Psychology Chapter 18-19 PDF

**The Process of Observational Learning** 18.1.01 The Process of Observational Learning **Observational learning**, also known as social learning, occurs when an observer imitates a behavior that someone else has modeled (Figure 18.1). For example, people can learn new behaviors by watching others...

**The Process of Observational Learning** 18.1.01 The Process of Observational Learning **Observational learning**, also known as social learning, occurs when an observer imitates a behavior that someone else has modeled (Figure 18.1). For example, people can learn new behaviors by watching others demonstrate those behaviors, such as when a medical student (observer) sees an experienced surgeon perform a new technique (model) and so they mimic that technique (imitation) **The Biological Underpinnings of Observational Learning** 18.2.01 The Biological Underpinnings of Observational Learning Specialized neurons called **mirror neurons** fire when organisms engage in a particular behavior and when they observe that behavior in others. Mirror neurons are found in multiple brain regions, including the frontal lobe\'s (Figure 18.2) motor cortex, an area of the brain responsible for planning and initiating voluntary movement. **Figure 18.2** The frontal lobe. [Observational learning](javascript:void(0)) (see Lesson 18.1) occurs when an observer imitates a behavior that someone else has modeled. Research shows that observational learning involves the mirror neuron system. Mirror neurons play a role in imitation (the copying of another\'s behavior) because they fire when an organism watches or replicates a behavior. **Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval** 19.1.01 Encoding Memory involves **encoding**, the transfer of information into memory; storage (retaining the information); and retrieval (accessing the information) (Figure 19.1). Some information is processed automatically with little effort (eg, registering the characters on a license plate as letters or numbers), but to encode information, attention and effortful processing are often required (eg, encoding a specific license plate takes effort). **Figure 19.1** Memory processes: encoding, storage, retrieval. **Levels of processing** is a concept that describes how information processed at a deeper level is encoded and retrieved (ie, remembered) better than information processed on a shallower level. One encoding strategy that can enhance memory is **elaboration**, in which new information is meaningfully associated with previously known information. This effortful, deep processing tends to result in more connections to the new material, improving learning. For example, consider a student studying the meaning of the words \"ventral\" and \"dorsal.\" While studying the word ventral, she focuses only on the appearance of the word and notices that it starts with a \"v.\" In contrast, while studying the meaning of the word dorsal (ie, \"to the back\"), she uses elaboration by meaningfully associating this information with her favorite animal, dolphins, which have dorsal fins on their backs. As a result, this student has better recall of the meaning of the word dorsal as compared to ventral because she processed information about the word dorsal at a deeper level (Figure 19.2). Chapter 19: Memory 107 **Figure 19.2** Elaboration example. Similarly, the **self-reference effect** states that information that is personally relevant (ie, linked to oneself) is easier to remember because personally relevant information is meaningful and so is processed at a deeper level. For example, an individual who has difficulty remembering passwords changes their email password to the date of their wedding, making the password personally relevant, which leads to easier retrieval (Figure 19.3).  Chapter 19: Memory 108 **Figure 19.3** Self-reference effect example. Additionally, **mnemonics** are strategies (eg, songs, acronyms) that aid memory encoding and retrieval. For example, an individual uses an acronym to help her remember the colors of the rainbow (Figure 19.4). A person sitting at a computer Description automatically generated Chapter 19: Memory 109 **Figure 19.4** Mnemonic example. 19.1.02 Storage As Concept 19.1.01 introduces, memory involves three steps: encoding, storage, and retrieval. **Storage** refers to retaining the encoded information. The three types of memory, sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory, hold information for varying amounts of time (Figure 19.5). **Sensory memory** first briefly and temporarily stores information from the environment (eg, sights, sounds). Iconic memory is sensory memory of visual information, whereas echoic memory is sensory memory for auditory information. **Figure 19.5** Three-stage model of memory. **Short-term memory** then stores pieces of information from sensory memory. Short-term memory has a short duration (about 20 seconds) and a storage capacity of about seven items (plus or minus two). Maintenance rehearsal (mentally repeating something over and over) can prolong the duration of short-  A diagram of a memory Description automatically generated Chapter 19: Memory 110 term memory. Chunking describes the strategy of grouping items into clusters that are more easily held in short-term memory (eg, grouping the digits of a phone number into three chunks rather than a long series of individual digits). Information not transferred from short-term to long-term memory is lost. **Long-term memory** has a large capacity and a long duration (memories can be stored permanently) and comprises two branches: implicit memory and explicit memory. **Implicit memory** (also called nondeclarative memory) is memory for things that cannot be consciously recalled, such as skills, tasks, emotions, and reflexes. Implicit memory includes procedural memory, which is memory for well-learned motor skills (eg, riding a bicycle). Another example of implicit memory is emotional/reflexive memory, which is memory for associations between stimuli (eg, salty ocean air triggers pleasant emotions from childhood beach vacations). In contrast, **explicit memory** (also called declarative memory) is memory for facts and events that can be consciously or intentionally recalled. Explicit memory includes episodic memory, which is the memory for personal experiences (eg, what one ate for dinner last night), and semantic memory, which includes knowledge about facts (eg, Austin is the state capital of Texas) and language (eg, \"their\" and \"there\" are not synonymous). Semantic long-term memory appears to be organized as a network of interconnected nodes containing factual concepts (eg, colors, objects). The organization and relationship between nodes (how linked or connected they are in memory) is unique to each individual because of the personal meaning associated with each node. For example, an individual with an uncle who is a firefighter may think of \"uncle\" when viewing a fire engine, which would not occur for most people. The **spreading activation model** suggests that when a node in the semantic network is activated (eg, viewing a picture of a toy fire engine), nodes directly connected to that node (eg, siren, alarm) are activated as well, which is known as priming. 19.1.03 Retrieval As Concept 19.1.01 introduces, the final step involved in memory is retrieval. **Retrieval** refers to accessing the encoded information from storage. There are three types of memory retrieval processes: recall, recognition, and relearning. Recall is the retrieval of information previously encoded. Recognition involves the correct identification of information that one has been exposed to. Relearning involves re-encoding information that was previously learned but forgotten. Typically, relearning happens much faster than learning something for the first time. Memory retrieval can be aided by internal (eg, emotional state) or external (eg, sights, smells) cues (Figure 19.6). **Context-dependent effects** are external cues that aid retrieval. For example, if an individual encodes a memory at the library, that memory is easier to recall (ie, retrieve) at the library than in class. **State-dependent effects** are internal cues that aid retrieval. For example, if an individual encodes a memory while happy, that memory is easier to retrieve during a later happy mood than when sad. Chapter 19: Memory 111 **Figure 19.6** State-dependent versus context-dependent memory effects. The **serial position effect** describes how the relative ease (or difficulty) of remembering an item from a list is related to the item\'s position on the list. The items that are easiest to recall are those from the beginning (called the primacy effect) and end (called the recency effect) of the list, while the middle items are the hardest to recall. For example, when an individual views a list of items one at a time, the items studied first and last would be the easiest to remember, and those from the middle would be the hardest to remember (Figure 19.7). **Figure 19.7** The serial position effect.  A graph with a line and a speech bubble Description automatically generated with medium confidence Chapter 19: Memory A retrieval failure in which a person experiences only partial recall of a word or term is called the **tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon**. Individuals experiencing the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon can often recall details about the word they are trying to retrieve, such as the first letter or number of syllables, but they cannot recall the word itself despite feeling that the information is \"on the tip of the tongue.\" For example, an individual is unable to recall the word \"peony\" despite knowing that the word is the name of a flower and begins with the letter \"p\" (Figure 19.8) 19.2 **Forgetting** 19.2.01 Decay and Interference **Memory Decay** Early memory researcher Hermann Ebbinghaus assessed his own memory by studying a list of short nonsense syllables and then repeatedly testing his memory for the syllables over time. Ebbinghaus found that **memory** **decay** (ie, forgetting) follows a characteristic pattern known as the **forgetting curve** (Figure 19.9): the initial rate of decay is greatest right after the material is first learned, then the rate of decay plateaus over time unless the material is reviewed again. **Figure 19.9** Typical memory decay: the forgetting curve. Numerous studies have since produced the same basic forgetting curve shape for different types of memory, including short-term and several types of long-term memory (eg, episodic, semantic, procedural). **Interference** A common memory error that occurs when previously learned information interferes with the ability to recall new information is called **proactive interference**. For example, an individual\'s father cannot remember her new boyfriend\'s name (ie, recent information) and repeatedly refers to him by her old boyfriend\'s name (ie, older information). Conversely, **retroactive interference** occurs when recently encoded information prevents the recall of older information. For example, an individual\'s father cannot remember her old boyfriend\'s name (ie, older information) and repeatedly refers to him by her new boyfriend\'s name (ie, recent information). Proactive and retroactive interference are contrasted in Figure 19.10.  Chapter 19: Memory 114 **Figure 19.10** Proactive versus retroactive interference. 19.2.02 Memory Construction Memories are not perfect recordings of past events. **Memory reconstruction** refers to how memories are altered in the process of retrieval and subsequent storage. In Elizabeth Loftus\'s memory reconstruction experiments, participants were shown films of car accidents and later asked about them. The results showed that a question about \"the crash\" as opposed to \"the fender bender\" influenced how the participants remembered the event. This **misinformation effect** explains how misleading information presented after an event can distort memories, and these experiments are often cited to bring the validity of eyewitness testimony into question. The process of memory reconstruction leads to some common memory mistakes, such as **source monitoring errors**, which occur when a memory is attributed to the wrong source. For example, an individual may think they heard a joke from their father, but they actually heard it from a friend. The misinformation effect and source monitoring errors help explain **false memories**: memories that are distorted or memories of something that did not occur. 19.2.03 Aging and Memory Aging affects the various types of memory differently. Aging has been associated with declines in certain types of memory, including episodic and source memory. Episodic memory (Concept 19.1.02) is the memory of autobiographical events (eg, the name of a childhood friend), whereas source memory is memory for the source of learned information (eg, correctly attributing one\'s knowledge of an event to a newspaper article). Aging is also associated with declines in **flashbulb memory**: a vivid, detailed type of autobiographical memory for an event that was extremely emotional, distinct, or significant to the individual (eg, the 9/11 attacks, the birth of a child). Individuals are able to vividly recall specific details surrounding the event, such as what they were wearing and their emotional state at the time of the event. Once thought to be extremely accurate snapshots of emotionally arousing events, studies suggest that for people of all ages, flashbulb memories are not completely accurate or consistent over time, despite people\'s confidence in their recollections. In contrast, other types of memory appear to remain relatively stable with age, such as semantic memory (memory for words, facts, and concepts that have been acquired over the lifetime) (see Concept 19.1.02). Additionally, procedural memory, which involves motor skills one has acquired, also remains relatively stable across adulthood. 19.2.04 Memory-Related Symptoms Amnesia is severe memory loss that can be caused by brain trauma (eg, a head injury). Amnesia can be classified by whether the memory loss affects new or old explicit/declarative memories (ie, memory for facts and events that can be intentionally recalled): **Retrograde amnesia** is the loss of memories acquired prior to the trauma. For example, the patient cannot remember what they were doing just before the trauma. **Anterograde amnesia** is the inability to form new memories. For example, a patient can temporarily learn information while paying attention, but this information, such as a new plan, cannot be permanently stored and recalled later. Retrograde and anterograde amnesia are contrasted in Figure 19.11 **The Biological Underpinnings of Memory** 19.3.01 Neural Plasticity **Neural plasticity** (or neuroplasticity) refers to the ability of neurons to change. The strengthening of neural connections, known as potentiation, and weakening of neural connections, known as depression, illustrate plasticity. Neuroplasticity enables the modification of neurons during learning and can allow entire brain regions to recover function after an injury. Plasticity allows for synaptic as well as structural changes. Synaptic plasticity is exemplified by changes in the firing rate of the presynaptic neuron(s) altering the amount of neurotransmitter released into the synaptic cleft and/or the number of postsynaptic receptors. In contrast, forms of structural plasticity include sprouting (new connections between neurons), rerouting (altered connections between neurons), and pruning (elimination of connections between neurons). Mechanisms such as these can, in some cases, allow the brain to repurpose an area that is no longer used. For example, in an individual who lost their sight at an early age, the occipital lobe (visual processing area) is no longer receiving visual information. That brain area may then become involved in processing information from the other senses (eg, auditory processing) (Figure 19.12). **Figure 19.12** Example of neural plasticity after the loss of sight. 19.3.02 Long-Term Potentiation As Concept 19.3.01 introduces, neural plasticity refers to neurons\' ability to change (eg, alterations to synapses). **Long-term potentiation** (LTP) occurs when synapses that are stimulated frequently are strengthened (ie, become more effective). Animal research has supported the assertion that LTP enables both associative and non-associative learning.  Chapter 19: Memory 117 Although LTP occurs at synapses throughout the brain, it has been extensively studied at glutamatergic synapses in the hippocampus because LTP at these synapses is hypothesized to be the mechanism underlying memory consolidation. Consolidation is the process of converting memories that are being kept temporarily as synaptic alterations into long-term memory. Researchers have shown that brief, high-frequency (ie, tetanic) stimulation of a hippocampal glutamatergic neuron induces LTP and an excitatory postsynaptic potential (see Concept 4.2.02) that is increased in magnitude relative to baseline (see Figure 19.13). **Figure 19.13** Tetanic stimulation induces long-term potentiation at hippocampal synapses. LTP can result in changes to the presynaptic or postsynaptic neurons. Increased calcium influx causes increased presynaptic neurotransmitter release. At the postsynaptic neuron, LTP can cause phosphorylation of postsynaptic receptors (leading to increased effectiveness), the insertion of new receptors into the membrane, and an increase in dendritic spine density, for example. The exact mechanisms of LTP vary based on brain region and synapse type. A diagram of a human body Description automatically generated Increased presynaptic neurotransmitter release is a more immediate but transient form of LTP. Longer lasting strengthening of synaptic connections involves alterations in gene expression, the synthesis of new proteins, and/or new synaptic connections. The consolidation of short-term memory into long-term memory, for example, requires changes to existing proteins at synapses as well as new protein synthesis and altered gene expression. In addition to occurring as a result of repeated, high-frequency stimulation from one presynaptic input, LTP can also occur when two (or more) presynaptic neurons repeatedly fire at the same time. For example, if neuron C repeatedly receives simultaneous input from two sources, neuron A and neuron B, both synapses may become potentiated. Following potentiation, either neuron A or neuron B alone can cause an action potential in neuron C, whereas previously neither was sufficient to induce postsynaptic depolarization to threshold. This process is hypothesized to be the neural foundation for learned associations, such as if, in this case, neuron A relays visual information about a flower and neuron B relays olfactory information about a flower, the appearance and smell of a flower become linked. In contrast, **long-term depression** (LTD) describes when synapses that are stimulated infrequently are weakened. LTD can result in, for instance, a decrease in presynaptic neurotransmitter release, dephosphorylation and an internalization of postsynaptic receptors, a decrease in dendritic spine density, and synaptic pruning. Examples of LTP and LTD are depicted in Figure 19.14