VCE Psychology Units 1 & 2 Textbook PDF

VCE PSYCHOLOGY Units 1!&!2 This document is intended for Ruth Tsegaye at Gilson College, Taylor's Hill Campus (us er ID: 2701104). Unauthorised circulation in any form is not permitted. ...

VCE PSYCHOLOGY Units 1!&!2 This document is intended for Ruth Tsegaye at Gilson College, Taylor's Hill Campus (us er ID: 2701104). Unauthorised circulation in any form is not permitted.  VCE PSYCHOLOGY Units 1 & 2 Merav Chait, Stephanie White, Christy Thomas, Natasha Vranes, Gabriella Velardo, Emily Condon, Jessie Rozario, Julia Ellul, Dominic Marshall, Bridie Goold, Leonardo Curtis Need help? Email our School Support team at [email protected] Or call 1300 EDROLO | 1300 337 656 This document is intended for Ruth Tsegaye at Gils on College, Taylor's Hill Campus (user ID: 2701104). Unauthorised circulation in any form is not permitted. At Edrolo, we’re transforming the way the students learn and teachers teach. Our mission is simple: to improve education. PUBLISHED IN AUSTRALIA BY Edrolo 321 Exhibition Street Melbourne VIC 3000, Australia © Edrolo 2022 Ref: 2.1.2 First published 2022. Reprinted 2023 The moral rights of the authors have been asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Edrolo, or as expressly permitted by law, by licence, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organisation. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to Edrolo, at the address above. You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer. National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication data TITLE: Edrolo VCE Psychology Units 1 & 2 CREATOR: Edrolo et al. ISBN: 978-1-922901-06-4 TARGET AUDIENCE: For secondary school age. SUBJECTS: Psychology--Study and teaching (Secondary)--Victoria Psychology--Victoria--Textbooks Psychology--Theory, exercises, etc. OTHER CREATORS/CONTRIBUTORS: Christine Lovell, Tania Vranes, Annele Cook, Janette Tang, Jacinta Walsh, Andrew Peters REPRODUCTION AND COMMUNICATION FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES The Australian Copyright Act 1968 (the Act) allows a maximum of one chapter or 10% of the pages of this work, whichever is the greater, to be reproduced and/or communicated by any educational institution for its educational purposes provided that the educational institution (or the body that administers it) has given a remuneration notice to Copyright Agency Limited (CAL) under the Act. FOR DETAILS OF THE CAL LICENCE FOR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS CONTACT: Copyright Agency Limited Level 15, 233 Castlereagh Street Sydney NSW 2000 Telephone: (02) 9394 7600 Facsimile: (02) 9394 7601 Email: [email protected] TYPE DESIGN Sam McCarthy and Edrolo TYPESET BY Sharni Fitzgerald, Sam McCarthy, Akshata Chourey, Danielle Ruasol, Arslan Khan, Eli Minuz COVER DESIGN BY Tasha Hassapis, Sam McCarthy DISCLAIMER: Extracts from the VCE Psychology Study Design (2023–2027) used with permission. VCE is a registered trademark of the VCAA. The VCAA does not endorse or make any warranties regarding this study resource. Current VCE Study Designs, VCE exams and related content can be accessed directly at www.vcaa.vic.edu.au. Printed in Australia by Ligare Printing Pty Ltd This book has been printed on paper manufactured in Australia and certified by the Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC). PEFC is committed to sustainable forest management through third party forest certification of responsibly managed forests. For more info: www.pefc.org.au This document is intended for Ruth Tsegaye at Gils on College, Taylor's Hill Campus (user ID: 2701104). Unauthorised circulation in any form is not permitted. CONTENTS FEATURES OF THIS BOOK VI Chapter 1: Key science skills 1 1A Introduction to research....................................................................................................................................... 2 1B Scientific research methodologies........................................................................................................................ 14 1C Population, sample and sampling........................................................................................................................ 29 1D Preventing error and bias.................................................................................................................................... 37 1E Organising and interpreting data......................................................................................................................... 47 1F Evaluating research........................................................................................................................................... 59 1G Ethical considerations........................................................................................................................................ 70 Chapter 1 review...................................................................................................................................................... 81 UNIT 1 – How are behaviour and mental processes shaped? 87 AOS 1 – What influences psychological development? 88 Chapter 2: The complexity of psychological development 89 2A Nature versus nurture........................................................................................................................................ 90 2B The biopsychosocial model................................................................................................................................ 99 2C Psychological development across the lifespan.................................................................................................... 109 2D Critical and sensitive periods.............................................................................................................................. 121 Chapter 2 review................................................................................................................................................... 129 Chapter 3: Defining and supporting psychological development 133 3A Categorising typical and atypical behaviour......................................................................................................... 134 3B Understanding normality and neurotypicality...................................................................................................... 144 3C Neurodiversity................................................................................................................................................. 153 3D Role of mental health workers, psychologists, psychiatrists and organisations......................................................... 164 Chapter 3 review................................................................................................................................................... 176 Unit 1 AOS 1 review SAC assessment....................................................................................................................... 181 AOS 2 – How are mental processes and behaviour influenced by the brain? 186 Chapter 4: The role of the brain in behaviour and mental processes 187 4A Approaches to understanding the brain.............................................................................................................. 188 4B Regions of the brain......................................................................................................................................... 200 4C The cerebral cortex.......................................................................................................................................... 210 Chapter 4 review.................................................................................................................................................. 222 Chapter 5: Brain plasticity and brain injury 227 5A Neuroplasticity............................................................................................................................................... 228 5B Acquired brain injuries..................................................................................................................................... 238 5C Research on neurological disorders................................................................................................................... 246 5D Chronic traumatic encephalopathy.................................................................................................................... 255 Chapter 5 review.................................................................................................................................................. 263 Unit 1 AOS 2 review SAC assessment.................................................................................................................... 268 AOS 3 – How does contemporary psychology conduct and validate psychological research? 274 Student-directed research investigation guide......................................................................................................... 275 CONTENTS III This document is intended for Ruth Tsegaye at Gils on College, Taylor's Hill Campus (user ID: 2701104). Unauthorised circulation in any form is not permitted. UNIT 2 – How do internal and external factors influence behaviour and mental processes? 289 AOS 1 – How are people influenced to behave in particular ways? 290 Chapter 6: Social cognition 291 6A Judging and perceiving others.......................................................................................................................... 292 6B Cognitive dissonance and cognitive biases......................................................................................................... 304 6C Heuristics........................................................................................................................................................ 312 6D Prejudice, discrimination, and stigma.................................................................................................................. 321 Chapter 6 review.................................................................................................................................................. 330 Chapter 7: Factors that influence behaviour 335 7A Social groups and culture................................................................................................................................. 336 7B The influence of obedience and conformity on behaviour..................................................................................... 346 7C Media and behaviour....................................................................................................................................... 363 7D Empowering individual decision-making............................................................................................................. 372 Chapter 7 review.................................................................................................................................................. 383 Unit 2 AOS 1 review SAC assessment.................................................................................................................... 388 AOS 2 – What influences a person’s perception of the world? 392 Chapter 8: Attention and perception 393 8A Attention....................................................................................................................................................... 394 8B Perception...................................................................................................................................................... 402 8C Visual perception............................................................................................................................................. 415 8D Gustatory perception....................................................................................................................................... 430 Chapter 8 review.................................................................................................................................................. 439 Chapter 9: Perceptual distortions 445 9A Errors of sight................................................................................................................................................. 446 9B Errors of taste................................................................................................................................................. 455 9C Perceptual distortions...................................................................................................................................... 462 Chapter 9 review................................................................................................................................................... 471 Unit 2 AOS 2 review SAC assessment.................................................................................................................... 475 AOS 3 – How do scientific investigations develop understanding of influences on perception and behaviour? 480 Student-designed scientific investigation guide....................................................................................................... 481 Answers 499 GLOSSARY 575 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 583 IV CONTENTS This document is intended for Ruth Tsegaye at Gils on College, Taylor's Hill Campus (user ID: 2701104). Unauthorised circulation in any form is not permitted.  Image: GoodStudio/Shutterstock.com CONTENTS V This document is intended for Ruth Tsegaye at Gils on College, Taylor's Hill Campus (user ID: 2701104). Unauthorised circulation in any form is not permitted. FEATURES OF THIS BOOK Edrolo’s VCE Psychology Units 1 & 2 textbook has the following features. Theory 2C Psychological development These time periods are not c theories. When exploring de across the lifespan used to explain a phenomeno Study design dot points provide that they are necessarily fact explicit links between the content that have been developed in covered in each lesson and the Hooks introduce the content of the development, particularly em VCAA curriculum. lesson in an approachable way. STUDY DESIGN DOT POINT Emotional developme Emotional development ref the process of psychological development (emotional, cognitive and social development) over the course of the life span individuals to control, expres refer to temporary feelings w 2C Psychological 2A development Explore boxes include unconscious response. We al These time periods are not concrete and often vary slightly between different developmental 2B 2C theories. When exploring development, it is important to note that theories are simply ideas 2D across the lifespan used to explain a phenomenon, and while they can be supported by data, this does not mean everyone feeling angry, sad, r 2C THEORY useful tips, lesson that they are necessarily factual. Throughout this lesson, we will explore some popular theories that have been developed in an attempt to explain the timeline and processes of psychological development, particularly emotional, cognitive, and social development. Emotional development development, the range of em links, want to know 1.1.3.1.1 STUDY DESIGN DOT POINT the process of psychological development (emotional, cognitive and social development) over the course of the life span Emotional development refers to the continuous, lifelong development of skills that allow individuals to control, express, and recognise emotions in an appropriate way. Emotions KEY TERMS emotions, becomes increasin refer to temporary feelings which arise from personal experiences, usually occurring as an Emotional development more, and psychology 2A 2B 2C 2D unconscious response. We all experience a range of emotional reactions in our lives, with the continuous, lifelong 1.1.3.1 everyone feeling angry, sad, relieved, and excited at some point in time. Like all forms of development, the range of emotions, and our knowledge of how and when to express these development of skills that allow individuals One way that emotional deve emotions, becomes increasingly sophisticated as we age and develop. to control, express, and Psychological development mind’. Theory of mind refers exploration boxes. One way that emotional development is conceptualised is through the development of ‘theory of recognise emotions in an 1.1.3.1 appropriate way Psychological development mind’. Theory of mind refers to an individual’s ability to attribute and understand mental states, across the lifespan 1.1.3.1.1 Emotional development across the lifespan beliefs, experiences, and emotions of oneself and others. During infancy and early childhood, children have already begun to develop skills that will allow theory of mind to develop later in life (Westby & Robinson, 2014; De Villiers & De Villiers, 2014). These skills include: beliefs, experiences, and emo children have already begun t 1.1.3.1.2 Cognitive development 1.1.3.1.1 Emotional development recognising the emotions of others 1.1.3.1.3 Social development assigning words to certain emotions, such as ‘happy’ or ‘sad’ participating in imaginary play understanding that the expression of certain emotions may lead to consequences. (Westby & Robinson, 2014; D As we develop, we know that there is a particular age where we can expect that we will stop physically growing. But what about our psychological development? Psychological 1.1.3.1.2 Cognitive development As children progress through childhood, they obtain more skills that contribute to the development of theory of mind. When theory of mind is developed, the individual should development is a lifelong process that is personal to each of us and continues to influence how we experience the world until the day we die. In this lesson, we will learn about have little issues with recognising and understanding the emotional experience of themselves and others. Therefore, through the development of theory of mind, children should be able recognising the emotions 1.1.3.1.3 Social development psychological development across the lifespan and relevant theories. to exercise the skill of empathy, which is the understanding of another person’s emotional assigning words to certai state from their perspective as opposed to that of one’s own. Upon reaching adulthood, and achieving a fully developed theory of mind, individuals should reach a state of emotional ACTIVITY Psychological development across intelligence. Emotional intelligence refers to an individual’s ability to monitor their own and others’ emotions and use this information to guide their thoughts and behaviours (Salovey & Log into your Edrolo account for activities that the lifespan 1.1.3.1 Mayer, 1990). participating in imaginar support this lesson. We have already learnt about psychological development and its multiple aspects; emotional Another theory that is used to explain the process of emotional development is the theory of Attachment a long– development, cognitive development, and social development. In this lesson we will delve attachment. Attachment is a long-lasting bond between two individuals. In attachment theory, lasting emotional bond understanding that the ex Key knowledge units further into how these aspects develop and evolve across various stages of the lifespan. attachment specifically refers to the bond between an infant and their primary caregiver. between two individuals According to this theory, the attachment formed significantly impacts the infant’s emotional USEFUL TIP Theory details development. It has the potential to enhance or reduce their ability to understand and express As we develop, we know that there is a particular age where we can expect that we will It is important to not their own emotions, as well as recognise the emotions of others throughout their lifespan. We spend our whole lives evolving, changing, and adapting, both physiologically and As children progress through break down the theory confuse psychological One of the main researchers associated with the attachment theory was John Bowlby, who psychologically. This process of development is unique to each person, but does follow a development with described attachment as a necessary component to ensure that a child experiences a normal general trajectory (trend) across the lifespan. Therefore, instead of outlining changes that occur stop physically growing. But what about our psychological development? Psychological cognitive development. and optimal process of emotional development. Through his research, which spanned from at a very specific age, we tend to use broad periods that capture the experience of psychological development of theory of mi Although we often use the 1944 to 1988, Bowlby proposed two main categories of attachment styles, both of which lead to terms ‘psychological’ and development for the general population. These periods of the lifespan are outlined in table 1. into smaller chunks different outcomes in an individual’s subsequent emotional development. These categories of ‘cognitive’ when speaking development is a lifelong process that is personal to each of us and continues to influence Table 1 Developmental periods across the lifespan attachment styles are outlined in table 2. have little issues with recogn about functions of the brain, they reflect different Age range Name of period Table 2 Attachment styles and their influence on emotional development 2Cwith Questions aspects of the human how we experience the world until the day we die. In this lesson, we willUse learn about information to answer questions 7–11. that correspond 0–12 months Infancy and others. Therefore, throu experience. Psychology Category of Description Developmental outcomes is the ‘umbrella term’ for everything that occurs 1–3 years Toddlerhood the following attachment style psychological development across the lifespan and relevant theories. 3–12 years Childhood Secure Secure attachment Likely to lead to ‘healthy’ emotional within our consciousness, whereas cognition relates attachment involves the needs of the development later in life, including: to exercise the skill of empat the relevant theory 12–19 years Adolescence infant being consistently 2C QUESTIONS specifically to thoughts a sense of trust in others 19–35 years Young adulthood met by their primary that we may have and is an aspect of psychological 35–65 years Middle adulthood caregiver/s, allowing feeling valued by others feeling secure in expressing one’s emotions Testing Piaget’s theory of cognitive development state from their perspective a Theory review the infant to feel calmed development lesson videos on the by the presence of the development of skills which can assist 65+ years Late adulthood caregiver when they feel the individual in dealing with challenging A study was conducted in a classroom of 26 children to assess which achieving a fully stage of Piaget’s developed theory of cognitivet Psychological development across distressed. social circumstances, such as a breakup. children were currently experiencing. Continues  Question 1 intelligence. Emotional intel Edrolo online platform. ACTIVITY Psychological theories are (Select all that apply) 2 THE COMPLEXITY OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT 2C PSYCHOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE LIFESPAN 3 The students were first presented with two equal balls of clay and were askedemotions others’ to identify whether and use theythis per I. Log into your Edrolo scientific, evidence-based explanations for phenomenons. account for activities that the lifespan 1.1.3.1 children watched. The students were then asked again to judge if there was the same amount of clay in ea to be equal or not. Following this, the researcher took one of the balls of clay and rolled it out into a long, t Mayer, 1990). II. ideas that are not necessarily supported by scientific evidence. Another theory that is used t support this lesson. We have already learnt about psychological development and its multiple aspects; emotional III. random guesses as to why things occur. IV. used to explain how certain psychological processes occur. Activities development, aredevelopment, cognitive provided on andthe Edrolo social onlineInplatform development. this lesson we will delve attachment. Attachment is a Studentattachment perceptions of clay sizes Number of student responses further into how these aspects develop and evolve across various stages of the lifespan. specifically refer and allow engagement and further understanding of the According to this theory, the Question 2 Theorycontent covered in each lesson. details Trial 1 development. It has the pote The duration of psychological development ranges from infancy to adolescence. their own emotions, as well a A. True. We spend our whole lives evolving, changing, and adapting, both physiologically and psychologically. This process of development is unique to each person, but does follow a One of the main researchers B. False. general trajectory (trend) across the lifespan. Therefore, instead of outlining changes that occur described attachment as a ne at a very specific age, we tend to use broad periods that capture the experience of psychological and optimal process of emoti Question 3 1944 to 1988, Bowlby propos The stages of development across the lifespan are development for the general population. These periods of the lifespan are outlined in tableTrial 1. 2 different outcomes in an ind A. fixed and consistent between theories. attachment styles are outline Table 1 Developmental periods across the lifespan B. inaccurate and disproven. Questions Question 7 C. a general guide and vary between theories. Age range Name of period What is the independent variable and what is the dependent variable of this study, respectively? Table 2 Attachment styles an 0–12 months Infancy A. The shape of the clay, the children’s perception of the clay. Category of Descri Question 4 B. The children’s perception of the clay, the shape of the clay. 1–3 years Toddlerhood attachment style Every individual attaches to caregivers in the same way. C. The trial number, the stage of development of the children. Secure Secure Theory reviewA. True. questions B. False. test if students can remember the 3–12 years Childhood D. The stage of development of the children, the trial number. attachment involve foundational concepts and overcome common misconceptions. 12–19 years Adolescence Question 8 infant 19–35 years Young adulthood met by Question 5 During trial 2 caregiv Cognitive development involves 35–65 years Middle adulthood A. more children perceived the clay to be equal in size than in trial 1. the inf A. a child’s increased ability to form meaningful relationships. B. the children’s answers were more unaminous than in trial 1. 65+ years Late adulthood by the B. a discovery of Jean Piaget, which led to his fame in the field of psychology. 2C Questions Use the following information to answer questions 7–11. C. more children answered correctly than in trial 1. caregiv C. the ability to produce thought, and comprehend and organise information. Exam-style questions distres 2C QUESTIONS 2C QUESTIONS Theory review Testing Piaget’s theory of cognitive development A study was conducted in a classroom of 26 children to assess which stage of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development the D. less children perceived the clay to be equal in size than in trial 1. reflect the style of children were currently experiencing. Question 1 Psychological theories are (Select all that apply) The students were first presented with two equal balls of clay and were asked to identify whether they perceived the two pieces to be equal or not. Following this, the researcher took one of the balls of clay and rolled it out into a long, thin shape whilst the Question 6 I. scientific, evidence-based explanations for phenomenons. children watched. The students were then asked again to judge if there was the same amount of clay in each piece. Question 9 questions presented in II. ideas that are not necessarily supported by scientific evidence. III. random guesses as to why things occur. Equal in size Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial IV. useddevelopment is aprocesses to explain how certain psychological completely occur. accurate and proven theory of social Student perceptions of clay sizes Not equal in size What was the difference in the amount of children who perceived the clay to be equal in size between trial 1 Number of student responses development. the end-of-year exam 25 Question 2 Trial 1 20