Psychology of Women (Historical Context) PDF

Psychology of WOMEN **WEEK 1 (SEPTEMBER 6^TH^) -- [HISTORICAL CONTEXT]** *Learning the differences between psychology of women, feminism, feminist psychology, oppression, empowerment* +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | ***Psychology of women:*** Subfield o...

Psychology of WOMEN **WEEK 1 (SEPTEMBER 6^TH^) -- [HISTORICAL CONTEXT]** *Learning the differences between psychology of women, feminism, feminist psychology, oppression, empowerment* +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | ***Psychology of women:*** Subfield of psychology focused on the | | lives and experiences of girls and women. Notably, it emerged and | | grew alongside many of the political and social movements connected | | to feminism. | +=======================================================================+ | **[Feminism:]** A movement to end sexism, (sexist) | | exploitation and oppression. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | ***Feminist psychology:*** To signal when psychology research and | | theory are explicitly informed by feminism and to distinguish them | | from more general work about girls and women. It argues that that | | psychological research is never value-neutral (**value-neutral** is | | the ethical duty and practice of maintaining impartiality and | | remaining unbiased and judgment-free during the interpretation and | | publishing of research findings) or objective. As a result, feminist | | psychologists make their theoretical positions explicit so as to | | create transparency and genuine equity, fairness, and respect among | | people | | | | - Feminist psychologists believe that research focusing on both the | | individual and the culture in which that an individual lives is | | important. They believe that power doesn't only exist within an | | individual; it also exists in relationship with other people and | | larger social structures. If we don't focus on the entire | | picture, we risk having a shallow, and ultimately problematic, | | approach to advancing psychological well-being for all people. | | | | - Feminist psychologists are attentive to many disciplinary | | perspectives (e.g., **PERSH**; **P**olitical science, | | **E**conomics, **R**eligion, **S**ociology, and **H**istory) in | | order to engage in sophisticated research and well-rounded | | practice. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **[Oppression:]** Ways in which certain people experience | | degradation because of political, economic or social realities (e.g., | | poverty, homelessness, lack of access to health care). | | | | - In the United States, women are the fastest-growing group who are | | incarcerated (2016). They are disproportionately women of color | | and/or poor, and they are typically survivors of violence. Nearly | | 80% of women who are incarcerated are mothers, and most are | | single mothers (2016). | | | | - The prevalence of eating disorders has been increasing since 1950 | | (2007). In a survey of Esquire magazine readers, over half of | | female respondents age 18 to 25 said they would prefer to be "run | | over by a truck" than to be fat, and two thirds of these women | | said they would rather be described as mean or stupid than fat | | (1994; 2000). | | | | - Transgender women of colour are the victims of 61% of all | | lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) murders in | | the United States (2017). They are highly vulnerable to hate | | crimes and more likely than other victims to experience **DIPT** | | (**d**iscrimination, **i**ntimidation, **p**olice violence, and | | **t**hreats.) | | | | - In the United States, women are paid 80% of what men are paid | | (2017). This pay gap occurs in almost every occupation, increases | | with age, and is worse for women of color. Single mothers, women | | of color, and elderly women living alone are especially | | vulnerable to poverty | | | | - Every day, 39,000 girls worldwide are forced into child marriage, | | resulting in early pregnancy, social isolation, disruption of | | school, and increased risk of domestic violence (2013). | | | | - The United States is the only industrialized nation in the world | | that does not require employers to offer paid maternity leave, | | resulting in 51% of U.S. mothers without any paid leave (2004). | | These women are more likely than other new mothers to develop | | depression, fatigue, and anxiety. | | | | - In 2017, only 19% of representatives in the U.S. Congress were | | women, and of them, only 32% were women of color. There was only | | one representative who was an out lesbian, and only one openly | | bisexual representative who was a woman. | | | | - In the past half-century, only 38% of the world's nations have | | had a female head of government for at least one year. In 2017, | | eight female leaders were the first in their country: **CLELM | | GMN** (**C**hile, **L**iberia, **E**stonia, **L**ithuania, | | **M**arshall Islands, **G**ermany, **M**auritius, and **N**epal). | +=======================================================================+ | **[Empowerment:]** The capacity to attain power. This | | refers to individual women, usually those who succeed in | | predominantly male domains. When the capacity to gain power is only | | used in this way, it limits the potential for larger-scale change. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **[Intersectionality:]** The ways in which different | | types of oppression (e.g., **CRATHS**; **C**lassism, **R**acism, | | **A**bleism, **T**ransphobia, **H**eterosexism, and **S**exism) are | | interconnected and, therefore, cannot be examined separately; also, | | the way multiple social identity variables influence any | | psychological variable being studied. | | | | - An intersectional approach recognizes that identities are formed | | and shaped through larger social structures, and since structures | | can change over time or by geographic location, identity is fluid | | and dynamic. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **GENDER IS A COLONIAL CONSTRUCT** Gender is a colonial construct for the following reasons: - Gender was NOT always an organizing principle of societies. - Gender categories were DFN-H (**D**iverse, **F**lexible, **N**on-**H**ierarchical) - Argentine philosopher Lugones argues that the dominant gender system we have today was unique to Europe and **imposed on the world through colonization**. **WHERE ARE WE TODAY? *Historical look at changing gender dynamics & norms in North America*** - Women are persons under the law; can vote - Far more women are graduating from university (more than men actually) and in labour force - There are very few women in positions of political & economic power - Fertility rate has decreased significantly - Wage gap is smaller but it still exists - Sexual violence is still at epidemic levels - Societal definitions of femininity, masculinity and heteronormativity remain pervasive This image is of a human being in the centre with detailed explanations of what their gender identity, sexual orientation, assigned gender/sex at birth, gender expression, and romantic attraction could be. It also includes a QR code for further information **FEMINIST WAVES** - First Wave - Began in United States in 1848 at the Seneca Falls Convention, when more than 200 women and 40 men (including the famous Black abolitionist Frederick Douglass) met to create a list of priorities for **[advancing women's rights]** - This first wave was much more expansive and gained momentum from the 1820s through the 1850s, when many women---including Native American/American Indian women, Black women, and Mexican American women---were advocating for increased authority over their own lives - The largest coalition was made up of radical Quakers and Black women who were devoted abolitionists - women had few rights in the 19th century. For example, they didn't have legal authority over their children; they weren't allowed to own land; and they couldn't give sermons at church, keep their wages, or refuse to have sex with their husbands. A top priority, though, was gaining women's right to vote---something that didn't happen until 1920, when the 19th Amendment was passed. - Second Wave - The second wave of Feminism happened in 1960s. - Interested in **[changing the day-to-day lives of women]** by, for example, creating more equitable access to the paid labor force and redefining women's roles in families - Many people characterize, and some critique, the second wave as being largely defined by the struggles of white, middle-class women who wished to enter the workforce. - **The rejection of beauty ideals** gained momentum following protests at the Miss America pageants in 1968 and 1969 by a group called the Redstockings, who were particularly frustrated by the ways in which they felt women's bodies were being confined and controlled. - Third Wave - Began in the mid 1990s. - Best described as **a [struggle to change mainstream ideas of feminism by rejecting the notion that everyone's experience of being a woman is the same].** - Third-wave feminism challenged previous historical accounts of feminist activism and brought the contributions of women of color, immigrants, and working-class women into focus. - Fourth Wave? *Up for debate* - In the mid-2010s, there was a **[revival of feminist self-identification]**, and many celebrities associated themselves publicly with feminism. - \#MeToo movement - The "wave" metaphor is often used to describe aspects of women's history, it has been criticized. A wave suggests that there are direct connections between movements and that activism peaks at certain points and retracts at others - The historian Linda Nicholson (2010) believes that a more useful way of thinking about the history of sex/gender activism in the United States is to use the metaphor of a **kaleidoscope**. The view in a kaleidoscope is complex and dynamic. When you turn it, the colours and patterns shift, showing a new constellation of colours. This metaphor, as a way to think of activism within the United States, takes into consideration the fact that we choose what to focus on and how those choices influence what we see. It also reminds us that all those colours are always there, just like feminist activism, even if we do not immediately see them. **KEY EVENTS IN FEMINISM** - **1848** **--** The first U.S. women's rights convention, the Seneca Falls Convention, is held in New York. - **1851** **--** Sojourner Truth gives her famous "Ain't I a Woman" speech, in which she critiques the idea that opposition to women's suffrage is grounded in a desire to protect women; the central point of her argument is that no one has tried to protect her---a Black woman--- from physical or emotional pain. - **1920** **--** Ratification of 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution gives women the right to vote. - **1923 --** The Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), originally drafted by Alice Paul and Crystal Eastman, is first introduced in Congress. - **1924 --** The Snyder Act, which grants full U.S. citizenship (and voting rights) to all Native Americans born in the United States, is passed by an act of Congress. - **1952 --** Christine Jorgensen is the first American whose gender affirming surgery, then referred to as sex reassignment, becomes public - **1964 --** Title VII of the Civil Rights Act is enacted, prohibiting employment discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, national origin, or sex. - **1969 --** Trans and/or gender nonbinary people are some of the first to resist arrest at the Stonewall Inn in New York, an event credited with igniting the modern LGBTQ+ rights movement. - **1972 --** Title IX is enacted, prohibiting sex discrimination in all aspects of education programs that receive federal support. - **1972 --** The ERA is passed by both houses of Congress, after being reintroduced in 1971, and is submitted to the states for ratification. The required 38 states didn't ratify the ERA within the specified 7- year period, but legal and political scholars continue to debate whether that deadline can be changed, as 38 states had ratified the ERA by 2020. - **1973 --** The U.S. Supreme Court decision in Roe v. Wade declares it legal for a woman to terminate an early pregnancy. - **1974 --** The Combahee River Collective, a Black feminist lesbian organization focusing on intersectionality, holds its first meeting. - **1978 --** The Pregnancy Discrimination Act bans employment discrimination against pregnant women. - 1990 -- The Americans with Disabilities Act prohibits discrimination against individuals with disabilities in all areas of public life. - **1994 --** The Violence against Women Act funds services for victims of rape and domestic violence. - **2006 --** Thousands of Latine immigrants and others boycott work, school, and shopping as part of the Day Without Immigrants to highlight the contributions immigrants make to the economy. - **2009 --** The Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Restoration Act allows employees, usually women, to file pay discrimination complaints within 180 days of their last paycheck. - **2013 --** Restriction of same-sex marriage is deemed unconstitutional by the Supreme Court decision in United States v. Windsor. - **2017 --** The Women's March on Washington, the largest single-day protest in U.S. history, is held. It sparked some renewed interest in the ERA, and Nevada became the 36th state to ratify it. - **2022 --** The U.S. Supreme Court decision in Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization overturns Roe v. Wade, returning decisions about regulation of abortion to individual states. **GENDER AND CAPITALISM** - There is a notable connection to Gender and Capitalism because both of the gender categories (men and women) are socially assigned to jobs; women's job is to reproduce hence why there is a concern that the fertility rate is dropping, and men's job is to be productive. There is an emphasis on how much wealth a man can acquire, not their contribution to their community or society (this was rather highlight during the pre-industrialization, which is pre-1800s). - "The reification of two fixed gender categories, the framing of these categories along teleological reproductive timelines, the exclusion of women from public life, serve specific purposes within a capitalist system: The division of labor into productive and reproductive." **[COLONIZATION AND GENDER (a woefully inadequate skim-over)]** +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | It was an introduced patriarchal European Law. | +=======================================================================+ | - Changed descent rules, residence patterns. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | The [1850 Act] defined as "Indian" & set rules for band | | membership, rights, and status. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | The [1868 Indian Act] attempts at assimilation: | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | - Reservations & powerless band councils. | | | | - Defines "Indian" status through male lineage | | | | - Women who marry non-Indian lose status | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **PRE-INDUSTRILIZATION vs INDUSTRILIZATING PERIOD** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Pre-industrialization | **Industrializing period (early | | (pre-1800s)** | 1800s)** | +===================================+===================================+ | - Family farming -- all family | - Shift from agriculture to | | members contributed. | factory production brought | | | people into cities. | | - Hierarchical and patriarchal, | | | wives subordinate to | - Introduction of wage-based | | husbands. | economy. | | | | | - Gave birth to many children. | - "Work" defined as paid labour | | | outside the home. | | - Mothers cooked, cleaned, and | | | raised daughters to do the | - "Housework" trivialized, | | same. | devalued. | | | | | - Status determined at birth | - Home and work= separate | | and then by contribution to | spheres. | | community. | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **WOMEN'S ROLES AND RIGHTS** - Option B Gatherings: Grew out of book, Option B, written by Sheryl Sandberg. - Women were non-persons - Had to work where they were told, hand over wages to husbands - No rights to any land, property - No legal protections **MORAL PANIC** - Massive societal changes (e.g., fertility rate, same-sex marriage, etc.) led to the concern about stability of family and society. - A notion of "true womanhood" is introduced, their best contribution to society was domestic work. This implies that women best serve family by limiting themselves to domestic spheres, and in doing so, fuel the stereotypes regarding women's fragility, angelicity, pureness, needed protection, etc. **INTRODUCING EDUCATION (1840-1850)** - Formal education became compulsory. - Law prohibiting child labour enacted. - From economic asset to economic liability. **THE INDUSTRIAL PERIOD (1870'S-)** - Large factories, centralized economy. - Female occupations: **FSTN** (Factory work, Secretary, Teacher, Nurse (usually unmarried women)). - [Wage Gap:] women paid [\$\\frac{1}{3}\$]{.math.inline} or [\$\\frac{1}{2}\$]{.math.inline} of men's wage. - Women dependent on men, limited choices. **NEW WOMAN** Demanded rights: - To have legitimate careers - To not get married - To smoke (at that time period, it was very normalized for men to smoke as it was part of socialization) - Ride a bike (women could not drive so bikes were the only option for transportation. It was freedom) These rights challenged existing beliefs about sex differences. **MID 1940'S TO LATE 1960'S** - "A community where a spirit of trust prevails, where crime and violence are low, resources are accessible to support healthy lives and lifestyles, and where the sick receive care." - Strong negative correlation between social capital and death rates. - Baby boom! - Government & media conspire to renew cult of true womanhood - Femininity comes from being a wife & mother. - Limited/regulated access to birth control. They would get birth control though home remedies, go to doctor with your husband (his permission was needed) for the sole reason of "menstrual cramps," etc. - Conformity ruled the day! - 1950's women: unmarried = fate worse than death! - Steep decline in education for women. **[FEMINIST THEORIES]** It is framed as extremism to discredit it. So, a feminist is often framed as a man-hating lesbian woman who looks masculine (e.g., let their leg or armpit hair grow out). There are several components to feminism; striving for equal rights, access to rights and opportunities, fighting for the liberating of all women, breaking down internal misogyny, acknowledging biological differences but also learn that they don't correlate to our capabilities (e.g., career-wise, better in sports, etc.) +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | - **Liberal feminism is a form of feminism that focuses on the | | similarities between women and men and on using government | | policies to eliminate barriers that keep women from achieving | | their potential. Despite Ginsburg's hopes, the Equal Rights | | Amendment (ERA) has not yet been added to the Constitution.** | | | | - **Focuses on gaining equal rights and prioritizes changing laws | | and promoting education.** | | | | - **3 tenets:** **IL-PP** (Individualism, Legal and political | | reform, Pragmatism). | | | | - **Goals:** Equality in public and private sphere (e.g., division | | of labour in the home, etc.), | | | | - Focus on changing laws and policies to enshrine equality. | | | | - Liberal feminism also focuses on equal education and the belief | | that at their core, women and men are more similar than | | different. | | | | - In the United States, most people hold liberal feminist attitudes | | even if they don't identify as feminists. | | | | - [An example of liberal feminism is that employers in the United | | States are not required to offer paid parental | | leave.] | | | | +------------------------------------------------------------------+ | | | **[Criticisms of Liberal Feminism]** | | | +==================================================================+ | | | - No level playing field ever exist without radical change in | | | | society (e.g., not all women start at the same starting | | | | line). | | | | | | | | - Lacks intersectionality: It is white, middle-class feminism. | | | | | | | | - Status Quo: Implies women should strive to be more like men | | | | (e.g., be tougher, show no emotion, etc.). | | | | | | | | - Aimed for self-preservation, not liberation. | | | +------------------------------------------------------------------+ | +=======================================================================+ | 2\) RADICAL FEMINISM | | | | - In contrast to liberal feminism, radical feminism claims that | | it's naïve to think that women can achieve equal treatment | | through attaining legal rights. Therefore, radical feminists | | advocate for separatism. They believe that the unjust treatment | | of women is the most fundamental and widespread form of | | oppression. | | | | - Radical feminists argue that in order to achieve equity, women | | must develop new ways of thinking separate from **androcentric** | | (male-centered) ways of thinking. Some radical feminists have | | advocated for [cultural separatism] as a way to | | achieve this goal. [For instance, counselors at some domestic | | violence shelters refuse refuge for male survivors because their | | presence might undermine the safety of the women-only | | space.] | | | | - Some radical feminists believe that it is so important to create | | women-only spaces that they exclude trans women and/or gender | | nonbinary individuals. However, many feminists, including some | | radical feminists, argue that excluding trans women | | **fundamentally** **opposes** **one of the goals of feminism**, | | which is to eliminate discrimination based on sexist oppression, | | including discrimination against trans and/or gender nonbinary | | individuals | | | | - One type of radical feminism is **lesbian feminism**, which | | focuses on sexuality and reproduction as a central place of | | oppression. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | - Social class and gender are symbiotic: women are oppressed when | | they are economically dependent on men. | | | | - Capitalism is a patriarchal system built upon competition and | | inequality. | | | | - **Socialist Feminism links gender oppression with capitalism.** | | | | - In the United States, there is a perception that anyone who works | | hard can attain economic mobility and improve their financial | | position. This view is called the **myth of meritocracy** because | | it suggests that merit---or being talented and working hard---is | | primarily responsible for accumulating wealth. However, | | contemporary research shows a widening gap between the | | upper-middle class and everyone else that appears to be more a | | factor of inherited wealth than merit (Reeves, 2017). In one | | study, researchers found that since 1980, U.S. workers who are | | not upper-middle class are less likely than before to move up the | | financial ladder. | | | | - According to socialist feminists, merit alone is not responsible | | for the accumulation of wealth. Other factors, such as class, | | sex/gender, and race, not only influence earning potential but | | also affect the perceived value of what a person does. | | | | - [For example, socialist feminists have claimed that in capitalist | | societies men are primarily defined as workers and women are | | primarily defined as caregivers] | | | | - **Issues:** Unequal distribution of wealth, unpaid work (e.g., | | housework. From an economist perspective, all unpaid work is | | considered as leisure), pink tax (tax on period products and | | other feminine products e.g., razors, underwear, haircuts, etc.) | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | 5\) CULTURAL FEMINISM | | | | - Cultural feminism is a perspective that focuses on the | | differences between women and men and that views women's | | inequality as related to a lack of value placed on the unique | | experiences | | | | - Underlying cultural feminism is a belief in **gender | | essentialism** (belief that fundamental differences between women | | and men rooted in biology or genetics) | | | | - Unlike *liberal feminists*, who *focus on similarity*, **cultural | | feminists focus on difference.** | | | | - In some ways, their philosophical belief is more like that of | | radical feminism, although **cultural feminists do not** advocate | | **separatism**. | | | | - [A contemporary example of cultural feminism is the rise of | | mompreneurs] | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | 5\) WOMEN OF COLOUR FEMINISM | | | | - Women's inequality linked to White supremacy. | | | | - Intersectional approach emerged because perspectives of Women of | | Colour were ignored. | | | | - Not all women are equally oppressed. | | | | - Focuses on **affirmative action** (this means that out of all | | women who are equally suitable for the job, the woman of color | | will be likely hired), access to affordable housing, prison | | reform. | | | | - Women of color feminism developed because many mainstream | | feminist organizations outright dismissed the concerns of women | | who were members of socially marginalized racial/ethnic groups | | and instead reflected **ethnocentrism** (the tendency to judge | | other groups according to the values of one's own group). | | | | - Activist and writer Alice Walker (1983) coined the term | | **womanist**, an identity label that stems from the experiences | | of Black women and other women of color. The term encompasses | | feminism, but it also differs because it doesn't prioritize | | sexism over other forms of oppression (e.g., racism, and | | classism). | | | | - There is evidence that women of colour are more likely to | | identify with womanist beliefs rather than those associated with | | other types of feminism, and holding womanist beliefs is | | associated with higher self-esteem among women of colour. | | | | | | | | - She shone a light on the racism inherent in mainstream feminism. | | | | - Women of Colour were often in double-bind no win situation. | | | | - By supporting suffrage movement, they would be forced to | | ignore the racial aspect of womanhood. | | | | - By supporting the Civil Rights Movement, they would continue | | to be subjugated by patriarchy. | | | | - Argues for solidarity between genders, between races, and between | | classes. | | | | - If there is to be liberation for women, men must also play a role | | to expose, confront and transform sexism. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | 6\) QUEER FEMINISM | | | | - **Queer feminism claims that inequality is related to the ways in | | which the categories of woman and man have been constructed, | | studied, and used to organize society.** | | | | - The focus of queer feminists is **not** to ensure that women are | | equal to men but to question **what is** considered female and | | male in the first place. | | | | - Critiques **heteronormativity** and sex/gender binaries. | | | | - Sex, gender, and sexuality are not always aligned. | | | | - **Emphasis on performative nature of gender** (Butler) as it | | relates to how we convey/present our gender to the world (e.g., | | clothing, hair in job interviews, dates, parties, etc.) | | | | - [For example, some people have a cisgender identity, meaning that | | their gender identification aligns with the sex they were | | assigned at birth, but other people may identify as trans, | | reflecting a gender identity (e.g., woman, man) and/or a gender | | expression (e.g., feminine, masculine, androgynous) that doesn't | | conform to societal expectations for the sex they were assigned | | at birth.] | | | | - Because of its focus on how certain bodies and identities are | | considered "normal," queer theory often interconnects with | | disability studies. **Crip** **theory** recognizes the importance | | of disability as an identity variable that intersects with other | | aspects of identity (e.g., race, gender, sexuality) and larger | | social systems that prioritize able-bodied people. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | 7\) POSTCOLONIAL/TRANSNATIONAL FEMINISM | | | | - Connects women's inequality to the continued legacy of | | colonialism, or the practice of political domination whereby one | | group of people subjugate another group of people. | | | | - Postcolonial/transnational feminism critiques the belief that | | women in Western countries are the most liberated in the world | | | | - According to postcolonial feminists, a problematic dynamic occurs | | when women in Western countries think that women in non-Western | | countries are oppressed and need Western women to save them | | | | - A particular type of postcolonial feminism, known as **third | | world feminism**, claims that feminism should not focus on | | commonalities among women (Herr, 2013); instead, it should | | address issues from multiple perspectives and **not assume one | | unified position**. | | | | - Another branch of transnational feminism focuses on the | | experiences of Latine women. Gloria Anzaldúa (2021), a Chicana | | feminist scholar, introduced the term **mestizaje**, meaning a | | state of living beyond geographic borders. | | | | - She rejected the pressures to identify solely with one or the | | other and instead suggested meshing identities and moving | | beyond an either/or binary. | | | | - Latine feminists later coined the term **mujerista** (from | | the Spanish word mujer, meaning woman; Isasi-Diaz, | | 1992, 1996) to prioritize Latin American liberation theory | | and cultural theology (Gabara, 1988) and to advance the idea | | of living at the crossroads | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **FEMINISM COMES INTO PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH** **LATE 20^TH^ CENTURY INTO THE 21^ST^ CENTURY** Feminist psychologists critique the scientific method. - Questioned **Positivism:** Idea that science is **PCONR** (**P**rogressive, **C**umulative, **O**bjective, **N**eutral, **R**ational). - Proposed that multiple truths could exist. - Developed feminist epistemologies \*\* **WEEK 2 (SEPTEMBER 13^TH^) -- [PRIVILEGE, STEREOTYPES, SEXISM.]** **SOCIAL IDENTITIES (Taijfel & Turner, 1979)** - Our sense of self is derived from affiliation/identification with social groups. - Group membership affords us: - Sense of inclusion/belonging - Self-esteem or self-worth boost - Rights, privileges and power - Disadvantages and forms of oppression - Social identities aren't static --- they adapt to environment and audience.  **INTERSECTIONALITY** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | This image is titled | This was coined by Professor | | Intersectionality and has several | Kimberlé Crenshaw | | overlapping circles of social | | | identities such as race, gender, | "It's basically a lens, a prism, | | class, religion, age, sexuality, | for seeing the way in which | | ethnicity, history, heritage, | various forms of inequality often | | education and language. The | operate together and exacerbate | | overlap is where the | each other. We tend to talk about | | intersections occur. | race inequality as separate from | | | inequality based on gender, | | | class, sexuality or immigrant | | | status. What's often missing is | | | how some people are subject to | | | all of these, and the experience | | | is not just the sum of its | | | parts." | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **INTERSECTIONAL IDENTITIES** - **Social Stratification:** People are ranked in a hierarchy such that some people and groups have more power and status than others. - Our intersecting identities provide complex access to power. Each of those social identities ranks us in terms of how much power we have. - What is power in society? Advantage, freedom to make choices, more access to opportunity, control over your life and other things, credibility, and network (or social capital). - ***Matrix of Domination*:** *Each system of bias (e.g., racism, sexism) interconnects with & stems from the same system of social stratification.* **PRIVILEGE** - **Privilege:** The social, economic, and/or political advantages that some people enjoy simply because they're part of a certain group, rather than because of anything they did or failed to do. - What do we have in our invisible backpack of privilege? Conventional attractiveness, race or ethnicity that are widely represented in a positive light, no accent, good family's reputation, etc. - "...unearned assets that I can count on cashing in each day, but about which I was 'meant' to remain oblivious... like an invisible weightless knapsack of special provisions, maps, passports, codebooks, visas, clothes, tools and blank checks." - Peggy McIntosh **4 ASPECTS OF PRIVILEGE** - **Unearned Entitlements**: Access to things of value that should be provided to everyone but aren't - **'Normality':** Privileged groups are seen as "normal" or the default. - **Visibility:** Individuals with multiple identities are often invisible and/or excluded. - **Conferred Dominance:** One group is socially assumed to have more authority or power over another group - Most people adhere to **legitimizing myths:** Attitudes, values, or beliefs that exist to justify social hierarchies. **[DEFINING OPPRESSION]** - Institutionalised power that is historically formed and perpetuated over time. - Allows certain groups of people to hold a dominant position over other groups. - Dominance is maintained at an institutional level. - Oppression is built into institutions like government and education = institutionalized or systemic. **STEREOTYPES: Where do they come from? How they hurt?** - People begin having gender-based stereotypes at 7 or 8 years old as a result of the school system, parents, media, etc. **Stereotype:** A belief about the characteristics of a particular group that are generalized to all members of that group. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Sexism:** Bias based on belief that men are superior to women **Gender Roles:** Behaviours within a culture that are generally considered acceptable based on someone's gender. **GENDER STEREOTYPES** +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **[Additional | **[Racialized Sexist | **[Impact of | | information]{.underli | Stereotypes]{.underli | Stereotypes]{.underli | | ne}** | ne}** | ne}** | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | - Often based on 2 | - Black women are | - **Internalization | | dimensions: | less likely to be | /self-stereotyping**: | | agency and | viewed in | When we feel like | | communality. | traditional | we must match up | | | gender-stereotypi | with | | - **Men are | c | [prescriptive]{.u | | agentic**: | ways. | nderline} | | Assertive, | | norms and | | dominant, | - WOC face many | expectations. | | competitive, | problematic | | | get things | stereotypes: | - **Doing | | done. | | Gender***:* | | | - The strong | Social | | - ***Women | Black woman | expectations | | are*** | | influence | | ***communal** | - The angry | **[performance]{. | | *: | Black woman | underline}** | | Warm, | | of gender, which | | friendly, | - The Jezebel | in turn | | concerned | (hypersexual, | influences social | | with others, | aggressive, | interactions. | | emotionally | uncaring | | | expressive. | Black woman) | - May generate | | | | **self-fulfilling | | - Varies based on | - China doll | prophecies**, | | race, social | (submissive, | guide major life | | class, sexual | sexy Asian | decisions (e.g., | | orientation. | woman) | sex, parenting, | | | | career) | | | - See Table 2.3 on | | | | pg. 64 for a | - Fear of | | | detailed | confirming | | | breakdown of | stereotypes leads | | | prevailing | to **stereotype | | | stereotypes. | threat:** The | | | | risk of | | | | confirming | | | | negative | | | | stereotypes about | | | | an individual\'s | | | | racial, ethnic, | | | | gender, or | | | | cultural group | | | | which can create | | | | high cognitive | | | | load and reduce | | | | academic focus | | | | and performance. | | | | | | | | - *For | | | | example:* | | | | When asked to | | | | indicate | | | | their gender | | | | at the | | | | beginning of | | | | a math test, | | | | female | | | | college | | | | students do | | | | more poorly | | | | than females | | | | who are not | | | | asked to | | | | indicate | | | | their gender. | | | | | | | | - **Model | | | | minority:** The | | | | perception that a | | | | given minority | | | | group is an ideal | | | | example of a | | | | minority group. | | | | | | | | - *For | | | | example:* The | | | | perception | | | | that Asian | | | | American | | | | students are | | | | hard-working, | | | | smart, and | | | | over-achievin | | | | g. | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ **SEXISM** +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ | **Different | **Modern | **Microaggr | **Ambivalen | **Negative | | Types of | Sexism** | essions** | t | Outcomes of | | Sexism** | | | Sexism: | Sexism** | | | | | Hostility | | | | | | and | | | | | | Benevolence | | | | | | ** | | +=============+=============+=============+=============+=============+ | - 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| | | | | | *For | | | | | | | | | | | | example:* | | | | | | | | | | | | When | | | | | | | | | | | | a | | | | | | | | | | | | man | | | | | | | | | | | | who | | | | | | | | | | | | cherishes | | | | | | | | | | | | his | | | | | | | | | | | | girlfriend | | | | | | | | | | | | calls | | | | | | | | | | | | her | | | | | | | | | | | | a | | | | | | | | | | | | slut | | | | | | | | | | | | after | | | | | | | | | | | | they | | | | | | | | | | | | break | | | | | | | | | | | | up. | | | | | | | | | | | | - Ben | | | | | | evolent | | | | | | sex | | | | | | ism | | | | | | is | | | | | | gen | | | | | | erally | | | | | | aim | | | | | | ed | | | | | | at | | | | | | wom | | | | | | en | | | | | | who | | | | | | con | | | | | | form | | | | | | to | | | | | | tra | | | | | | ditional | | | | | | gen | | | | | | der | | | | | | rol | | | | | | es. | | | | | | Hos | | | | | | tile | | | | | | sex | | | | | | ism | | | | | | is | | | | | | dir | | | | | | ected | | | | | | at | | | | | | wom | | | | | | en | | | | | | who | | | | | | fal | | | | | | l | | | | | | out | | | | | | side | | | | | | the | | | | | | m. | | | | | | | | | | | |  | | +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ **LANGUAGE PROMOTES EQUALITY** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **[Gender-Based | **[Gender-Fair | | Language]** | Language]** | +===================================+===================================+ | - Strong cisgender bias, | - Refers to people in more | | reinforces gender binaries | symmetrical linguistic forms | | | | | - Man used interchangeably with | - Use of gender-neutral they, | | human. | instead of he/she | | | | | - Using unmarked language for | - Latine as opposed to | | men and marked language for | Latina/Latino | | women (e.g., host vs. | | | hostess) | - Parental leave, rather than | | | maternity and paternity leave | | - Professional titles more | | | often applied to men | - "Welcome, everyone!" instead | | | of "Welcome, ladies and | | - Miss vs. Ms. Vs. Mrs. | gentleman!" | | | | | - 70-90% of women still take | | | husband's surname. | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Gendered Talking Styles:** - Using unmarked language for men and marked language for women (e.g., host vs. hostess). - Women are interrupted more than men -- by men. - Women tend to use tentative speech forms in certain contexts. - Hedges: mostly, pretty well - Tag questions: right? Okay? **Non-Verbal Communication: Use of Space** - Men appear more relaxed, show more disengagement, do less conversation work. - Men take up more personal space. - Women tolerate invasions of personal space. - Women stand closer to other women than men to other men. **[CHAPTER 3 -- RESEARCH METHODS: the Case of Gender Similarities & Differences]** So why do we need scientific research? There are a lot of books like "Men are from Mars, and Women are from Venus," "Act like a lady, think like a man," and "Men are like waffles, Women are like spaghetti." **GENDER ESSENTIALISM** - Belief in fundamental differences between women and men **rooted in biology or genetics.** - Notion that there are only two sexes, assigned at birth, which will align with certain gender identities, expressions, etc. - Serves to justify or **reinforce gender stereotypes & status quo**. - e.g., bans, bathroom bills, discrimination, and violence. - Research shows that in most important ways women and men are **more similar than different.** - See Hyde and Linn meta-analysis (2005) below: +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - 46 reports on math, verbal, | This image is a distribution | | spatial abilities; | showing the nearly 100% overlap | | aggression; leadership | in the distribution of scores | | effectiveness; self-esteem, | between males and females on | | etc. | attributes measured as part of | | | Hyde\'s meta-analysis. The visual | | - 5000 studies | comes from here: | | | i-ef94b58075985ce344d83fbbb890559 | | - 7 million men & women! | 5-599-1-med.gif | | | | | - 78% of the effects for | | | psychological gender | | | differences were small or | | | near zero. | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ - Media magnifies differences, ignore similarities - Similarities (ns findings) not published (**File Drawer Effect/Publication Bias:** A phenomenon where studies with significant results are more likely to be published). - (Lack of) Evidence for Gender Essentialism: - **Strategic essentialism:** The support of gender essentialist beliefs as a strategic choice to help advocate for social causes that uniquely affect large numbers of women. - **Gender stratification hypothesis:** The idea that differences found between women and men (especially on cognitive skills) are corelated with the level of gender equality in a country. - **Neurosexism:** Reinforcement or justification of gender stereotypes based on the claim that there are biologically-based differences between women and men.  **QUANTITATIVE vs. QUALITATIVE METHODS** - Most psychologists use quantitative methods. Why? - The outliers and individual answers are lost when doing quantitative methods. - **Quantitative Methods:** Rely on numerical or measurable data e.g., numerical survey responses, test scores, and data related to website traffic. In contrast, ***Qualitative Methods:*** Rely on personal accounts or documents that illustrate in detail how people think or respond within society (so they produce descriptive data with little attention to statistics and allow for more open-ended answers) e.g., interviews, observations, and archival data. - **[Correlational designs]**: Determine whether two or more variables are related to each other, but no cause and effect. - **[Experimental designs]**: One or more variables is systematically manipulated to determine whether there is causal relationship among them. **IDENTIFYING SEX/GENDER BIAS IN RESEARCH** - Who is the researcher? - Myth of the impartial researcher - Most psychological research has been conducted by White men. - What is the research question? - Assumptions hidden in our research questions: - Searching for gender *differences* instead of *similarities* - Examining the effects of working *mothers* rather than *fathers* **WHO ARE THE RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS?** - Historically, psychological studies (and most research) included only male participants. Why? - Affects **generalizability:** Ability to use findings from a study to explain phenomena in general population. - Most psychological samples tend to be **WEIRD** (**W**hite, **E**ducated, **I**ndustrialized, **R**ich, and **D**emocratic) and/or convenience samples (e.g., psychology undergraduate participant pools. Convenience samples is the *most* common non-probability sampling method and often leads to **sampling bias:** A bias that occurs when participants in a study do not adequately represent the population of interest.) **BIAS IN MEASUREMENT & ANALYSIS** - **How are the variables measured?** - Variables may be operationalized inappropriately for a diverse sample. e.g., aggression in boys versus girls - Variables may lack construct equivalence across different groups. - **How are the data analyzed?** - Statistics are **designed to detect differences, not similarities**. - **Qualitative methods** produce descriptive data without the need for statistical analysis. - **Participatory action research (PAR)** includes participants in the decision process during every stage of the research. **4 QUESTIONS TO ASK ABOUT DIFFERENCES** 1. Who is the researcher? - Does everyone show this difference? - No! huge variability at intersections of race, age, Socioeconomic status (SES). 2. Does the difference change in different contexts? - Yes! Who helps others when & how task is framed changes results. 3. Is the difference categorical or dimensional? - **Categorica**l: women are one way and men are another - **Dimensional:** any differences are a matter of degree 4. What is the source of the difference **BIAS IN RESEARCH** - Bias enters into research process at many stages \***[Confirmation bias]**\* - **[Question Formulation:]** Studies of leadership ability, studies of friendship intimacy - **[Research Design:]** Poor measures, social desirability bias, unrepresentative samples - **[Interpretation and Publishing:]** Exaggerate differences, use male as the standard or norm. **BIAS IN WRITING, AND IN INTERPRETATION & PUBLICATION** - Where are results published? - Language choices can convey subtle biases. - Results seen as reflection of WHO people are, rather than WHAT people did. - Lacking truly intersectional lens - Where are results published? - Sharing research only in academic journals limits its reach! - Mainstream press misinterprets or oversimplifies research findings. - Strong push toward **[open science]**: A range of practices that increase the accessibility, transparency, and reproducibility of data-driven science **HOW TO REDUCE BIAS IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS** - **Self-reflection** on role of one's positionality, perspectives, bias. *For example:* Is the research question influenced by the personal experience and interests of the researcher? - **Positionality:** A person's specific position and power in society, influenced by multiple aspects of social identity. - **Reflexivity:** A process through which researchers actively examine and discuss their own perspectives and beliefs and how they have influenced the research process. - **Context/Generalizability:** What role might participants' social identities play, political climate, power differentials, how you ask a question, etc. *For example:* Is the research question limited to a certain time, place, and/or setting? - **Representation/Intersectionality**: Stop relying on WEIRD samples! Focus on mixed methods and interdisciplinary work*. For example:* Is the research question relevant only for WEIRD samples? Is it relevant only for cisgender, white, or well-educated samples? - Challenge the marginalization and devaluing of qualitative work & work by marginalized groups! **MINIMIZING BIAS IN FEMINIST RESEARCH** 1. Be aware of power dynamics inherent in research. - Reject the myth of the impartial researcher. - Acknowledge biases. 2. Consider intersectionality by asking three key questions. - Who is included within this category? - What role does inequality play? - Where are the similarities? **[Caster Semenya]** She won women's 800-meter race at World Track & Field in 2009 in record time! Competitors immediately began to publicly question her biological sex. IAAF pulled her gold medal, stopped her from competing, put her through 'gender testing'. - Identifies as female and raised as female. She has a difference of sexual development (DID):; has external female genitalia and internal male genitalia. Doesn't have ovaries or a uterus. - IAAF designates Caster as a biological male with a female gender identity. - Disqualified from competing in 2010 & filed several unsuccessful appeals. **["GENDER VARIFICATIONT TESTING"]** Caster Semenya underwent exams by: - Gynecologist - Endocrinologist - Psychologist - Gender expert? **[UNFAIR ADVANTAGES?]** - Are her higher level of androgens and muscularity an unfair advantage? - Are these unfair advantages? - Michael Phelps -- long arms, lax-joints - Ian Thorpe -- huge, flipper-like feet - Males 6 foot 7 or over in NBA - Long-distance runners raised at higher altitudes **What is exactly the issue?** - It is based on assumption that male and female phenotypes are truly distinct. - There is pressure on sports governing bodies to find a clear, **objective** way to say this person is male and this person female. - FACT: No such single marker exists in all male or females. **[Moving Beyond the Traditional Model]** - **Sex/gender binary:** Notion that there are only two sexes (XX and XY, female and male) - And that a person's assigned sex will align with their gender identity. - **Alternative Approach** **Gender Bundle:** - Aspects of sex & gender aren't necessarily ordered or connected in a meaningful way. - Fluid, flexible, individual **Key terms** -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Gender identity:** A person's internal, individual understanding of themselves as gendered. **Gender expression:** How a person publicly presents their gender. **Cisgender[:]** Gender identity aligns with societal expectations for biological sex assigned at birth. **Transgender***:* Gender identity and/or gender expression doesn't align with societal expectations for the biological sex assigned to them at birth.