PSYCH282 Notes PDF

Topic 1: BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION: Field of psychology concerned with analyzing/modifying behavior -​ Increase or decrease in a particular behavior (Applied Behavior Analysis) -​ Ask why someone behaved a certain way -​ Ask how we can make that behavior change WHAT IS BEHAVIOR: depends on def...

Topic 1: BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION: Field of psychology concerned with analyzing/modifying behavior -​ Increase or decrease in a particular behavior (Applied Behavior Analysis) -​ Ask why someone behaved a certain way -​ Ask how we can make that behavior change WHAT IS BEHAVIOR: depends on definition, we will focus on: -​ BEHAVIORISTS: Overt/External actions (“anything a person/animal does that can be measured” BF Skinner) -​ COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGIST: Overt(external) and Covert (internal) actions (we focus more on behaviorist; concerned more with observable behavior) DEFINING BEHAVIOR: -​ Behavior involves action; described through VERBS (ex: jump, pull, speak) ​ NOT a static characteristic or label (ex: angry, calm) -​ Behavior has measurable dimensions ​ Frequency: How many times a behavior occurs ​ Duration: How long a behavior continues to occur ​ Intensity: How strongly a behavior occurs ​ Latency: How long until a behavior occurs -​ Behavior can be observed, described, and recorded ​ Observer detects when action occurs, occurrence can be described/recorded -​ Behavior impacts the (physical or social) environment ​ Occurs in both time and space so it affects the environment where it occurs ​ Effect may be obvious (pushing a button) or not (rehearse something internally) -​ Behavior is lawful ​ Follows predictable rules ​ Environmental factors affect behavior in (relatively) consistent way ​ Allows for understanding/prediction/modification of behavior in given system -​ Behavior can be overt or covert ​ Overt = Obvious (ex: put hand up when teacher calls you ​ Covert = Hidden (ex: only affects person who did the behavior) FOCUS ON BEHAVIOR, rather then a personal characteristic(neutral stance on behavior) TARGET BEHAVIOR: Behavior you want to change -​ Behavioral Excess: Undesirable behavior you want to decrease -​ Behavioral Deficit: Desirable behavior you want to increase PROCEDURES IN BEHAVIORISM -​ Experimental Analysis of Behavior(behavioral analysis): Scientific study of behavior ​ Originally developed from Skinner's experimental research -​ Applied Behavior Analysis: Scientific study of behavior to change that behavior ​ Specifically targeted at human behavior BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION CHARACTERISTICS -​ Emphasis on current environmental events ​ Focus on what comes before (antecedent) and after (consequences) ​ Alter these controlling variables once their identified -​ Clear and detailed description of procedures (what were doing/measuring) -​ Treatment implemented by non-professionals (ie; teachers, parents) -​ Measure behavior change (short and long term) ​ Measure before, Measure after, Measure long after -​ No focus on the past (recent events in environment used as explanation for behaviors) -​ Reject hypothetical underlying causes of behavior (no internal explanations needed) HISTORY REVIEW 1)​ Thorndike (1911): Comparative psychologist; used puzzle box experiments (animals fed after leaving box; food created association between situation & latch opening response) -​ Law of Effect: If response is followed by satisfying event, S-R connection strengthened ​ ​ (if response followed by unsatisfying event, S-R connection weakened) 2)​ John B Watson(1924): Created behaviorism; psychology about observable behavior (stimulus response psychology)(environmental events(stimulus) elicit responses) 3)​ Ivan Pavlov: Experiments uncovered processes of classical(respondent) conditioning (original behavior can be transferred to new stimulus through association) 4)​ BF Skinner(1935): Expanded field of behaviorism(radical behaviorist; ONLY behavior) (Operant Conditioning: consequences of behavior determining the future occurrences of behavior) 5)​ Shifted from animal to human behavior focus APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS: Focal features of applied behavior analysis TODAY -​ Socially important behavior -​ Functional relationships between environmental events and behavior -​ Clear description of procedures -​ Connection to basic behaviour principles -​ Production of meaningful, generalizable, and long lasting changes in behavior EVOLUTION OF BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION AND APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS -​ Controlled experiments show environmental influences on behavior in both human/non human -​ Application of findings to develop treatments based on reinforcement/punishment -​ Assessment procedures developed and refined (learn from experiences) BEHAVIOR ASSESSMENT: Measuring the target behavior(s) in a given situation -​ Useful before, during, and after implementation of treatment 1)​ Before to determine if treatment is necessary 2)​ Before to provide information to help choose best treatment for situation 3)​ After to determine if treatment was successful PROCESS OF BEHAVIOR ASSESSMENT 1)​ Define target behavior 2)​ Determine how the behavior will be recorded (who is the observer? when/where will the behavior be recorded?) INDIRECT Vs DIRECT ASSESSMENT -​ Indirect Assessment: Measure target behavior with interviews, questionnaires ​ Individuals can report their own behavior (reflect after the fact) ​ Assessment may rely on testimony from other people (parents, teachers) ​ Requires recall of behavior; may be biased, inaccurate, and unreliable) -​ Direct Assessment: Target behavior is measured as it occurs ​ Observer can be the individual engaging in the behavior, or someone else ​ (EX: recording on your phone how long you study) ​ Documenting behavior as it happens removes reliance on recall, more accurate Self Monitoring: Client is trained to observe their own target behavior Useful when: -​ Independent observers not available -​ Target behavior infrequent -​ Target behavior does not occur in presence of other people -​ Because trained to self monitor, you become hyper aware (can reduce behavior) OPERATIONAL DEFINITION: Description that specifies how a term will be measured -​ Definition must be precise and quantifiable (what, how) -​ Definition must be objective and unambiguous (what does/doesn't count as behavior) -​ Definition must be practical and useful (be assemble to measure it) -​ Definition should not reference internal states/feelings/emotions (can only be inferred) -​ (EX: measuring mouth wateriness of food; OD: number of mg of saliva absorbed by cotton balls) WHO RECORDS THE BEHAVIOR? -​ Independent Observer (someone other then the person exhibiting target behavior) -​ Self Monitoring (clients records their own behavior) -​ Remote Monitoring (recording device; camera/audio) -​ Product Recording: Record tangible outcomes(products) as a result of behavior occurring (EX: submission of assignment implies you completed it) WHEN IS BEHAVIOR RECORDED? (Need to determine periods of observation) -​ Consider the nature of the behavior (how often does it occur; is that necessary knowledge?) -​ Consider the observer (are they only able to observe at certain times?) -​ Will it be a structured or unstructured observation period?? ​ Structured: Involve arranging for specific events/situations to occur ​ Unstructured: observe behavior as it occurs without intervention -​ What method? (Continuous Recording ot Sample Recording) ​ Continuous: document every instance of the target behavior during observation ​ Sample/Discontinuous: document some of the occurrences of the target behavior SAMPLE RECORDING INCLUDES: Interval Recording and Time Sample Recording -​ Interval: Record whether the target behavior occurs within certain time intervals ​ Partial-Interval Recording: if behavior occurs at any part of the interval ​ Whole-Interval Recording: if behavior occurs during the entire interval ​ Frequency-Within-Interval Recording: frequency of behavior within consecutive intervals of time in observation period -​ Time Sample Recording: Divide observation into intervals of time but only observe behavior during part of each interval (periods of observation separated by periods without) ​ Momentary Time Sample Recording: record behavior only if it occurs at the exact instant the interval ends (observe as 5 minute alarm goes off) (Record target behavior using discontinuous methods calculating percentage of intervals where behavior occurred)(EX: behavior occurred in 6/10 intervals; occurred 60% of intervals) WHERE IS BEHAVIOR RECORDED? -​ Natural Setting: Place where target behavior normally occurs; more representative -​ Analogue/Artificial Setting: Places not apart of normal routine ​ More controlled environment; easier to manipulate variables influencing behavior REACTIVITY: Persons behavior changes as a result of that behavior being observed REDUCE REACTIVITY: -​ Wait until person being observed becomes accustomed to observer (Jane Goodall) -​ Use one way observation window/participant observer -​ Self monitoring may lead to behavior change (hyperaware; can be used as treatment) INTEROBSERVER AGREEMENT(IOA)(RELIABILITY): Is behavior recorded consistently?? HOW TO EVALUATE IOA: 1)​ Two people independently observe/record same target behavior in same observation period 2)​ Compare recording of two observers 3)​ Calculate percentage/agreement RESEARCH DESIGNS RESEARCH METHOD IN BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION: 1)​ Measure the dependent variable (target behavior) 2)​ Manipulate the independent variable and demonstrate change in target behavior ​ Eliminate confounding variables 3)​ Replicate BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION RESEARCH DESIGNS -​ A-B Designs (most common) ​ One baseline and one treatment phase ​ A = Baseline; B = Treatment ​ Not a true research design; NO replication (could be confounding variables) ​ Does not demonstrate a functional relationship ​ Used in clinical practice/self management projects -​ A-B-A-B reversal design and variations ​ Remove treatment; go back to ‘baseline’ (baseline treatment baseline treatment) ​ Implement treatment again ​ Shows treatment is cause of change in behavior ​ Demonstrates a functional relationship (best we can get to causation) -​ MULTIPLE BASELINE design (multiple subjects/behaviors/settings) ​ 2+ subjects with same target behavior ​ Treatment staggered over time not everyone starts treatment at same time) across subjects (baseline lengths different)(shows staggered results coinciding) -​ ALTERNATING TREATMENT design ​ Baseline/Treatment implemented on alternating days/sessions, for the same amount of time (EX: one day each)(see if behavior fluctuates) -​ CHANGING CRITERION design ​ Baseline and treatment phase (DIFFERENT FROM A-B DESIGN) ​ Within treatment phase, different rules are enforced to reach a target behavior ​ Treatment slowly gets more and more strict.. ​ Functional relationship demonstrated when behavior matched treatment criteria FUNCTIONAL ASSESSMENT Goal is to determine why a problem behavior occurs/ desirable behavior does not occur -​ Requires functional understanding of the stimuli in the environment that influence behavior THE THREE TERM CONTINGENCY ANTECEDENT(stimulus) EXAMPLE: ANTECEDENTS VS CONSEQUENCES ANTECEDENTS: Stimuli that alter the current probability of a behavior -​ Behavior is more/less likely in their presence now (behavior altering effect) -​ EX: when your parents enter the room, wont want to tell any crazy stories atm CONSEQUENCES(Reinforcers and Punishers): strengthen or weaken a behavior -​ Behavior is more or less likely to occur in the future -​ (EX: after getting reprimanded by parents, in future you wont tell any stories) ASSESSING ANTECEDENTS (A)(WWWW) When, where, with whom, and in what circumstance/situation does the behavior occur? (EX: contextual stimuli, predicting behaviors and circumstances, time of day, etc) (Patterns of stuff that happens before the behavior) (EX: when your friends are around, thats when you start telling crazy stories) ASSESSING BEHAVIOR (B) PROBLEM BEHAVIORS: Relevant variables (EX: intensity, latency, etc) -​ Alternative behaviors (get kid to color in book instead of on wall) ASSESSING CONSEQUENCES (C) For both problem and alternative behaviors (assess social and environmental(automatic) consequences) Consider the: -​ Schedule of reinforcement -​ Magnitude of reinforcement -​ Immediacy of reinforcement TWO TYPES OF FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS 1)​ EXPLORATORY FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS: Test range of possible functions (unaware of what the antecedent is, just trying to figure something out) 2)​ HYPOTHESIS TESTING FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS: Test hypothesis from descriptive research (when you already have a prediction) TOPIC 2: BASIC KINDS OF BEHAVIOR AND LEARNING LEARNING: Enduring/durable change in behavior/mental processes due to experience -​ Relatively permanent -​ Causes a change in behavior -​ Occurs due to interactions with the environment UNLEARNED BEHAVIORS (can be connected to other stimuli via learning): INNATE: Something we are born with/naturally occurring REFLEX: Stimulus response relationship that is either learned/innate (Reflex arc = unlearned) ELICITED BEHAVIORS (include innate/reflex behaviors) -​ Occurs automatically in response to environmental stimuli (EX: pupils constrict when see light, salivate when we see food) -​ Adaptive value of elicited behavior; contributes to survival and well being (EX: reflex arcs prevents us from getting hurt, pupils need to dilate in bright light) ELICITING STIMULI: Stimulus that initiates the modal action pattern -​ Sign Stimulus: features necessary to elicit the response -​ Supernormal Stimulus: exaggerated sign stimulus leads to exaggerated response LEARNED BEHAVIORS: Types of Learning: Event-Alone Learning: Habituation and Sensitization Event-Event Learning: Classical (Pavlovian) Conditioning Behavior-Event Learning: Instrumental (Operant) Conditioning Social Learning: Observational Learning EVENT-ALONE LEARNING -​ Descarte said reflex responses occur the same way every time (not the case, repeated exposure to stimulus could change behavior to that stimulus) HABITUATION: Process by which we respond less strongly over time to repeated stimuli -​ HIGHLY SPECIFIC to stimulus producing the stimulus -​ NOT HABITUATION: Sensory Adaptation(change in sense organs), Fatigue SENSITIZATION: Increase in the strength of a response to a repeated stimulus -​ NOT specific to one stimulus -​ Can result from repeated presentations of a stimulus/extraneous tenseness VISUAL ATTENTION IN INFANTS: Infants fixated longer on complex stimuli rather than simple ones ADAPTIVE VALUE OF HABITUATION/SENSITIZATION? Habituation: Reduce responding to things constant in environment -​ Attention drawn to new things Sensitization: Increase responsiveness to things distracting in environment; ready for danger EVENT-EVENT LEARNING (Classical/Respondent/Pavlovian Conditioning): Form of learning where a neutral stimulus comes to signal the occurrence of a second stimulus -​ Becomes a reliable predictor of a second stimulus happening -​ Behaviors are elicited by antecedent stimuli -​ Conditioning process involves manipulation of antecedent stimuli TERMINOLOGY: Elicits: brings about Stimulus: anything in the environment that we can detect, is measurable, and can evoke a response/behavior Association: a relationship between two stimuli Acquisition: time while an association is being learned CLASSICAL CONDITIONING TERMS!!! Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Biologically significant stimulus that already has an associated response (EX: Food, Pain) Unconditioned Response (UR): Response naturally associated with the unconditioned stimulus (EX: Salivation, Startle) (UNCONDITIONED = UNLEARNED/ILLICIT BEHAVIOR) Neutral Stimulus (NS): Stimulus that does not naturally elicit a response (EX: Bell, Tone) Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Previously neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response (EX: Bell, Tone) Conditioned Response (CR): Learned response to an environmental stimulus (CS) (EX: Salivation, Startle) (CONDITIONED = LEARNED/ASSOCIATED BEHAVIOR) BEHAVIOR EVENT LEARNING (Operant (Instrumental) Conditioning) THORNDIKE'S LAW OF EFFECT: “If a response, in the presence of a stimulus, is followed by a satisfying state of affairs, the bond between stimulus and response will be strengthened.” -​ SATISFACTION: Stamping in -​ DISCOMFORT: Stamping Out OPERANT/INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING: Learning that is controlled by the consequences of the organisms behavior Stimulus/Antecedent → Response/Behavior → Outcome/Consequence REINFORCEMENT CONTINGENCIES: OPERANT VS CLASSICAL OPERANT BEHAVIORS: Controlled by their consequences (future) CLASSICAL BEHAVIORS: Controlled by antecedent stimuli (present) OPERANT CONDITIONING: Involves manipulation of consequences CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: Involves manipulation of antecedent stimuli (classical are things that happen more automatically, operant are actions more controlled) SOCIAL LEARNING A. Bandura: Studied kindergarten students to establish observational learning SOCIAL(OBSERVATIONAL) LEARNING: We understand what to do by watching others -​ Vicarious Conditioning occurs by an organism watching another organism be conditioned (BOBO DOLL STUDY) SOCIAL LEARNING/COGNITION: See someone get in trouble, learn not to do it yourself TOPIC 3: CLASSICAL (RESPONDENT) CONDITIONING CLASSICAL CONDITIONING TERMS!!! Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Biologically significant stimulus that already has an associated response (EX: Food, Pain) Unconditioned Response (UR): Response naturally associated with the unconditioned stimulus (EX: Salivation, Startle) (Usually have a survival value)(Habituation can occur) (Unconditioned Stimulus → Unconditioned Response)(Puff of Air → Eye Blink Response) THE UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS: Can be classified as -​ Appetitive: stimulus the animal finds pleasant (EX: Food, Play, etc) -​ Aversive: stimulus the animal finds unpleasant (EX: loud sound, darkness, etc) (This could be subjective; different people find different things appetitive/aversive) GOOD UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS: Should evoke a strong bodily response -​ More intense the US, the easier to produce a conditioned response -​ However there is a limit -​ Should be truly neutral/unrelated to any function Neutral Stimulus (NS): Stimulus that does not naturally elicit a response (EX: Bell, Tone) Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Previously neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response (EX: Bell, Tone) Conditioned Response (CR): Learned response to an environmental stimulus (CS) (EX: Salivation, Startle)(CR similar to UR, but does NOT need to be identical)