of identity, competence, similarity of interests and opportunities for accomplishment. This is and values, a sharing of why challenging and emotional and material interesting occupations support, and intimate enhance people’s self-disclosure. happiness. 7 Recent Challenges to Organizations: ▪ Litigious environment demands qualified managers to balance business, legal and ethical concerns ▪ Due to intense competition, organizations have been downsized, delayered, and decentralized ▪ Experience waves of organizational change programs: TQM, performance management, business process re- engineering, etc. 8 4  6/4/2024 Recent Challenges to Organizations: ▪ Globalization of business: adapting to cultures, systems, and techniques different from local country ▪ Human Resource Information Systems (HRIS) allow HRM professionals to better facilitate human resource plans, make decisions faster, clearly define jobs, evaluate performance, and provide cost-effective benefits that employees want. ▪ Blurred boundaries between home and work: away from the workplace, mediated by technology. Organizations are asking employees to put in longer hours. ▪ Work-life balance: Organizations that fail to help their people achieve work/life balance will find it increasingly hard to attract and retain the most capable and motivated employees 9 Recent Challenges to Organizations: ▪ Work attitudes have shifted: workers are more willing to leave jobs to gain time for leisure or family. Many Gen Xers (born 1965–1980) and Gen Yers (born 1982–early 2000s), while passionate about their careers, won’t sacrifice family and leisure for their career ▪ Emergence of the strategic role of HR: top HR executive at most companies today has the vice president position ▪ Outsourcing: large organizations hire outside firms to handle payroll, insurance and benefits, and even recruitment and selection ▪ Employment under constant threat: part-time work, contractualization, temps, and interims ▪ HRM practices in an era of austerity 10 5  6/4/2024 Recent Challenges to Organizations: ▪ Corporate Social Responsibility: A dominant topic in the 21st century, CSR is the equitable treatment of all stakeholders (employees, suppliers, customers, owners, investors and the community) without sacrificing the needs of one group for the success of another (Reichman & Berry, 2012) ▪ It is the idea of the triple bottom line – financial success, concern for the environment and concern for human rights 11 Human Resource Management ❑ HUMAN RESOURCE: The people that an organization employs to carry out various jobs, tasks, and functions in exchange for wages, salaries, and other rewards. ❑ HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT: The comprehensive set of managerial activities and tasks concerned with developing and maintaining a qualified workforce in ways that contribute to organizational effectiveness. 12 6  6/4/2024 The HR Wheel 13 Major HR Functions ❖ TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT: Identifying, assessing and through planned learning, helping develop the key competencies (KSAO) that will enable individuals perform current of future jobs. ❖ ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT: Assuring the healthy inter- and intra-unit relationships and helping group initiate and manage change. ❖ CAREER DEVELOPMENT: Assuring the process of managing, learning, work, leisure, and transitions in order to move toward a personally determined and evolving preferred future. 14 7  6/4/2024 Major HR Functions ❖ HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING: Determining organization’s major human resource needs, strategies, and philosophies. ❖ PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT: Ensuring that organizational, departmental, and individual goals are consistently being met in an effective and efficient manner. ❖ SELECTION AND STAFFING: Matching people and their career needs and capabilities with jobs and career paths. 15 Major HR Functions ❖ COMPENSATION AND BENEFITS: Assuring compensation and benefits fairness and consistency. ❖ EMPLOYEE ASSISTANCE: Providing personal problem solving and counseling to individual employee. ❖ HR RESEARCH AND INFORMATION SYSTEMS: Assuring a personnel information base. ❖ UNION LABOR RELATIONS: Assuring healthy union organization relations. 16 8  6/4/2024 Responsibilities of HR Departments FUNCTION RESPONSIBILITIES Analysis and Work analysis; job design; job descriptions design of work Recruitment and Recruiting; job postings; interviewing; selection testing; coordinating use of temporary labor Training and Orientation; skills training; career development development programs Performance Performance measures; preparation and management administration of performance appraisals; discipline Compensation and Wage and salary distribution; incentive pay; benefits insurance; vacation leave administration; retirement plans; profit sharing; stock plans 17 Responsibilities of HR Departments FUNCTION RESPONSIBILITIES Employee Attitude surveys; labor relations; employee relations handbooks; company publications; labor law compliance; relocation and outplacement services Personnel policies Policy creation; policy communication Employee data Record keeping; HR information systems; and information workplace analytics systems Compliance with Policies to ensure lawful behavior; reporting; laws posting information; safety inspections, accessibility accommodations Support for Human resource planning and forecasting, strategy talent management; change management 18 9  6/4/2024 Why I/O Psychology? People spend more time at their jobs than any other activity in life. If people are happy and productive at their work, this can have a spill-over effect on their lives I/O psychologists can also improve the quality of life of everyone in society by increasing employee effectiveness, which reduces the cost of goods sold by improving product quality 19 Did you know that I/O Psychologists Helped… AT&T develop assessment centres to choose the best managers? General Electric (GE) develop systems to provide job performance feedback to employees? The U.S. Army use psychological tests to place recruits in the appropriate jobs? The U.S. Postal Service develop procedures to reduce assaults by employees? 20 10  6/4/2024 If you apply for a job, an I/O psychologist… …May have designed the application form that you will fill out to get the job, the salary, and the benefit package that you will be offered, the training that you will receive, and the structure of the tasks that will comprise your job. 21 The Two Divisions in I/O Psych. ❖ Industrial Psychology (the original name) tends to make a management perspective of organizational efficiency through the appropriate use of human resources. It is concerned with issues of efficient job design, employee selection and training, and performance appraisal. ❖ It may help you to remember Industrial Psychology as the “practical” side of I/O 22 11  6/4/2024 The Two Divisions in I/O Psych. ❖ Organizational Psychology developed from the human relations movement in organizations and focuses more on the individual employee. Examples are employee attitudes, employee behavior, job stress, and supervisory practices. ❖ It may help you to remember Organizational Psychology as the “soft” side of I/O 23 24 12  6/4/2024 Organizations are about PEOPLE “Take away my people, but leave my factories, and soon grass will grow on the factory floors. Take away my factories, but leave my people, and soon we will have a new and better factory.” Andrew Carnegie (1835-1919) 25 I/O Psychology is… A branch of psychology that applies the principles of psychology to the workplace. Purpose: To enhance the dignity and performance of human beings, and the organizations they work in, by advancing the science and knowledge of human behavior (Rucci, 2008) “What factors can motivate employees to perform well?” 26 13  6/4/2024 Major I/O Fields: 1. PERSONNEL PSYCHOLOGY: Includes such areas as analysing jobs, recruiting applicants, selecting employees, determining salary levels, training employees, and evaluating employee performance 2. ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY: Concerned with the issues of leadership, job satisfaction, employee motivation, organizational communication, conflict management, organizational change, and group processes within an organization 27 Major I/O Fields: 3. HUMAN FACTORS/ ERGONOMICS: A field of study concentrating on the interaction between humans and machines These psychologists frequently work with engineers and other technical professionals to make the workplace safer and more efficient. 28 14  6/4/2024 Settings of I/O Psychologists SOURCE: Employment sectors for SIOP membership by percentages. Source: L. Nader, personal communication, September 17, 2020. 29 Scientist-Practitioner Model ❑ SCIENCE: I/O psychologists pose questions to guide their investigations and then use the scientific method to obtain answers. In this respect, I/O psychology is an academic discipline ❑ PRACTICE: The professional side is concerned with the application of knowledge to real problems in the world of work. I/O psychologists can use research findings to hire better employees, reduce absenteeism, improve communication, increase job satisfaction, and solve countless other problems 30 15  6/4/2024 I/O Psychology as a Profession I/O Psychologists belong to professional/scientific organizations. In the U.S. they have the S.I.O.P. with about 6,000 members. In the Philippines, the PAP provides a certification program for I/O practitioners. 31 I/O Psychology as a Profession 32 16  6/4/2024 I/O Psychology as a Science ▪ Often, research is conducted in specific organizations to solve a particular problem while others focus on understanding some organizational phenomenon. 33 Examples of highly respected academic journals related to I- O psychology ▪ Academy of Management Discoveries ▪ Journal of Applied Psychology ▪ Academy of Management Journal ▪ Journal of Business and Psychology ▪ Academy of Management Review ▪ Journal of Management ▪ Administrative Science Quarterly ▪ Journal of Occupational Health ▪ Annual Review of Organizational Psychology Psychology and Organizational Behavior ▪ Journal of Occupational and ▪ Applied Psychology: An International Organizational Psychology Review ▪ Journal of Organizational Behavior ▪ European Journal of Work and ▪ Journal of Vocational Behavior Organizational Psychology ▪ Leadership Quarterly ▪ Group & Organization Management ▪ Organizational Behavior and Human ▪ Human Performance Decision Processes ▪ Human Relations ▪ Organizational Psychology Review ▪ Human Resource Management Review ▪ Organizational Research Methods ▪ Industrial and Organizational ▪ Personnel Assessment and Decisions Psychology: Perspectives on Science ▪ Personnel Psychology and Practice ▪ Work, Aging and Retirement ▪ International Journal of Selection and Assessment 34 17  6/4/2024 Most Commonly Researched I/O Topics 1. Japan: job stress, leadership, career issues, motivation. 2. Israel: career issues, cross- cultural issues, motivation, performance appraisal, job satisfaction, 3. U.S.: employee selection, career issues, performance appraisal, leadership 35 Brief History of I/O Psychology 36 18  6/4/2024 Direct Influencers ▪ ADAM SMITH: Studied the capitalistic order of production and concluded that rational self-interest and the division of labor was the way to create wealth ▪ KARL MARX: Maintained that because the worker does not own the means of production, he is likely to be exploited for the benefit of the owners ▪ FRANCIS GALTON: His statistical methods were an important part of a major contribution of I-O psychology: testing and selection of people for jobs 37 Founders of the Field Two experimental psychologists are credited for being the main founders of the field: ▪ Considered by many as "the father of industrial psychology”, Hugo Münsterberg (1863-1916) was particularly interested in the selection of employees and the use of new psychological tests. ▪ In 1913 his book Psychology and Industrial Efficiency addressed such things as personnel selection and equipment design 38 19  6/4/2024 Founders of the Field Two experimental psychologists are credited for being the main founders of the field: ▪ Walter Dill Scott (1869-1955) pioneered the use of psychological principles to produce more effective advertisements. His book, The Theory and Practice of Advertising (1903) was the first of its kind ▪ In WW1, he classified and placed enlistees, conducted performance evaluations of officers, and developed and prepared job duties and qualifications for over 500 jobs. He received the Distinguished Service Medal from U.S. Army. 39 Pioneers of I/O James McKeen Cattell (1860- 1944). He created the Psychological Corporation in 1921, still in existence today. The main purpose was to advance psychology and promote its usefulness to industry. It also served as a place for companies to get reference checks on prospective psychologists. 40 20  6/4/2024 Pioneers of I/O Walter VanDyke Bingham. He started the Division of Applied Psychology for Carnegie Institute of Technology – the first academic program in industrial psychology (Krumm, 2001). He headed the Personal Research Federation and directed The Psychological Corporation. 41 Pioneers of I/O Lilian (1876-1972) and Frank (1868-1924) Gilbreth. A wife and husband team who combined psychology and engineering to study efficient ways of performing tasks. Their best contribution was the time and motion study. Lilian is one of the first working female engineers holding a Ph.D., she is held to be the first true industrial/organizational psychologist. 42 21  6/4/2024 Pioneers of I/O Robert Mearns Yerkes (1876-1956). During WW1, Robert Yerkes and others offered their services to the Army. Their newly invented psychological tests led to the identification of Army Alpha and Army Beta. ▪ Army Alpha: An intelligence test developed during World War 1 and used by the army for soldiers who can read ▪ Army Beta: An intelligence test developed during World War 1 and used by the army for soldiers who cannot read 43 That, behaviorism pioneer John B. Watson served as a major in the U.S. Army in WW1 and developed perceptual and motor tests for potential pilots? (DiClemente & Hantula, 2000)? That, inventor Thomas A. Edison created a 163-item knowledge test that he administered to over 900 applicants? The test and the passing score was so difficult that only 5% of the applicants passed? 44 22  6/4/2024 Pioneers of I/O Mary Parker Follett (1866- 1933). A social philosopher, she advocated people-oriented organizations. Her writings focused on groups, as opposed to individuals, in the organization. Thus, Follet’s theory was a forerunner of today’s teamwork concept and group cohesiveness. 45 Pioneers of I/O Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1915). An engineer who studied employee productivity, he developed an approach to handling production workers in factories. Frederick Taylor’s approach to work motivation, called Scientific Management, became popular in the late 1800s and early 1900s. 46 23  6/4/2024 Taylor (1911) suggested that: 1. Each job should be carefully analysed so that the optimal way of doing tasks can be specified. 2. Employees should be selected (hired) according to characteristics that are related to job performance. Managers should study existing employees to find out what personal characteristics are important. 3. Employees should be trained to do their job tasks 4. Employees should be rewarded for their productivity to encourage high levels of performance. 47 The HAWTHORNE STUDIES A series of studies, conducted for 10 years at the Western Electric plant in Hawthorne, Illinois, initially designed to investigate issues as the effects of lighting levels, work schedules, wages, temperature, and rest breaks on employee performance. ▪ The investigation of the impact of illumination did not affect productivity in the predicted manner. ▪ Researchers realized that the social and psychological conditions of work were often more important than the physical conditions (Roethlisberger & Dickson, 1939) 48 24  6/4/2024 Hawthorne Effect When employees change their behavior due solely to the fact that they are receiving attention or are being observed. ▪ Listening and paying attention to employees was the key ingredient to increased production ▪ The Hawthorne studies inspired psychologists to increase their focus on human relations in the workplace. Issues such as employee attitudes, team development, supervision, group process, worker morale, and other organizational phenomena started playing a role in the I/O field. 49 Pioneers of I/O Elton Mayo (1880–1949). His Human Relations approach countered scientific management. He recognized the "inadequacies of existing scientific management approaches" to industrial organizations, and underlined the importance of relationships among people who work for such organizations. 50 25  6/4/2024 Pioneers of I/O Kurt Zadek Lewin (1890- 1947). In 1939, he led the first publication of an empirical study of the effects of leadership styles which initiated arguments for the use of participative management techniques. In 1945 he formed the Research Center for Group Dynamics at MIT to perform experiments in group behavior 51 1960s to 1990s ▪ 1960s: Civil rights legislation leading to fair selection techniques, sensitivity (T-groups) for managers ▪ 1970s: Employee satisfaction and motivation, increased used of behavior-modification in the workplace (Skinner) ▪ 1980s and 1990s: Sophisticated statistical techniques and methods of analysis (path analysis, SEM, MANOVA, and causal modelling); application of cognitive psychology to industry (i.e., thought process by managers during performance appraisals); effects of work to family life and leisure activities; variety of selection instruments (e.g., cognitive ability tests, structured interviews, etc.); OD interventions (TQM, reengineering, and employee empowerment); concern for diversity and gender issues; downsizing 52 26  6/4/2024 2000s ▪ Internet: Online recruitment and testing, use of social media (Twitter, LinkedIn, Facebook) to find jobs, eLearning and distance education as T&D means; cyberspace meetings ▪ Demographic makeup of workforce: Women increasingly taking managerial roles; Asian Americans fastest growing segment of U.S. population ▪ Global economy: offshoring, increasing number of expatriates, increased emphasis on service jobs requiring human relations skills ▪ High unemployment rates, flexible work schedules, family- friendly work policies, accommodation of child-care and elder- care responsibilities, increasing costs of health-care benefits, etc. 53 JOB ANALYSIS Gerald B. Peñaranda, M.Sc., RPsy. Industrial-Organizational Psychologist HR Consultant [email protected] 54 27  6/4/2024 Objective: 1. LIST the uses of job analysis information. 2. DESCRIBE the sources and ways of collecting job analysis information 3. DISCUSS the different job analysis methods. 4. DESCRIBE the evidence for reliability and validity of job analysis methods. 55 Human Resource Planning 56 28  6/4/2024 Human Resource Planning JOB ANALYSIS HR PLANNING JOB DESCRIPTION RECRUITMENT SELECTION 57 How would you describe the job of a police officer? o What are the different tasks that police officers do? o How much time do they spend doing each one? o How difficult is it to learn the various tasks? o How long does it take to learn them? o What personal characteristics does it take to do each task, as well as the entire job? 58 29  6/4/2024 Job Analysis is a method for describing jobs and/or the human attributes necessary to perform them; gathering, analysing, and structuring information about a job’s components, characteristics, and requirements 3 elements that comprise a formal job analysis: 1. The procedure must be systematic. The analyst needs to specify the procedures in advance. 2. A job is broken into smaller units. We describe components of jobs rather than the overall job. 3. The analysis results in some written product, either electronic or on paper. 59 Two Products of Job Analysis 1. JOB DESCRIPTION: A list of a job’s duties, responsibilities, reporting relationships, working conditions, and supervisory responsibilities. 2. JOB SPECIFICATION: A list of a jobs human requirements, that is, the requisite education, skills, personality, and so on. 60 30  6/4/2024 JOB ANALYSIS Job-Oriented Approach: Provides information about the nature of tasks done on the job. TASK: Completes report after arresting an accused CHARACTERISTIC: Uses pencils and pens. 61 LEVEL OF SPECIFITY o Level of specificity answers the question: Should the job analysis break a job down into very minute, specific behaviours (e.g., tilts arm at a 90-degree angle” or moves foot forward three inches), or should the job be analysed at a more general level (“makes financial decisions”, “speaks to clients”) o Informal requirements (such as picking mail, making coffee, or picking up the boss’ children from school) may need to be made formal to reduce potential confusion regarding who is responsible for the task 62 31  6/4/2024 FIVE LEVELS OF SPECIFITY 1. POSITION: A collection of duties that can be performed by a single individual. e.g. Patrol Officer, Desk Officer 2. DUTY: A major component of a job. e.g. Enforce the law 3. TASK: A complete piece of work that accomplishes some particular objective. e.g. Arrest suspects who violate the law. 4. ACTIVITY: Individual parts that make up the task. e.g. Driving to a suspect’s house to perform an arrest. 5. ELEMENT: Very specific actions to perform an activity. e.g. Place handcuffs on a suspect. 63 JOB ANALYSIS Person-Oriented Approach: Provides a description of the characteristics, or KSAOs necessary for a person to successfully perform a particular job. Knowledge: what a person needs to know to do a particular job. Skill: what a person is able to do on the job. Ability: a person’s aptitude or capability to do job tasks or learn to do job tasks. Other personal characteristics: anything relevant to the job that is not covered by the other three. 64 32  6/4/2024 Examples of KSAOs and Associated Tasks KSAO TASK Knowledge of legal arrest Arrest suspects procedures Skill in using a firearm Practice shooting firearm on firing range Ability to communicate Mediate a dispute with others between two people to prevent violent incident Courage (as the personal Enter dark alley to characteristic) apprehend suspect. 65 ABILITY DESCRIPTION 1. Verbal The ability to understand what words mean and to Comprehension readily comprehend what is read. 2. Word fluency The ability to produce isolated words that fulfil specific symbolic or structural requirements (such as all words that begin with the letter b and have two vowels). 3. Numerical The ability to make quick and accurate arithmetic computations such as adding and subtracting. 4. Spatial Being able to perceive spatial patterns and to visualize how geometric shapes would look if transformed in shape or position. 5. Memory Having good rote memory for paired words, symbols, lists of numbers, or other associated terms. 6. Perceptual The ability to perceive figures, identify similarities and speed differences, and carry out tasks involving visual perception. 7. Inductive The ability to reason from specifics to general reasoning conclusions. 66 33  6/4/2024 Competency-based Job Analysis ▪ Describing the job in terms of measurable, observable, behavioral competencies (knowledge, skills, and/or behaviors) that an employee doing that job must exhibit ▪ Traditional job analysis is more job-focused (What are this job’s duties?). Competency-based analysis is more worker-focused (What must employees be competent at to do this multiskilled job?) 67 Who provides the information? They actually do the job or spend time observing employees Job Analysts and doing the job and translate Trained Observers these experiences into a job analysis. They are considered subject matter experts (SMEs) because Job Incumbents they have detailed knowledge and Supervisors about the content and requirements of their own jobs or the jobs that they supervise. 68 34  6/4/2024 69 PURPOSES OF JOB ANALYSIS USE Description Career development Define KSAOs necessary for advancement Legal issues Show job relevance of KSAOs Performance appraisal Set criteria to evaluate performance Recruitment and Delineate applicant characteristics to be used selection of employees as basis for hiring Training Suggest areas for training Setting salaries Determine salary levels for jobs Efficiency/safety Design jobs for efficiency and safety Job classification Place similar jobs in groupings Job design Design content of jobs Planning Forecast future need for employees with specific KSAOs 70 35  6/4/2024 Approaches to Collecting Job Analysis Information Job Participation ADVANTAGES: o Provides context in which job is done. o Provides extensive detail about the job. DISADVANTAGES o Fails to show differences among jobs with same title. o Expensive and time consuming o Can take extensive training of analyst. o Can be dangerous to analyst. 71 Approaches to Collecting Job Analysis Information Interview ADVANTAGES: o Provides multiple perspectives on a job. o Can show differences among incumbents with same job. DISADVANTAGES o Time consuming as compared to questionnaires. o Fails to show context in which tasks are done. 72 36  6/4/2024 Typical Questions: 1. What is the job being performed? 2. What are the major duties of your position? What exactly do you do? 3. What physical locations do you work in? 4. What are the education, experience, skill, and [where applicable] certification and licensing requirements? 5. In what activities do you participate? 6. What are the job s responsibilities and duties? 7. What are the basic accountabilities or performance standards that typify your work? 8. What are your responsibilities? What are the environmental and working conditions involved? 9. What are the job’s physical demands? The emotional and mental demands? 10. What are the health and safety conditions? Are you exposed to any hazards or unusual working conditions? 73 Approaches to Collecting Job Analysis Information Observe Employees Doing the Job ADVANTAGES: o Provides relatively objective view of the job. o Provides context in which job is done. DISADVANTAGES o Time-consuming o Employees might change their behavior because they know they are being observed. 74 37  6/4/2024 Approaches to Collecting Job Analysis Information Questionnaires ADVANTAGES: o Efficient and inexpensive o Shows differences among incumbents in same job o Easy to quantify and analyse statistically o Easy to compare jobs on common job dimensions DISADVANTAGES o Ignores context in which job is done o Limits respondents to question asked o Requires knowledge of job to design questionnaire o Easy for job incumbents to distort to make their jobs seem more important 75 Important Points Use at least three methods of collecting job analysis information, including interviews, questionnaires, and observation. Make the job analysis a joint effort by a human resources manager, the worker, and the worker’s supervisor. 76 38  6/4/2024 Other Job Analysis Methods 1. Job Components Inventory (JCI) ▪ Developed in Great Britain to address the need to match job requirements to worker characteristics (Banks, Jackson, Stafford, and Warr, 1983) FIVE COMPONENTS OF JOBS 1. Use of tools and equipment 2. Perceptual and physical requirements 3. Mathematics 4. Communication 5. Decision-making and responsibility 77 Examples of Frequently Needed Skills for Clerical Jobs COMPONENT SKILL Use of tools and Use of pens equipment Use of telephone Perceptual and Selective attention physical Wrist/finger/hand speed requirements Mathematics Use decimals Use whole numbers Decision-making and Decide on sequencing of work responsibility Decide on standards of work 78 39  6/4/2024 Other Job Analysis Methods 2. Functional Job Analysis (FJA) ▪ Uses both observation and interviews to provide a description of a job and scores on several dimensions concerning the job and potential workers. O*NET (http://online.onetcenter.org) is a computer-based resource for job –related information on approximately 1,100 groups of jobs sharing common characteristics, a very extensive undertaking. 79 Other Job Analysis Methods 3. Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) ▪ This questionnaire contains 194 items dealing with the task requirement or elements of jobs. FIVE ACTIVITIES: 1. Having decision- making/communication/social responsibilities. 2. Performing skilled activities 3. Being physically active 4. Operating vehicles/equipment 5. Processing information 80 40  6/4/2024 Major Categories of the PAQ CATEGORY EXAMPLE Information input Collecting or observing information Mediation processes Decision-making and information processing Work output Manipulating objects Interpersonal activities Communicating with people Work situation and job Physical and psychological context working conditions Miscellaneous aspects Work schedule 81 Other Job Analysis Methods 4. Task Inventories ▪ A questionnaire that contains a list of specific tasks that might be done on a job that is being analysed and rating scales for each task POSSIBLE DIMENSIONS 1. Amount of time spent doing the task 2. Criticality of the task for doing a good job 3. Difficulty in learning the task 4. Importance of the task 82 41  6/4/2024 Reliability ▪ A meta-analysis (Dierdorff & Wilson, 2003) that summarized the results of 46 studies found a test-retest reliability of.83. This means that people are quite consistent over time in making their job analysis ratings. ▪ Inter-rater agreement by different people ranged from.48 to.81 83 Validity ▪ Spector, Brannick, and Coovert (1989) summarized the results of nine studies that reported correlations among methods and sources that ranged from.47 to.94 and the results are suggestive of job ratings validity ▪ Most research suggest that job analysis ratings are not perfect and are potentially subject to some biases because of human judgment. 84 42