psych-week-1-notes.pdf

lOMoARcPSD|46920031 Psych Week 1 Notes Psychology (University of Guelph) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by Sabrina Porco ([email protected]) ...

lOMoARcPSD|46920031 Psych Week 1 Notes Psychology (University of Guelph) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by Sabrina Porco ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46920031 Week 1 (1.1,1.2,2.1,2.2,2.3) Chapter 1 1.1- The Science of Psychology Psychology- Scientific study of behaviour, thoughts, and experience, and how they can be affected by physical, mental, social, and environmental factors. Overarching goals of psychology: - To understand how different brain structures work together to produce our behaviour - To understand how nature (genetics) and nurture (our upbringing and environment) interact to make us who we are. - To understand how previous experiences influence how we think and act - To understand how groups/family/crowds/culture affects the individual - To understand how feelings of control can influence happiness and health - To understand how each of these factors can influence our well being and could contribute to psychological disorders. The Scientific Method- A way of learning about the world through collecting observations, developing theories to explain them, and using the theories to make predictions. It involves a dynamic interaction between hypothesis testing and the construction of theories. Downloaded by Sabrina Porco ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46920031 Hypothesis- a testable prediction about processes that can be observed and measured. A hypothesis can be supported/rejected; you cannot prove a hypothesis because it is always possible that a future experiment could show that it is wrong or limited in some way. Falsifiable- The hypothesis is precise enough that it could be proven false. Preciseness helps future researchers if they try to replicate the study (reproduce the findings) to determine if the results were due to chance. Pseudoscience- An idea that is presented as science but does not actually utilize basic principles of scientific thinking or procedure. Theory- An explanation for a broad range of observations that also generates new hypotheses and integrates numerous findings into a coherent whole. Link Between Hypotheses+Theory: Theories are general explanations of some aspect of the world (including human behaviour) whereas hypotheses are specific predictions that can test specific parts of the theory. Theories are built from hypotheses and are repeatedly tested and confirmed. If Hypothesis is supported → more support for theory. Theories are not the same as opinions or beliefs ○ Theory can help scientists develop testable hypotheses, opinions don’t need to be tested nor logical. All theories are not equally plausible ○ Several theories on depression; does not mean that anyone can claim equal status ○ A good theory can explain previous research+can lead to more testable hypotheses. The quality of a theory is not related to the number of people who believe it to be true ○ Only 68% of Canadians believe in the theory of evolution by natural selection despite the fact that it’s the most tested theory on biological change. ○ Biopsychosocial Model- A means of explaining behaviour as a product of biological, psychological and sociocultural factors. Biological Influences on behaviour: brain structures and chemicals, hormones, and external substances (drugs). Psychological Influences: memories, emotions, personalities Sociocultural Influences: Family, peers, ethnicity, culture All of these factors can occur simultaneously and can affect each other. Downloaded by Sabrina Porco ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46920031 Scientific Literacy- ability to understand, analyze, and apply scientific information. Critical Thinking- exercising curiosity and skepticism when evaluating the claims of others, and with our own assumptions and beliefs. Involves skepticism. Skills for Developing Critical Thinking Be curious Examine the nature and source of the evidence Examine assumptions and biases Avoid overly emotional thinking (emotions don’t help with critical thinking) Tolerate Ambiguity (more than 1 answer) Consider alternate view points Principle of Parsimony- the simplest of all competing explanations of a phenomenon should be the one we accept. Downloaded by Sabrina Porco ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46920031 1.2- How Psychology became a science Empiricism- Philosophical tenet that knowledge comes through experience. People say “seeing is believing” but in the scientific sense; knowledge about the world is based on careful observation, not on common sense. Determinism- Is the belief that all events are governed by lawful, cause-and-effect relationships. Galen’s four temperaments (each related to a humour) included: ○ Sanguine (blood); a tendency to be impulsive, pleasure-seeking and charismatic. ○ Choleric (yellow bile); a tendency to be ambitious, energetic, bit aggressive ○ Melancholic (black bile); tendency to be independent, perfectionist, bit introverted ○ Phlegmatic (phlegm); tendency to be quiet, relaxed, content with life Zeitgeist- general state of beliefs of a particular culture at a specific time in history. German word meaning “spirit of times”. Materialism- The belief that humans, and other living beings are composed exclusively of physical matter. Dualism- The belief that there are properties of humans that are not material (a mind or soul separate from the body) Psychophysics- study of the relationship between the physical world and the mental representation of that world. Fechner→ Did the weight experiment in each hand (psychophysics) Titchener→ Looked for the elements of thought Charles Darwin→ Theory of Evolution by natural selection (genetically inherited traits that contribute to survival and reproductive success are more likely to flourish-grow- useful traits Downloaded by Sabrina Porco ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46920031 will be passed onto future generations). → expression of the emotions in Man and Animals (1872); behaviour is shaped by natural selection too just like physical traits. (major contribution in psych) Clinical Psychology- Field of psychology that concentrates on the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders. Localization of brain function- The idea that certain parts of the brain control specific mental abilities and personality characteristics. Phrenology- Mid 1800’s. Franz Gall and Johann Spurzheim; believed that the brain consisted of 27 organs, corresponding to mental traits and dispositions that could be detected by examining the surface of the skull. Different traits and abilities were distributed across different regions of the brain (eg. combativeness was located at the back of the brain behind the ears). They would measure bumps on people’s heads. Cases by physicians at the time: ○ Physician Paul Broca: found that the person who had difficulty producing spoken language had brain damage in an area of the left frontal lobes of the brain. ○ Prussian Physician Karl Wernicke: damage to the left hemisphere leads to language problems. ○ Doctors in Vermont described a railway employee becoming impulsive and child- like after suffering damage to his frontal lobe. Psychoanalysis- A psychological approach that attempts to explain how behaviour and personality are influenced by unconscious processes. Sir Francis Galton (Darwin’s cousin)- Believed that genetics could explain the physical and psychological differences found in a population. Believed in “good genes”- eugenics Nature and Nurture relationships- the inquiry into how heredity (nature) and environment (nurture) influence behaviour and mental processes. Structuralism- an attempt to analyze conscience experience by breaking it down into basic elements and to understand how these elements work together. Downloaded by Sabrina Porco ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46920031 Functionalism- the study of the purpose and function of behaviour and conscience experience. (William James idea→ got influenced by Darwin) Behaviourism (John B Watson)- an approach that dominated the first half of the 20th century of North American psychology and had a singular focus on studying only observable behaviour, with little to no reference to mental events or instincts as possible influences on behaviour. Radical Behaviourism (B.F Skinner)- the foundation of behaviour was how an organism responded to rewards and punishments. Social Psychology- The study of the influence of other people on our behaviour. Personality Psychology- The study of how different personality characteristics can influence how we think and act. (effect of internal traits) Gestalt Psychology- an approach emphasizing that psychologists need to focus on the whole of perception and experience, rather than its parts. (Gestalt- “complete form of the object”) Cognitive Psychology- is a modern psychological perspective that focuses on processes such as memory, thinking, and language. Humanistic Psychology- focuses on the unique aspects of each individual human, each person’s freedom to act, his or her rational thought, and the belief that humans are fundamentally different from other animals. Hebb’s Law: when a brain cell consistently stimulates another cell, metabolic and physical changes occur to strengthen this relationship. In other words, cells that fire together wire together. Cross cultural Psychology- draws comparisons about individual and group behaviours among cultures; helps us understand the role of society in shaping behaviour, beliefs, and values. Cognitive neuroscience- combines elements of cognitive psychology and biopsychology Downloaded by Sabrina Porco ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46920031 Positive Psychology- Help people see the good in their lives by promoting self acceptance and improving social relationships with others 2.1- Principles of Scientific research Objectivity- assumes that certain facts about the world can be observed and tested independently by the individual who describes them (eg. the scientist) Everyone—not just the experts—should be able to agree on these facts given the same tools, the same methods, and the same context. Subjective- As soon as people observe an event, their interpretation of it becomes subjective, meaning that their knowledge of the event is shaped by prior beliefs, expectations, experiences, and even their mood Five Characteristics of Quality Scientific Research: 1. It is based on measurements that are objective, valid, and reliable. 2. It can be generalized. 3. It uses techniques that reduce bias. 4. It is made public. 5. It can be replicated Object Measurements- the measure of an entity or behaviour that, within an allowed margin of error, is consistent across instruments and observers; In other words, the way that a quality or a behaviour is measured must be the same regardless of who is doing the measuring and the exact tool being used. Variable- The object, concept, or event being controlled, manipulated, or measured by a scientist. Operational definitions- are statements that describe the procedures (or operations) and specific measures that are used to record observations Downloaded by Sabrina Porco ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46920031 Validity- the degree to which an instrument or procedure actually measures what it claims to measure. (It works) Reliability- when it provides consistent and stable answers across multiple observations and points in time. Test-retest reliability: examines whether scores on a given measure of behaviour are consistent across test sessions Alternate-forms reliability: examines whether different forms of the same test produce the same results. Inter-rater Reliability- raters arrive at very similar conclusions Generalizability- refers to the degree to which one set of results can be applied to other situations, individuals, or events. Population- The group that researchers want to generalize about. Sample- A select group of population members. (once the sample has been studied, then the results may be generalized to the population as a whole). Downloaded by Sabrina Porco ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46920031 Random sample- a sampling technique in which every individual of a population has an equal chance of being included Convenience samples- samples of individuals who are the most readily available. Ecological Validity- the results of a laboratory study can be applied to or repeated in the natural environment. Over generalizing- having to be careful not to over generalize. (eg. results from a convenience sample of university students might not predict how a group of elderly people would do on the same task; it’s simply not possible to know for sure until someone conducts research on a sample from the older population.) Hawthorne effect- behaviour change that occurs as a result of being observed Social Desirability (or socially desirable responding)- Research participants respond in ways that increase the chances that they will be viewed favourably. Placebo effect: a measurable and experienced improvement in health or behaviour that cannot be attributable to a medication or treatment. Demand Characteristics- inadvertent cues given off by the experimenter or the experimental context that provide information about how participants are expected to behave. Sometimes, the actions, tone of voice, body language, or facial expressions of the experimenter can bias participants’ responses. Techniques that Reduce Bias: 1. Anonymity- each individual’s responses are recorded without any name or other personal information that could link a particular individual to specific results 2. Confidentially- the results will be seen only by the researcher. *Anonymity and confidentiality will lead to more honest answers and sensitive issue answers* 3. Single-blind study- the participants do not know the true purpose of the study, or else do not know which type of treatment they are receiving (e.g., a placebo or a drug) 4. Double-blind study- a study in which neither the participant nor the experimenter knows the exact treatment for any individual. *Double-blind study allows the research to remain objective* Academic Journals- Psychology’s primary mode of communication. Resemble magazines and are filled with articles by different authors. Downloaded by Sabrina Porco ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46920031 Peer Review- a process in which papers submitted for publication in scholarly journals are read and critiqued by experts in the specific field of study. Involves two main tasks: 1. an editor receives the manuscript from the researcher and determines whether it is appropriate subject matter for the journal 2. An editor sends copies of the manuscript to a select group of peer reviewers—peer in this case refers to another professional working within the same field of study. Replication- is the process of repeating a study and finding a similar outcome each time. Five Characteristics of Poor Research/Poor evidence: 1. It produces an untestable hypothesis 2. It relies on anecdotes and personal experiences 3. It includes a biased selection of data 4. It makes appeals to authorities rather than facts 5. It makes appeals to common sense What is Falsifiable? - if there is a potential observation that can disprove it. Anecdotal Evidence (2. above)- an individual’s story or testimony about an observation or event that is used to make a claim as evidence. Appeal to authority (4. above)- the belief in an “expert’s” claim even when no supporting data or scientific evidence is present. Appeal to common sense- a claim that appears to be sound, but lacks supporting scientific evidence. 2.2- Scientific research designs Rod Martin→ believes that your attitude can affect your health; made a report on humour and how humour and health are related. Research Design- A set of methods that allows a hypothesis to be tested (after making a hypothesis). Influence how investigators.. 1. Organize the stimuli used to test the hypothesis Downloaded by Sabrina Porco ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46920031 2. Make observations and measurements 3. Evaluate the results Characteristics of Research designs that all have in common: - Variables: property of an object, organism. Event or something else that can take on different values (eg. how frequently you laugh is a variable that can be measured and analyzed). - Operational definitions: The details that define exactly how the variable will be controlled or measured for a specific study. (eg. for humour, “the score on the Coping Humour Scale). - Data: When scientists collect observations about the variables of interest, the info they record is known as data. (eg. data might consist of the collection of scores on the coping humour scale from each individual in the sample). Descriptive research- Answers the question of “what” a phenomenon is; describe its characteristics. Qualitative Research- involves examining an issue or behaviour without performing numerical measurements of the variables. Quantitative Research- involves examining an issue or behaviour by using numerical measurements and/or statistics. Researchers usually gather data by: - Case studies - Naturalistic observations - Surveys and questionnaires Case Study- in-depth report about the details of a specific case. (normally for people who have lived through an unusual experience) Most Famous Case study: Phineas Gage; iron rod went through his eye; not just physically affected, he was mentally affected too; became more impatient, indecisive, inconsiderate, impulsive; due to brain damage in frontal lobe; which is the region involved with behaviours including decision making and emotional regulation. Allowed future doctors to understand the frontal lobe and what happens if it’s damaged. *Case studies usually only describe a single person in detail, there is no guarantee that the findings can be generalized to other people and situations* - Case studies can be used to test existing hypotheses/theories Downloaded by Sabrina Porco ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46920031 Naturalistic Observations- they unobtrusively(individuals shouldnt know that they are being observed) observe and record behaviour as it occurs in the subject’s natural environment. Self-Reporting- a method in which responses are provided directly by the people who are being studied, typically through face-to-face interviews, phone surveys, paper and pencil tests, and web-based questionnaires. Correlation Research- measuring the degree of association between two or more variables (asking 2 different types of questions; their answers may be related to each other, therefore get data for both variables) Scatter Plot graphs: Direction: ○ If correlations are positive; two variables change values in the same direction; if one variable increases, the other one increases as well (eg. as education level and average income both rise and fall together). ○ If correlations are negative; value of one variable increases, the value of the other variable tends to decrease. (eg. if you get a lot of sleep, you will be less irritable). Magnitude (or strength): ○ refers to how closely the changes in one variable are linked to changes in another variable (eg. if variable A goes up one unit, will variable B go up in one unit?) ○ Described in mathematical measure called the correlation coefficient Correlation coefficient of zero= no relationship between variables Correlation coefficient of +1.0 = very strong positive correlation between variables Correlation coefficient of -1.0= very strong negative correlation between variables -1.0 and +1.0 have equal magnitude or strength, but have different direction Correlation coefficient is a measure of association only- not a measure of causality; correlation does not equal causation (eg. humour and good health is a positive correlation; but doesn’t mean that humour is responsible for good health). Third Variable Problem- the possibility that a third, unmeasured variable is actually responsible for a well-established correlation between two variables. (eg. with irritability and sleep negative correlation, third variables could be accounted for by this relationship; stress, depression, diet, workload could cause both increased irritability and lost sleep. Illusory Correlations- relationships that really exist only in the mind, rather than in reality. (not what typically occurs) Downloaded by Sabrina Porco ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46920031 Key differences between correlational research and experiments: - the random assignment of the participants and the researcher’s experimental control over the variables being studied Random Assignment- a technique for dividing samples into two or more groups in which participants are equally likely to be placed in any condition of the experiment. Confounding Variable- a variable outside of the researcher’s control that might affect or provide an alternative explanation for the results-could potentially enter the picture. Independent Variable- The variable that the experimenter manipulates to distinguish between two or more groups Dependent Variable- the observation or measurement that is recorded during the experiment and subsequently compared across all groups (eg. types of images being viewed is the independent variable and the participant’s stress level is the dependent variable) Between-subjects designs- an experimental design in which we compare the performance of participants who are in different groups. Experimental Group- is the group in the experiment that receives a treatment or the stimuli targeting a specific behaviour Control Group- is the group that does not receive the treatment or stimuli targeting a specific behaviour; this group therefore serves as a baseline to which the experimental group is compared Within-subjects designs- an experimental design in which the same participants respond to all types of stimuli or experience all experimental conditions. Quasi-experimental research- is a research technique in which the two or more groups that are compared are selected based on predetermined characteristics, rather than random assignment. Downloaded by Sabrina Porco ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46920031 2.3- Ethics in Psychological Research Research Ethics Board (REB)- a committee of researchers and officials at an institution charged with the protection of human research participants. Help ensure researchers abide by ethical rules set out in the Tri-council Policy Statement: Ethical Conduct for Research Involving Humans. REB’s are intended to protect in two ways: 1. The committee weighs potential risks to the volunteers against the possible benefits of the research 2. it requires that volunteers agree to participate in the research (i.e., they give informed consent) Informed consent- A potential volunteer must be informed (know the purpose, tasks, and risks involved in the study) and give consent (agree to participate based on the information provided) without pressure. Downloaded by Sabrina Porco ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46920031 Volunteers should be told: - The topic of the study - the nature of any stimuli to which they will be exposed (e.g., images, sounds, smells) - The nature of any tasks they may complete (tests/puzzles) - The approximate duration of the study - Any potential physical, psychological, or social risks involved - The steps that the researchers have to take to minimize those risks Deception- misleading or only partially informing participants of the true topic or hypothesis under investigation. “White lie” Modern psychological (+psychiatric and neurological) research includes the following elements in determining whether full consent is given: - Freedom to choose: (individuals should not be at risk for financial loss, physical harm, or damage to their reputation if they choose to participate. - Equal Opportunities: Volunteers should have choices - The right to withdraw: Should have the right to withdraw without penalty - The right to withhold responses: Should not have to answer questions they feel uncomfortable to answer. Debriefing- meaning that the researchers should explain the true nature of the study, and especially the nature of and reason for any deception. Downloaded by Sabrina Porco ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46920031 What do we know about animal models of diseases? 1. If a disease is associated with a specific brain area, researchers could anesthetize an animal and remove or damage that part of its brain. Brain damage could also occur by introducing a toxic substance, as occurred in the MPTP patients. 2. scientists could introduce a substance that increased or decreased the levels of certain brain chemicals known as neurotransmitters in the brain. Parkinson’s disease is caused by a loss of the neurotransmitter dopamine; therefore, a drug that reduced dopamine levels could simulate the symptoms of Parkinson’s 3. researchers could create animal models of certain disorders by altering the environments of the animals. For instance, placing animals in an environment that is physically or socially stressful can cause them to behave similarly to individuals with anxiety disorders 4. Scientists can manipulate the genetic make-up of animals. While earlier research was limited to selectively breeding animals so that they became more prone to a disease, it is now possible to directly alter the genetic codes of animals so that particular traits and physical structures are altered Animal models are not developed in a random fashion… 1. it must share the same physiological and behavioural features of the disease as appear in humans 2. both the animal model and the “real” disorder must involve similar brain structures; otherwise, researchers would be comparing apples and oranges 3. the tests used to measure the behaviours must be valid. Downloaded by Sabrina Porco ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46920031 Three main areas of Ethical Treatments for animals: 1. Providing appropriate housing/feeding/sanitation 2. Minimization of any pain or discomfort 3. Researchers must ensure that the pain can be justified by the potential benefits of the research (same thing applies if the animal has to be sacrificed for it) Scientific Misconduct- When individuals fabricate or manipulate their ideas to fit their desired results. Downloaded by Sabrina Porco ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46920031 Downloaded by Sabrina Porco ([email protected])